Identification of Heat Sources with The Thermodynamic

Approach in the Underground Mine

Ririn Yuliantia), Pantjanita Novi Hartami, Hermanto Saliman, Bestari Larasati

Mining Engineering, Universitas Trisakti, Jl. Kyai Tapa No.1 Jakarta, Indonesia
a)
Corresponding author: ririnyulianti@trisakti.ac.id

Abstract. Underground mining ventilation system is one of the supporting activities in underground mining activities. In
general, underground mines have air inlet (intake) and air out (exhaust) to meet a variety of comfort for the workers,
especially thermal comfort. But along with the development and increase in underground mining production, the number
of production accesses and the increasing length of tunnels and production equipment will certainly provide a change in
ventilation conditions in the mine. Changes in ventilation conditions in the mine to heat which is usually often found in
underground mines. Such conditions will certainly have an impact on the comfort, health and safety of workers to work.
Analysis through a thermodynamic approach is one effort to identify the presence of heat sources in the mine easily. This
effort is one way that can be done to overcome the problem of heat. So that it can easily determine the right way to heat
control.

Keywords: Identification, Heat Sources, Thermodynamic, Underground Mine

INTRODUCTION

Underground mining is never separated from the ventilation system. A safe and comfortable work environment
is a requirement in supporting work productivity at the mine. Thus, we need a ventilation system can supply fresh air
from the surface so that the fresh air needs of every tool and worker in the underground mine can be met. In
addition, the existence of a ventilation system is expected to maintain air temperature in the mine, regulate heat and
relative humidity in accordance with the level of comfort for workers.
However, along with the development and increase of underground mining production, the number of production
accesses and the increasing length of tunnels and the addition of production equipment will make ventilation a
challenge in meeting the mine's comfortable and safe working environment for workers and equipment.
As is known, there are many factors that make changes in ventilation conditions, including heat sources in
underground mines that originate from geothermal gradients, automatic compression processes, mechanical
equipment, explosives and explosives, mechanical processes and lighting [1]. The heat of the mining location in the
underground mining work environment greatly affects the productivity targets, conditions and efficiency of mine
workers. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the heat sources in the mine so that the heat in the underground mining
work environment can be minimized so that the achievement of the mine productivity targets and a healthy and
comfortable work environment without causing accident workers in the underground mine.

LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the goals of ventilation in underground mines is as a regulator of temperature and humidity. The
arrangements made are settings for cooling, heating and humidity. In underground mines, air temperature conditions
often do not match the optimal working temperature, such as air that is too hot and high humidity. So that with
ventilation settings, the need for air for workers and tools will get optimal air conditions for work.
 Steps taken to observe heat in underground mines are monitoring hot areas and collecting data; calculate the heat
source load, identify the cause of the heat source, heat control strategy.

METHODOLOGY
This research was conducted with a quantitative method that is by direct observation by measuring the quantity
and quality of air. From the measurement of quantity and quality of air can find out air climatic conditions and
identification of heat. So that the heat control strategy can be done in underground mines. FIGURE-1 is the stage of
research carried out.

FIGURE 1. Stage of research

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The location of the study was conducted at the Cikoneng Block Underground Mine at PT Cibaliung Sumber
Daya, Pandeglang Banten. FIGURE 2. shows the location of research and measurement points. In identifying heat
sources and observing ventilation networks, measurement points are determined in advance so that the analysis can
be done easily.
 (a) (b)
FIGURE 2. Location of research (a) and measurement point (b)

Ventilation Network Data

TABLE 1. is the result of direct measurement that describes the condition of the ventilation network at the study
site. The direct measurement carried out consists of measuring the quantity and quality of the air that represents the
condition of the air at each measurement point. These measurements include the dimensions of the opening hole, air
velocity, air quantity, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, relative humidity and gas.

