ered Pearson Edexcel Qualifications PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL CHEMISTRY STUDENT BOOK 2 CLIFF CURTIS JASON MURGATROYD CNSPDF COMPILED BY SAAD PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL CITA Student Book 2Publishes by Peston Eaueston Limited, 60 Stand, London, WOR OAL, se peasonglobascluns.cort Copies ofoa specication or at Edexcel quot teations maybe founsonthe ‘eo hipe/qustetonspeerson com “ext © Pearson Eoin Lintad 2019, Designed by Tech Set Lid, Gated, UK “yore! by Teh Sat Lid, Gateshead, UK bed by Gerad Daan, Sharn Jordan en Sarah ihe ‘rigral tuations © Pearson Education Lad 2018 ‘Musvatd by © Teeh-Sot Lis, Gateshead UK (Cove desig © Pearson Eaton Led 2019 Cou mages: Front Getty mages: Dawid MaivScience Faction ‘ese front cove Shutterstock convDrity Lobanov “Tho ight of Cit Curtis, Jsaon Murgatroyd and Davis Scot tobe ened a6 autor fis werk have been asserted by hem accordance With tba Copy (estan an Patents Ac 1088. 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Aran eceve.Fiwes 09 page 273 tem Esucaton Scatand © Crown capyight 2012; Figures on page 4 fom “Cataysts era green ndsty’ Education n Cram (lery Heese) ky 2008, Mp /hewsrse cgfeducatlon fase 7000. eat generis ressareh-inausty.as, coppght © Royal Scity of Chen: igus or pape 208 tom ‘ue tras good, our rigs bd, Eaucaton Chemisty (Or Son (ott, March 2070, tputwew sc.rpleducaton/sicTssvs/2010MaF¥e Rings (Good Four Rings Bad ssp, conyrit © Royal Soi of Chemie. Tent Crete: 25 Royal Society of Chemist Engnered Mealowryine Cataysus Frida Cats Feacton by Dabae Houten, 3 Hoven 2014, Reproduced by permission of The Royal Social of Chemisty 5 Toyota Motor Sales: From “ojeta The Ofical 8g of Toyota UK by Joe Grd blog toyetaco how coe iojoas-futcl-rile wars 74 Guardian Nows and Meda Lind: From ar ace in The Guardian, Soentsts Study Ocean Absorzon of Human (Carbon Palio by dot Arana, 1 Fetruary 2017, pew eauaedan amlenvtoemetimae-corsenais-57-per e201 T6scerts-ty- ‘oean-abeerton of huran career poli: 102 Miguel anos: Fem The Daly Cesta by Mua anes tu aalyemate oy 2508789581 Mn, 184 Royal Society of Chemistry: Enviching tho origin offen by Joanne Thomson, 26 November © 2010, Rescued by permission of The Royal Society of Chamsr: 17 Anthony Edward Hargreaves: For Aer Battery Power by Tony Horgresves psec rscog'sectonTeatueater-power 2020096, arco; 216 Natlonal Geographic Socket: Bus Eced Habe Octopis SuNve ‘Brutally Cold Temperate, 1. © 2013, National Geogapie Sociely, Unb tn permission: 22 Royal Society of hemity Fron THe Swoot Scot of ‘Stes by Emma Davie, February 2008; Reproduced by permasan af The Rays ‘Secity of Chom 278 Royal Society of Chemistry: Sto chang or oranie syne by Flas Van Norden November 2007, ©2007, Reprocuces By Parmisin of The Royal Society of Chemisty. Inover to ensure that ths resource ofr hah uaty suport forthe associated Pearson qufcaton thas tan trough arvow process oy te awacing ‘boo Thi grocess contre tat th sures ty covers the teaching ars Ieuing contrt of te spctiton at which tis med also cone tat t emanstates an aporopate batnce between the deveormen of at Sl romeo ara unceretanding,m ation o preparation for asosemen. Enorsement as nt cover any gudanoe 0 asessmentactvteso rocesea (ea. pracice questions or avn n hw lo anewerassessren queron) inouded mth resource, rar doe # prescribe any parbouar approach tthe toachirg o daar of aroatos course. le the pubiaars nave made every tert to ensue that aaice onthe ‘aalfcattn and te aecemert accra, the fea speciation an sicoised assessment guidance materals we the any autora suse o! ‘oration and stout aay be retro oor dente gudanes Pearson examiners have not contributed to ay sections in this recut leant 0 ‘ramiraton paar for whies toy fave oopansbuny. Eamier wi et use endorsed resources a Sout atl oy ‘resource i require to achieve ths Pearson qualiteation, nr does mean that Fe teoneultee mata walle to suppor the qualcaton and ay resource lists produced bythe awarsng body shal eld this and ether appropriate resources.