MATHEMATICS

MODERN
WORLD

CHAPTER III

TRISTAN DEO M. PARIÑAS

 SECTION I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

III. Problem Solving and Reasoning

a. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
b. Intuition, Proof, and Certainty
c. Polya's 4 steps in Problem Solving
d. Problem Solving Strategies
e. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
f. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter, the students must have:

1. used different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts;
2. written clear and logical proofs;
3. solved problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya's four
steps; and
4. organized one's methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

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TOPIC 1 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

WHAT IS INDUCTIVE REASONING?

Inductive reasoning is drawing a general conclusion from a repeated observation or

limited sets of observations of specific examples. Basically, there is a given data, then we draw
conclusion based from these data. It is a type of reasoning from specific case to general case. The
conclusion drawn by using inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. The conjecture may be true
or false depending on the truthfulness of the argument.
A statement is true provided that it is true in all cases and it only takes one example to
prove the conjecture false, and that one example is called a counterexample.

Examples of inductive reasoning:

A) 1 is an odd number.
11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number
Therefore, all numbers ending with 1 are odd numbers.

B) Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.

C) Mark is a Science teacher

Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teachers are bald.

Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, is drawing from general to specific examples, or
simply from general case to specific case. Deduction starts with a general statement (or
hypothesis) and examines to reach a specific conclusion.
Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise (or a general
statement, or hypothesis), then a second premise, and finally an inference.

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Examples of deductive reasoning:

A) All birds have feathers
Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.

B) Pedro is sick
If Pedro is sick, he won't be able to go to work.
Therefore, Pedro won't be able to go to work.

C) All science teachers are bald.

Mark is a science teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.

Take note that the result of an inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning, although
logically valid, may not be necessarily true.

TOPIC 2 INTUITION, PROOFS AND CERTAINTY

Intuition is a reliable mathematical belief without being formalized and proven directly
and serves as an essential part of mathematics. The word "intuition" carries a heavy load of
mystery and ambiguity and it is also somewhat dangerous, illegitimate substitute for a formal
proof.
Intuitive is the counterpart of rigorous, which we usually see in a mathematics problem.
Intuitive have different meanings like plausible, or convincing in the absence of proof,
incomplete, holistic or integrative as opposed to detailed or analytic. In all different usages,
intuition is vague.
A Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement. In mathematical
arguments, statements such as theorems can only be used if it is already proven. In principle, a
proof can use axioms which are denoted as self-evident or assumed statements along with
accepted rules of inference. Axioms may be served as conditions that must be met before the
statements applies. Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning. A mathematical proof demonstrates that a certain statement is always true in all
possible cases. An unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.

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If one has a conjecture, the only way that it can safely be sure that it is true, is by
presenting a valid mathematical proof. Being able to write down a valid proof may indicate that
one has a thorough understanding of the problem.
We know that the need for certainty is inherited from the ancient past, and is religiously
motivated, its validity is independent of its history and its motivation. Mathematics has a
tradition and standard point of view that it provides certainty. When a mathematical knowledge
is correctly formulated, it is forever beyond error and correction. Any possible errors may be
attributed to human error, comprising carelessness, oversight or mis-formulation. Mathematics
has no problem of being certain, for certainty is just an essential defining attribute of
mathematics and mathematical knowledge.

TOPIC 3 POLYA'S FOUR-STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

George Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics educator who strongly believed that the
skill of problem solving can be taught. He developed a framework known as Polya's Four-Steps in
Problem Solving. This process addressed the difficulty of students in problem solving. He firmly
believed that the most efficient way of learning mathematical concepts is through problem
solving. In this way, students and teachers alike become a better problem solver
The four-step process forms the basis of any serious attempt at problem solving. The four
steps are:
Step 1: Understand the problem
Step 2: Devise a plan
Step 3: Carry out the plan
Step 4: Look back
Usually, a mathematical problem is presented in words whether orally or written. We will
solve the mathematical problems using mathematical symbols, and then interpret the answer.

Step 1: Understand the Problem

Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem itself. To help us understand
the problem, we might consider the following:
What is the goal?
What is being asked?
What is the condition?
What sort of problem it is?
What is known or unknown?
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Is there enough information?

Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
Is there a way to restate the problem? In your own words?

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Devising a plan is a way to solve the problem by picturing how we are going to attack the
problem.
Act it out.
Work backwards.
Consider special cases.
Eliminate possibilities.
Perform an experiment.
Draw a picture/diagram
Make a list or table/chart.
Use a variable, such as x.
Look for a formula/formulas.
Write an equation (or model).
Look for a pattern or patterns.
Use direct or indirect reasoning.
Solve a simple version of the problem.
Guess and check your answer (trial and error).

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

In carrying out the plan (solve), we need to execute the equation we came up in Step 2.
The main key is to be patient and careful, even if we have necessary skills.
Be patient.
Work carefully.
Modify the plan or try a new plan.
Implement the strategy and strategies in Step 2.
Try another strategy if the first one isn't working.
Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
Be determined and not easily discouraged. Mathematics in the Modern World
CHAPTER III

Step 4: Look Back

This step helps in identifying if there is a mistake in the solution. It is time to reflect and
look back at what is done, what worked, and what didn't.
Look for an easier solution.
Does the answer make sense?
Check the results in the original problem.
Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem.
Recheck any computations involved in the solution.
Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.
Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution.
Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.