TABLE 1. Ventilation network data

Location of Air quantity Air quality
research A V Q Td Tw RH O2 CO H2S
(m²) (m/s) (m³/s) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm)
XC 9 (Portal) 9.71 0.64 6.21 30.00 29.00 92.88 20.80 11.00 0.00
XC 12 VT North 10.62 0.56 6.00 32.00 31.50 96.53 20.80 17.00 0.00
XC 12 VT South 10.21 0.21 2.18 31.75 31.60 98.60 20.80 19.00 0.00
CKN Decline 10.24 0.57 5.82 31.61 31.40 98.59 20.10 58.60 7.30
XC 13 C 10.30 0.34 3.50 31.45 31.30 98.59 20.80 23.00 1.00
XC 13 B 7.63 0.32 2.41 32.15 31.40 94.50 20.80 25.00 3.00
XC 13 North 9.70 0.13 1.23 32.33 28.50 83.40 20.80 26.00 3.00
CKN Lower Shaft 9.98 1.60 16.00 30.57 28.90 99.24 20.80 0.00 0.00

Air Climatic Conditions

Monitoring and data collection in hot areas is determined in areas that are categorized as exceeding the minimum
standards of air quality and quantity determined by existing Regulations. TABLE-2 Is a description of air climatic
conditions modeled by the Kata Degree model [2].
య
‫ܭ‬௪ ൌ ሺͲǤ͵ͷ ൅ ͲǤͺͷ ξ‫ ݒ‬ൈ ሺ͵͸Ǥͷ െ ‫ݐ‬௪ ሻǡ ‫ ݒ‬൏ ͳ݉Ȁ‫ݏ‬ (1)
య
‫ܭ‬௪ ൌ ሺͲǤ͵ͷ ൅ ͲǤͺͷ ξ‫ ݒ‬ൈ ሺ͵͸Ǥͷ െ ‫ݐ‬௪ ሻǡ ‫ ݒ‬൏ ͳ݉Ȁ‫ݏ‬ (2)
 TABLE 2. Grade of humidity KaTa degree [2]
Degree <5 5-8 8 - 12 12 – 16 16 - 25 25 – 28 28 - 31 31 - 35 >35
kW
State Sultry Hot Very Very Normal Very Cooler Cold Very
hot normal normal cold

FIGURE 3. Climatic conditions at the study site based on measurements of air velocity and temperature indicate hot
and humid conditions. This can be proven by KaTa Degree analysis which can describe the condition of the air
climate at the study site. This of course will have an impact on the performance and health of workers at the mine.
9.00
Humudity KaTa degree

8.00
7.00
(mcal/s dm²)

6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Hot Sultry Sultry Sultry Sultry Sultry Sultry Hot
XC 9 XC 12 XC 12 CKN XC 13 XC 13 XC 13 CKN
(Portal) VT VT Decline C B North Lower
North South Shaft
Measurement point

FIGURE 3. Different figures of humidity KaTa degree along the pathway

Total Heat with Thermodynamic Calculations

To assess heat loads in underground mines by using the calculation of thermodynamic equations. Accurate
observation and analysis can be done from thermodynamic parameters such as temperature and pressure. Through
the calculation of thermodynamic equations [3] will get the distribution of heat sources.

ଵ଻ǡଶ଻ൈ்௪
݁௦௪ ൌ ͸ͳͲǡ͸ ‡š’ ቀ ቁ (3)
ଶଷ଻ǡଷା்௪

௘ೞೢ
ܺ௦ ൌ Ͳǡ͸ʹʹ ቀ ቁ (4)
௉ି௘ೞೢ

‫ܮ‬௪ ൌ ሺʹͷͲʹǡͷ െ ʹǡ͵ͺ͸ܶ௪ ሻͳͲͲͲ (5)

ܵ ൌ ‫ܮ‬௪ ܺ௦ ሺͳͲͲͷܶ௪ ሻ (6)