(UST COURSE STRUCTURE iv ABOUT THIS BOOK viii PRACTICAL SKILLS x ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW xii TOPIC 11 2 TOPIC 12 30 TOPIC 13 58 TOPIC 14 78 TOPIC 15 106 TOPIC 16 158 TOPIC 17 182 TOPIC 18 220 TOPIC 19 236 TOPIC 20 258 MATHS SKILLS 282 PREPARING FOR YOUR EXAMS 286 COMMAND WORDS 293 GLOSSARY 295 PERIODIC TABLE 298 INDEX 299Dead UNIT 4: RATES, EQUILIBRIA AND FURTHER ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TOPIC 11 KINETICS 2 11A FURTHER KINETICS 1 TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING THE RATE OF REACTION 4 2 RATE EQUATIONS, RATE CONSTANTS AND ORDERS OF REACTION 7 3 DETERMINING ORDERS OF REACTION 4 RATE EQUATIONS AND MECHANISMS 15 5 ACTIVATION ENERGY AND CATALYSIS: 19 6 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE CONSTANT = 22 THINKING BIGGER: CATALYST CRAFT 26 EXAM PRACTICE 28 TOPIC 12 ENTROPY AND ENERGETICS 30 12A ENTROPY 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENTROPY 32 2 TOTAL ENTROPY 36 3 UNDERSTANDING ENTROPY CHANGES: 12B LATTICE ENERGY 1 LATTICE ENERGY, A,.H AND BORN-HABER CYCLES 44 2 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL LATTICE ENERGIES 48 3 ENTHALPY CHANGES OF SOLUTION AND HYDRATION 51 THINKING BIGGER: HYDROGEN REVOLUTION 54 EXAM PRACTICE 56 TOPIC 13 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA 58 13A CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA 1 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K. 60 2 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K, 63 3 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 1 65 4 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 2 67 5 RELATING ENTROPY TO EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS = 71 THINKING BIGGER: CATASTROPHE FOR CORAL =—_74 EXAM PRACTICE 76Ceara n TOPIC 14 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA 78 14A STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS 1 THE BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY 80 2 HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION AND THE pH SCALE 83 3 IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER, K,, 86 4 ANALYSING DATA FROM pH MEASUREMENTS 88 14B ACID-BASE TITRATIONS 1 ACID-BASE TITRATIONS, pH CURVES AND INDICATORS 91 2 BUFFER SOLUTIONS 96 3 BUFFER SOLUTIONS AND pH CURVES: 100 THINKING BIGGER: APROBLEM GROWS 102 EXAM PRACTICE 104 TOPIC 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: CARBONYLS, CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND CHIRALITY 106 15A CHIRALITY 1 CHIRALITY AND ENANTIOMERS 108 2 OPTICAL ACTIVITY 110 3 OPTICAL ACTIVITY AND REACTION MECHANISMS 12 15B CARBONYL COMPOUNDS 1 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS ‘AND THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 114 2 REDOX REACTIONS OF CARBONYL COMPOUNDS 117 3 NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTIONS 15C CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 1 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 122 2 PREPARATIONS AND REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 124 15D CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES 1 CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES: ACYL CHLORIDES 126 2 CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES: ESTERS 129 3 CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES: POLYESTERS 132 15E SPECTROSCOPY AND CHROMATOGRAPHY 1 SIMPLE CHROMATOGRAPHY 134 2 DETERMINING STRUCTURES USING MASS SPECTRA 136 3 CHROMATOGRAPHY: HPLC AND GC 138 4 CHROMATOGRAPHY AND MASS SPECTROMETRY 140 5 PRINCIPLES OF NMR SPECTROSCOPY 142 6 "C. NMR SPECTROSCOPY 144 7 ‘HNMR SPECTROSCOPY 148 8 SPLITTING PATTERNS IN ‘HNMR SPECTRA 151 THINKING BIGGER: LIFE'S MIRROR IMAGES 154 EXAM PRACTICE 156.Peat UNIT 5: TRANSITION METALS AND ORGANIC NITROGEN CHEMISTRY TOPIC 16 REDOX EQUILIBRIA 158 16A STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL 1 STANDARD ELECTRODE (REDOX) POTENTIALS 160 2 ELECTROCHEMICAL, CELLS 166 3 STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIALS AND THERMODYNAMIC FEASIBILITY 168 16B REDOX IN ACTION 1 FUEL CELLS 172 2 REDOX TITRATIONS 174 THINKING BIGGER: ELECTROLYTE EVOLUTION 178 EXAM PRACTICE 180 TOPIC 17 TRANSITION METALS AND THEIR CHEMISTRY 182 17A PRINCIPLES OF TRANSITION METAL CHEMISTRY 1 TRANSITION METAL ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS 184 2 LIGANDS AND COMPLEXES 187 3 THE ORIGIN OF COLOUR IN COMPLEXES 189 4 COMMON SHAPES OF COMPLEXES 192 5 SQUARE PLANAR COMPLEXES 194 6 MULTIDENTATE LIGANDS 196 17B TRANSITION METAL REACTIONS 1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REACTIONS 199 2 REACTIONS OF COBALT AND IRON COMPLEXES 201 3 THE CHEMISTRY OF CHROMIUM 203 4 REACTIONS OF MANGENESE COMPLEXES 207 5 THE CHEMISTRY OF VANADIUM 208 6 REACTIONS OF NICKEL AND ZINC COMPLEXES: 210 17€ TRANSITION METALS AS CATALYSTS 1 HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 212 2 HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS 214 THINKING BIGGER: POWERFUL PIGMENTS 216 EXAM PRACTICE 218 TOPIC 18 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: ARENES 220 18A ARENES: BENZENE 1 BENZENE: A MOLECULE WITH TWO MODELS, 222 2 SOME REACTIONS OF BENZENE 226 3 ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION MECHANISMS 228 4 PHENOL 230 THINKING BIGGER: MOLECULES OF FHAGRANCE AND TASTE EXAM PRACTICE onsMase TOPIC 19 TOPIC 20 MATHS SKILLS 282 ORGANIC NITROGEN ORGANIC PREPARING FOR YOUR COMPOUNDS: AMINES, | SYNTHESIS 258 | EXAMS 286 AMIDES, AMINO ACIDS SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS 288 AND PROTEINS 236 | 200 ORGANIC COMMAND WORDS 293 STRUCTURES GLOSSARY 295 19A AMINES, AMIDES, 1 ORGANIC ANALYSIS 260 | PERIODIC TABLE 298 AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS 2 ORGANIC SYNTHESIS 264 | INDEX 299 1 AMINES AND THEIR 3 HAZARDS, RISKS AND PREPARATIONS 238 CONTROL MEASURES 269 + 4 PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES 2 AGID BASE REACTIONS OF | ” INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: 3 OTHER REACTIONS OF PARTY em 5 PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES a oe IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: 4 AMIDES AND PART 2 274 sooeule> 245 THINKING BIGGER: 5 AMINO ACIDS 249 | CHALLENGING ORGANIC 6 PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS 252 | SYNTHESES 278 THINKING BIGGER: EXAM PRACTICE 280 PROTEIN MOLECULES: LIFE'S HARDWARE 254 EXAM PRACTICE 256POC d ABOUT THIS BOOK ‘This book is written for students following the Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level (VAL) Chemistry specification, This book covers the full International Advanced Subsidiary (IAS) course and the first year of the International A Level (IAL) course. ‘The book contains full coverage of IAL units (or exam papers) 4 and 5. Each unit has five Topic areas that ‘match the titles and order of those in the specification. You can refer to the Assessment Overview on. pages xii-xii for further information. Students can prepare for the written Practical Paper by using the IAL Chemistry Lab Book (see pages x-xi of this book) Each Topic is divided into chapters and sections to break the content down into manageable chunks. Each section features a mix of learning and activities supported by the features explained below. Learning objectives Each chapter stats with a Ist of key leaning objectives. Sowa sea ou a aNme diy ton reference The exact specification points covered inthe Section are provided Learning tps | and avoid commen errs. Grose Student Book content Help you to navigate course content. ‘These help you focus your learning Feterences to previous or folowing Worked examples irked examples show you how to work through questions, and set out caletions Exam hints Tips on how to anewer exam- syle questions and guiaance for exam preparation incucing rexjiements inccated by paniclar command words. Did you know? Intersting facts help you remember the Key concepts, Checkpoint {Questions atthe end of each section check understanding of the key learning points