TOPIC 4 PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

The following are examples of problem solving using Polya's four steps in problem solving.
Example 1: Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4. Find the
number.
Step 1: Understand the Problem
We need to make sure that we have read the question carefully several times.
Since we are looking for a number, we will let x be a number.
Step 2: Devise a Plan
We will translate the problem mathematically. Two times the sum of a number and
3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4.
2 ( x + 3 ) = 3x + 4
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
We solve for the value of x, algebraically.
2 ( x + 3 ) = 3x + 4
2x + 6 = 3x + 4
3x - 2x = 6 - 4
x=2
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Step 4: Look Back

If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the number 2
plus 4 which is 10, so this does check. Thus the number is 2.

Example 2: If the length of the top of a rectangle is 15 inches more than its width and the area is
1350 square inches, find the dimension of the table.
Step 1: Understand the Problem
We are looking for the length and width of the rectangular table, and we will let l
be the length and w be the width. It is indicated in the problem that the length is
15 inches longer than the width (l = w + 15).
Step 2: Devise a Plan
We will apply the area of the rectangle formula Area = lw.
1350 = lw
But from step 1, l = w + 15, by substitution, we have
1350 = ( w + 15 )w
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
1350 = ( w + 15 )w
1350 = w2 + 15w
w2 + 15w -1350 = 0
(w + 45)(w - 30) = 0
(w + 45) = 0 and (w - 30) = 0
w = -45 and w = 30
Since measurement cannot be negative, the width with value -45 will be
rejected. And the positive width value of 30 will be used.
The width then is 30 inches. And the length is 15 inches longer than the
width, which is 30 +15. The length is 45 inches.
The dimension of the table is 45 inches long and 30 inches wide.
Step 4: Look Back
If the width of a rectangle is 30 inches and the length is 15 inches longer than the
width which is 45 inches, and the area of the table is 1350 square inches, and by
the formula for area A = lw, 1350 = 45(30).
Thus, the width is 30 inches and the length
is 45 inches.
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TOPIC 5 MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... Is called a sequence. The numbers
in the sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. 5 is the first term,
14 is the second term. 27 is the third term, and so on. The three dots "..." indicate that the
sequence continues beyond the fifth term 65, which is the last written term. One sequence of
numbers we have already tackled is the Fibonacci sequence.
It is customary to designate the nth term of a sequence as an. That is

a1 - represents the first term of the sequence

A2 - represents the second term of the sequence
a3 - represents the third term of the sequence
.
.
.
an - represents the nth term of the sequence

Example 1: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by the formula
an = 3n + 1.

Solution: by using the formula an = 3n + 1

a1 = 3(1) + 1 replace n by 1
=3+1
a1 = 4

a2 = 3(2) + 1 replace n by 2
=6+1
a2 = 7

a3 = 3(3) + 1 replace n by 3
=9+1
a3 = 10

Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7 and 10.

Note: If the problem seems hard, you may use the step by step procedure given by
Polya.

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Example 2: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices (corners) of the
polygon. Following are polygons: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon and hexagon.

Determine the number of diagonals in a heptagon (7-sided) and octagon (8-sided).

Solution: Construct a table of values.

Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Diagonals 0 2 5 9 ? ?

One strategy to solve this problem is to use the difference table . It shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence. The differences in rows
maybe the first, second, and third differences. In the first differences, each number in
the first row of the table is the differences between the closest numbers just above it
(subtract the upper left number to the upper right number). If the first differences
are not the same, compute the successive differences of the first differences (called
the second and third differences).
Back to the problem, by applying the difference table, we get
Number of diagonals sequence 0 2 5 9 ?=14 ?=20

First differences 2 3 4 ?=5 ?=6

Second differences 1 1 1 1

Thus the pentagon has 14 diagonals, while the octagon has 20 diagonals. Verifying
the result of the sequence using the diagrams of a pentagon and an octagon. See
figures below.

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TOPIC 6 RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS

Recreational mathematics is a carried out mathematical activity which involves mathematical puzzles and
games. Most topics in recreational mathematics require no deeper knowledge in advanced mathematics. Some of
the topics are the magic square, logic puzzles, palindromes, rubiks cube, sudoku, etc.

Magic square of order n is an arrangement of numbers in a square such that the sum of the n numbers in
each row, column, and diagonal is the same number.

magic square of order 3 magic square of order 4

On the other hand, a palindrome is a number (or word, or phrase) sequence of characters (or symbols)
which reads the same backward as forward, for example 121, 12321, 02022020, etc. Palindrome maybe in the form
of palindromic number, palindromic triangle, palindromic primes and others.

One of the most famous palindrome triangles is the Pascal's Triangle. The numbers in the Pascal's Triangle
are created starting with one at the top, continuously placing numbers below it in a triangular pattern (each number
in the numbers directly above it added together). See figure below.

An alphametic is a type of number puzzle containing sum (or other arithmetic operation) in which digits (0
to 9) are replaced by letters of the alphabet. One of the most famous alphametic puzzles is the one introduced by
Henry Dedeney in 1924.

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Example 1: Find which digit is equivalent by each of the letters so that the addition is correct.

This activity will be left for you to find out. Show your solutions.

Example 2: Find which digit is equivalent by each of the letters so that the addition is correct.

This activity will be left for you to find out. Show your solutions.

A folder where you can send your answers will be created in the mvle.

Mathematics in the Modern World