ௌିଵ଴଴ହ்೏
ܺൌ (7)
௅ೢ ାଵ଼଼ସሺ்೏ ି்ೢ ሻ

௉௑
݁ൌ (8)
ሺ଴ǡ଺ଶଶା௑ሻ

௉ି௘
ߩ௠ሺௗ௥௬ሻ ൌ (9)
ଶ଼଻ǡ଴ସሺ்೏ ାଶ଻ଷǡଵହሻ

௉ି଴ǡଷ଻଼௘
ߩ௠ሺ௠௢௜௦௧ሻ ൌ (10)
ଶ଼଻ǡ଴ସሺ்೏ ାଶ଻ଷǡଵହሻ
‫ ܪ‬ൌ ܵ ൅ ሺͶͳͺ͹ ൈ ܶ௪ ൈ ܺሻ (11)

‫ ܯ‬ൌ ܳ ൈ ߩ௠ሺௗ௥௬ሻ (12)

ο‫ ܪ‬ൌ  ‫ܪ‬ଵ  െ ‫ܪ‬ଶ (13)

q = M ( H 2 - H1 ሻ (14)

Measurement of air quality and quantity obtained from measurements along the path is an illustration of air
conditions that have been contaminated by various heat sources in the mine.
Data about the quality and quantity of air above is then carried out data processing to identify the amount of heat
at the study site. The amount of heat at the study site using the calculation of the air thermodynamic equation is
192.42 kW. FIGURE-4 illustrates the amount of heat along the research pathway.

FIGURE 4. The amount of heat at the study site with thermodynamic calculations

HEAT SOURCE IDENTIFICATION

Heat sources in underground mines are derived from geothermal gradients, auto compression processes,
mechanical equipment, mechanical processes, and lighting [6].

Rock Temperature

The results of rock temperature measurements carried out at each mining elevation representing at elevations of
1030, 980 and 965 showed an increase in temperature from 26.03 to 26.93 ° C. Despite the increase in temperature
at deeper evelations, this increase remained below the temperature of the work environment in the mine. FIGURE-
5. describes the results of measurements of rock wall temperatures in the work area at the study site which show
rock temperature is lower (cooler) than the surrounding temperature. So it can be concluded that the rock as a
coolant in the study site.
 35 31.30 32.00
30.00
30 26.93 26.6 26.03
25
Temeparture °C 20

15

10

0
960 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020 1030 1040
Elevation
Rock Temperature Ambient Temperature

FIGURE 5. Rock temperature vs ambient temperature

Auto-Compression

The heat from the auto compression effect occurs when inside the mine. With the compression, the pressure will
increase according to its weight, causing the temperature of the air to rise and the process is considered adiabatic if
the water vapor content is constant, the air flow does not experience friction and there is no heat transfer between the
air and its environment (rock). Estimated heat load by automatic compression, predicted from the conversion of
potential energy into heat energy:
“ൌ݃ሺͳ൅ͲǡͲͲͳൈሻൈሺοœȀͳͲͲͲሻൈ (15)
The amount of heat from the effect of auto compression in underground mines that occur at the study site can be
seen in each segment. TABLE-3. shows the amount of heat for each segment and the total along the research path
caused by auto compression heat.

TABLE 3. The amount of heat from auto compression

Air
Velocity Mass Elevation Heat
No Location Area(A) Quantity ASH Process Gravitation
(V) Flow (Z) (q)
(Q)
(m/s) m² m³/s kg/kg kg/s m/s2 m kW
XC 9
1 0.64 23.57 15.06 0.03 1→2 17.18 9.81 23.57 3.97
(Portal)
XC 12
2 0.56 28.22 15.94 0.03 2→3 17.95 9.81 22.73 4.00
VT North
XC 12
3 0.21 26.07 5.58 0.03 3→4 6.28 9.81 28.22 1.74
VT South
CKN
4 0.57 26.18 14.88 0.03 4→5 16.77 9.81 26.07 4.29
Decline
5 XC 13 C 0.34 26.47 8.99 0.03 5→6 10.14 9.81 26.47 2.63
6 XC 13 B 0.32 14.19 4.48 0.03 6→7 5.04 9.81 14.19 0.70
XC 13
7 0.13 23.46 2.98 0.02 7→8 3.38 9.81 23.46 0.78
North
CKN
8 Lower 1.60 21.00 33.68 0.02 8→1 38.37 9.81 26.18 9.85
Shaft
Total heat from auto compression 27.97
 Underground Water