in each chapter. Certain questions alow you to dovelop skills that wil bo ‘raluable for fer study and in the workplace Subject Vocabulary Key forms are highlighted Inve the text, Clear fintions ae provided at the end of each section for fasy relerence, and are also Colated na glossary atthe bck ofthe book,‘You shoul be able to put every stage of yourlearing In carte, chapter by chapter: + Lins to other areas of Chemistry include previous know/ed ‘thats ult on fn the topo, and future areas of knowledge and appeation that you wil cover lator in your course, + Maths knowledge required is Getalled in ahandy checks. you need to practise the maths you reed, you can use the Maths Skis, feterence atthe back ofthe Book a8 Astatng point DEMON ai) CATASTROPHE FOR CORAL? > == Exam Practice Examsyle questions at the end ofeach chapter are tailored tothe Pearson Edexcel ‘spectication to allow for practice {ahd development ct exam ‘tg technique. They algo allow fr practea responding {othe command worse Used in the exams (so the command ‘words glossary at the back of this book. You can aso reer tothe Preparing for Your Exams: ‘section atthe back of the book, for sample exam answers with ‘commentary. Cec ails Ev Thinking Bigger [Attha end of each topic there Is an opportuni to read ana work ith rea esearch anc vting about science. The activites nalp you to read real-lle material that's relevant to your coureo, analyse now scientists write, ink crdealy fad consider how eterent Aspects of your leaming piace together “These Thinking Bigger activ focus on key wansterabl sls, inion are an important basis for key academic gual.PRACTICAL SKILLS Practical work is central to the study of chemistry. The second year of the Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level (VAL) Chemistry course includes eight Core Practicals that link theoretical knowledge and understanding to practical scenarios. Your knowledge and understanding of practical skills and act Chemistry qualification, * Papers 4 and 5 will include questions based on practical activities, including novel scenaris. * Paper 6 will test your ability to plan practical work, including risk management and selection of apparatus. jes will be assessed in all examination papers for the IAL In order to develop practical skills, you should carry out a range of practical experiments related to the topics covered in your course. Further suggestions in addition to the Gore Practicals are included in the specification, which is available online Baa IAL CORE PRACTICALS Toric 11 (CP9a__ Following the rate of the iodine-propanone reaction by a titrimetric KINETICS method CP9b Investigating a ‘clook reaction’ (Harcourt-Esson, iodine clock) (P10 Finding the activation energy of a reaction TOPIC 14 P11 Finding the K, value for a weak acid ‘ACIO-BASE EQUILIBRIA ToPIC 16 P12 Investigating some electrochemical cells (ene CP13a_ Redox titrations with ron(l ons and potassium manganate(V) CP13b Redox titrations with sodium thiosulfate and iodine TOPIC 17 P14 Preparation of a transition metal complex ‘TRANSITION METALS AND THEIR CHEMISTRY Toric 19 P15. Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknowns ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS: AMINES, AMIDES, AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS. ToPIC 20 P16 Preparation of aspirin ORGANIC SYNTHESISSRN t Ca ae In the Student Book, the Core Practical speetications are supplied inthe relevant Sections Practical Skile Practical skills boxes explain techniques used in the Gore Practical, and also detal useful sills ane knowledge gained in ‘other related investigations. This Student Book is accompanied by a Lab Book, which includes Instructions and wring frames for the Core Practical fr you to record Your eaults and refect on Sour work Practical skis Bractice questions and answers are also provided ‘The Lab Book records can ‘be used as preparation for the Practica! Shile Paper.ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW ‘The following tables give an overview of the assessment for Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level course in Chemistry. You should study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for this course and know exactly what to expect in each part of the examinations. More information about this qualification, and about the question types in the different papers, can be found in Preparing for your exams on page 286 of this book. PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE Cad ie asin we Leh RATES, EQUILIBRIA AND FURTHER 40% 20% Thour January, June and October ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 45 minutes Written exam paper Paper code WCH14/01 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entry PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE Ca) are OF AL Sm AVAILABILITY TRANSITION METALS AND ORGANIC 40% 20% Thour January, June and October NITROGEN CHEMISTRY 45 minutes Written exam paper Paper code WCH1S/01 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entry PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE CHS Ct SiS PRACTICAL SKILLS IN CHEMISTRY II 20% 10% Thour January, June and October Written exam paper 20 minutes First assessment: June 2020 Paper / Unit code WCHIG/01 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entry First assessment: January 2020 First assessment: June 2020PTs ay cu ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AND WEIGHTINGS Ss a aan) CATT [seman | ea | Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of science. 343602931324 (a) Application of knowledge and understanding of science in 343633363336 familiar and unfamiliar contexts A02 (b) Analysis and evaluation of scientific information to make oul 446 td judgements and reach conclusions. _ Experimental skills in science, including analysis and evaluation a Pa ‘of data and methods. RELATIONSHIP OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES TO UNITS ‘AO ‘02 (A) ‘A02(B) 03. TOTAL FOR INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY 33-36 4-36 on 20 ‘AOI ‘02 (A) ‘A02(B) ‘AOS ‘TOTAL FOR INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED LEVEL, 24 33-38 144 EyYour health depends on a complex interplay of a large number of chemical reactions taking place in the cells of your body. In a healthy body, these reactions will take place at the correct rate, in the right place and at the right time. These reactions are controlled by enzymes. The branch of chemistry concerned with the rates of chemical reactions is called chemical kinetics. The term ‘kinetics’ implies motion and comes from the ancient Greek word for movement, kinesis, We can use the information obtained from the study of chemical kinetics to: understand the body's metabolism (the chemical processes in the body) model the effects of pollutants in the Earth’s atmosphere develop new catalysts, which is of great importance to the chemical industry. In Topic 9 (Book 1: IAS), we used a qualitative approach to the understanding of reaction rates. In this topic we will develop this further by adopting a quantitative approach. This will enable us to begin to understand what is happening during chemical reactions: We know how atoms can bond together to form molecules, but why do the atoms change partners during, chemical reactions? What exactly happens when a hydrogen molecule meets an iodine molecule and they subsequently react to produce hydrogen iodide? It has been reported by scientists that the herb ginseng may be just as effective as Prozac at treating depression. Herbs and plant extracts have been used for centuries to cure diseases and to relieve pain. In many cases they are effective because they control the rates of chemical reactions within the body. In this topic we will study the rates of chemical reactions and the mechanisms by which they take place. Recognise and make use of appropriate units in calculation Recognise and use expressions in decimal and ordinary form Use calculators to find and use power functions Use an