If underground water is colder than the air environment in the mine, the release may be at temperatures below
the wet bulb temperature in the mine. While this continues, the water will continue to absorb heat thus providing a
cooling effect on the air flow inside the mine. The amount of heat is identified by the following equation [3].

“ൌࡹ ൈ  ࡯࢖  ൈ  οࢀ (16)

FIGURE-6. is secondary data from the Company, the collected groundwater water source points are located in
five locations in the Cikoneng Block of PT Cibaliung Sumber Daya. Three of the five location points are research
sites.
The results of measurements of underground water temperatures conducted at each point of the location of the
collection of mine water sources at the study site showed cooling. This is evidenced by the results of measurements
of water temperatures lower (cooler) than air temperatures at the study site. So it can be concluded that the source of
water in the mine as a cooler at the study site. The heat generated from underground water sources in the study
location area is shown in TABLE-4.

35.0 31.61 32.15 31.75

30.0 26.9 26.03 26.6
25.0
Temperature °C

20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
960 965 970 975 980 985
Elevation
Underground water temperatur Ambient temperature

(a) (b)
FIGURE 6. The location of the mine water source (a), underground water temperature vs ambient temperature (b)

TABLE 4. Amount of absorption from mine water sources

Underground
Mass Specific Ambient
water ∆T q
Location Flow Heat temperature
temperature (oC) (kW)
kg/second (kJ/kgoC) (oC)
(oC)
CKN Decline 6,5 4,187 31,1 31,61 -0,51 -13,97
CKN XC 13 VT 2,6 4,187 26,3 32,15 -5,85 -63,72
CKN Access XC 12 3,0 4,187 31,2 31,75 -0,55 -6,95

Mechanical and Lighting Equipment

The calculation of the amount of heat generated by an electrical equipment machine depends on the engine
power and the amount of load of mechanical equipment used at the mine. The amount of heat generated from
electrical equipment can be identified by the following equation [3]
‫ݍ‬௘௟ ൌ ሺͳ െ ‫ܧ‬ሻܺ (17)

In general, the efficiency of a diesel engine is 33%, the remaining 2/3 is released into the underground
environment in the form of heat. Diesel is used in almost all mining machinery such as wheel loaders, mine trucks,
jumbo drills, explosive vehicles, light vehicles, and others.
The heat of the diesel equipment appears divided by three, each with the same magnitude. A third part arises
from the heat source coming from the radiator and engine, then a third part arises from the exhaust gas and the
remaining third of the heat is used again to drive the engine to operate. Thus, the amount of heat from diesel
equipment can be identified from the following equation [4].

‫ݍ‬௘ௗ ൌ  ݂௠  ൈ ‫ݍ‬ௗ  ൈ  ܲௗ (18)

All electrical energy from lamps that are converted to heat even though small also adds to the cooling load in the
mine both in the central lighting system and the use of light bulbs. The amount of heat from lighting can be
identified by equation II. 14[5].

௡ൈ௉೏
‫ݍ‬௟ ൌ ቀ ቁ (19)
ଵ଴଴଴

TABLE-5 shows the varying amount of heat generated by each mechanical and lighting equipment at the study
site depending on the efficiency and working power of the machine.

TABLE 5. The amount of heat from each mechanical and lighting equipment
Engine
Heat
Power Engine Work
No Description Model Engine Unit
Efficiency Efficiency kW or
kW
kJ/s
1 Fan 37 Kw Cogemacoustic 4 37 80% 75.0% 29.60
2 Fan 55 kW Swedvent 5 55 80% 75.0% 22.00
3 Wilden Pump Submersible pump 1 37 79% 56.3% 7.77
4 Lighting Tube lamp 30 0,04 100% 1.20
5 Wagner ST-2D 1 61 34% 37.5% 60.15
6 Cat Elphinstone R1300G 1 136 34% 37.5% 134.10
LHD
7 Tamrock Toro 006 1 150 34% 37.5% 147.90
8 Sinome ACY 30K 1 132 34% 37.5% 130.15
9 Tamrock 985-15T 1 141,7 34% 37.5% 139.72
10 Mine Truck Sandvik EJC417 1 156 34% 37.5% 153.82
11 Sinome AJK 15H 1 156 34% 37.5% 153.82
12 Tamrock Minimatic 1 63 34% 37.5% 62.12
13 Jumbo Drill Terex MK35HE 1 115 34% 37.5% 113.39
14 Atlas Copco Boomer 282 1 110 34% 37.5% 108.46
15 Shotcrete SC Sika PM4207P 1 55 34% 37.5% 54.23
16 Wheel Loader Diesel 1 66 34% 37.5% 65.08
17 LV Solar 1 51 34% 12.5% 50.29

Human Metabolism

The human body produces metabolic heat which depends on several factors such as the level of human work,
physical fitness, and mental stress. Heat transfer between the human body and the surrounding environment is very
important to ensure the risk of heat stress on mine workers. Although, metabolic heat contributes little to the heat
load in the mine. However, metabolic heat may be significant if the density of activities carried out at work sites is
limited by the flow of ventilation. The heat generated from human metabolism [5] uses the following equation.
 ௤೓
‫ݍ‬௅ ൌ Ͳǡ͹ ൈ  ൈ ݊ (20)
ଵ଴଴଴

௤೓
‫ݍ‬ௌ ൌ Ͳǡ͵ ൈ  ൈ ݊ (21)
ଵ଴଴଴

‫ݍ‬௠ ൌ ‫ݍ‬௅ ൅ ‫ݍ‬ௌ  (22)

Based on supervisor information at the study site, the average number of workers in the access area is 12-15
people and the development area are three people. Job categories for each location are considered hard workers.
TABLE-6 shows the amount of heat released into the research environment from human body metabolism at 20.53
kW as long as they work in the hard category.

TABLE 6. The amount of heat from hum metabolism

The heat Latent Sensible Total heat
Workers Work produced heat heat produced
Location
(࢔) Category (ࢗࢎ ) (ࢗࡸ ) (ࢗࡿ ) (ࢗ࢓ )
W Kw kW kW
XC 12 VT North 15 Hard 622 * 6.53 2.80 9.33
XC 13 B 15 Hard 622 * 6.53 2.80 9.33
XC 13 North 3 Hard 622 * 1.31 0.56 1.87
Heat from human metabolism 20.53
(*) Refers to McPherson. 1993. Subsurface Ventilation and Environmental Engineering

Distribution of Heat Sources

From the results of measurement and data processing, it was found that the system (along the underground mine
line) absorbed the greatest heat from mechanical equipment. At the research site there is also a cooler where the
system (along the underground mine line) releases heat to water sources and rock walls. This has been proven from
the results of measurements made that the temperature of the water and rocks is cooler than the temperature of the
air at the study site. Even though there is a heat source that is cooling at the research location, current conditions still
indicate that the research location is hot. Because the heat source contributes more to the heat at the research site.
TABLE-7 shows the results of the identification of the distribution of heat transfer at the study site.
 TABLE 7. Identification of heat at the study site

Saturatio Latent heat Moisture Saturatio Air Air

Moisture Spesific Mass flow
n vapour Pressure of Sigma heat content n vapor densities densities Enthalpy Mechanical Internal
content volumes Process ΔH of dry air Heat (q) Identification
pressure (P) evaporation (S) of the air pressure (ρm (ρm (H) work (W) energy (U)
(Xs) (Vm) (M)
No Location (esw) (Lw) (X) (e) apparent) moist)