appropriate number of significant figures Change the subject of an equation Substitute numerical values into algebraic expressions using appropriate units for physical quantities Solve algebraic expressions Translate information between graphical, numerical and algebraic forms Plot two variables from experimental or other data Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph Calculate the rate of change for a graph showing a linear relationship Draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of the rate of change 7Wintncnuee ence Topic9 (Book 1145) res Hcy eee so eet ee ionsto than other catalysts eee!OU aaa ae) Dee R/S I Understand the term ‘rate of reaction’ I Select and justify a suitable experimental tecUique to obtain rate data for a given reaction, including (titration (ii) colorimetry (il) mass change (iv) volume of gas evolved (¥) other suitable tecUlique(s) for a given reaction. RATE OF REACTION ‘The rate of a reaction can be expressed in two ways: (1) How the concentration of a product increases with time. change in concentration of product time (2) How the concentration of a reactant decreases with time. ‘change in concentration of reactant time ‘The negative sign in the second expression shows that the concentration of the reactant is decreasing and therefore gives a positive value for the rate, rate = rate = Rate is measured in units of concentration per unit time, and the ‘most common units are mal dmv! s+ ‘The expressions in calculus notation are: _ product] et reactant] dt This rate of reaction is sometimes called the ‘overall rate of, reaction’ TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING THE RATE OF REACTION Before investigating the rate of a particular reaction, tis necessary 10 know the overall equation, including state symbols, for the reaction so that we can decide what technique to use to follow the reaction, rate rate = ‘There are various techniques available to use, such as: 1 measuring the volume of a gas evolved 2. measuring the change in mass of a reaction mixture 3. monitoring the change in intensity of colour of a reaction mixture (colorimetry) 4 measuring the change in concentration of a reactant or product using titration Re OPP Wee ee AUT Cero Coacad 11.361) EO) TERE) 5 measuring the change in pH of a solution 6 measuring the change in electrical conductivity of a reaction mixture. ‘The technique chosen to follow the reaction will depend on the nature of the reactants and products, as well as the conditions, under which the reaction is carried out. For example, the reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acia, CaCOy(s) + 2HCHaq) —+ CaCl{aq) + HOt) + COs(g) could conveniently be followed by measuring the volume of gas (echnique 1) given off at regular time intervals, or by measuring the change in mass of the reaction mixture with time (technique 2) However, the reaction between propanone and iodine in aqueous solution, CH,COCH (aq) + I:(aq) — CH,COCH, (aq) + H"(aq) + (aq) could not be followed by measuring the change in mass because all products of the reaction remain in solution. It would be possible, however, to follaw the reaction by monitoring the decrease in intensity of colour of the reaction mixture, since ,(aq) is the only coloured species present (technique 3). TECHNIQUE 1: MEASURING THE VOLUME OF A GAS EVOLVED ‘The two most common techniques for collecting and measuring the volume of a gas evolved during a reaction are: 1 collection over water into a measuring cylinder (8g A), and 2 collection using a gas syringe (fig B). ‘The technique chosen will depend partly on the level of precision required, The gas syringe has a greater degree of precision, but if a large volume of gas is being measured, the difference in the degree of measurement uncertainty becomes so small that either instrument is sufficiently precise. A fig Colecting a gas over water ExUnIe Reactions producing gases that are very soluble in water, such a5 sulfur dioxide, cannot use the gas collection over water teUique