Pa Pa kg/kg J/kg J/kg kg/kg Pa kg/m3 kg/m3 m3/kg J/kg J/kg J/kg J/kg kg/s kW kW

XC 9
1 4004.37 103200 0.03 2433306.00 90243.19 0.02 3937.86 1.14 1.17 0.88 93239,3. 90469.22 2770.15 1→2 13001.19 17.18 223.37 Mine machinery
(Portal)

XC 12 VT
2 4620.56 103200 0.03 2427341.00 102424.21 0.03 4587.50 1.13 1.16 0.89 106240.56 91665.00 14575.56 2→3 569.95 17.95 10.23
North

XC 12 VT Rock is colder than

3 4646.83 103200 0.03 2427102.40 102939.06 0.03 4636.69 1.13 1.16 0.89 106810.51 91636.61 15173.89 3→4 -1100.94 6.28 -6.91
South mine air

CKN Rock is colder than

4 4594.41 103200 0.03 2427579.60 101911.57 0.03 4580.31 1.13 1.16 0.89 105709.56 91542.17 14167.39 4→5 -541.60 16.78 -9.09
Decline mine air

5 XC 13 C 4568.40 103200 0.03 2427818.20 101401.13 0.03 4558.26 1.13 1.16 0.89 105167.96 91473.66 13694.31 5→6 510.64 10.14 5.18

6 XC 13 B 4594.41 103200 0.03 2427579.60 101911.57 0.03 4544.61 1.13 1.16 0.89 105678.60 91671.18 14007.41 6→7 -8527.38 5.04 -42.98 Water evaporation

XC 13
7 4193.26 103200 0.03 2431397.20 94001.08 0.03 4025.50 1.13 1.16 0.88 97151.22 91245.12 5906.10 7→8 3748.14 3.37 12.62 Auxiliary Fan
North
CKN
8 Lower 4364.85 103200 0.03 2429727.00 97395.50 0.03 4360.00 1.13 1.16 0.88 100899.36 91026.43 9872.93
Shaft

Total 192.42
 Heat Control Strategy

The strategy of heat control by controlling technique that can be done at the research location is cooling by using
a cooling device. An effective cooling technique can be done by reducing humidity indirectly through the cooling
process and dehumidification through a cooling device. FIGURE-7 is a cooling device suitable for use in research
work sites with a type of local cooling called a spot cooler.

FIGURE 7. Examples of Commercially Available Spot Cooler (Hartman, H.L., 1997)

The cooling and dehumidification process carried out at the research work site is a combination process in
reducing heat and reducing water content in the air. Number of heat sources (q), sensible heat = 233.81 kW; latent
heat = 0.98 kW, with a cooling load at the study work site that is 234.79 kW. Thus, the compressor power needed to
reduce heat (30oC to 27oC) at the study site is 73 kW and the evaporation rate is 1.9139 kg/sec. FIGURE-8 shows
the compressor power requirements and the condensation rate to reduce temperature decreases.

3.5 140
3.0 120
Compressor power (kW))
Condensation rate (kg/detik)

2.5 100
2.0 80
1.5 60
1.0 40
0.5 20
0.0 0
1.00 3.00 5.00 7.00 9.00 11.00 13.00
Temperature drop (°C)
Condensation rate Compressor power

FIGURE 8. Compressor power requirements and condensation rate

 CONCLUSION

Air conditions at the study site based on temperature measurements indicate hot and humid conditions. This of
course will have an impact on the performance and health of workers at the mine.
From the results of data processing and data, it was found that the system (underground mine) absorbed the
greatest heat from mechanical equipment. At the research site there is also a cooler where the system (underground
mine) releases heat to water sources and mine rocks. But even though there is a heat source that is cooling at the
research location, it still shows that the research location is hot. Because the amount of cooling is smaller than the
heat source at the study site.
The heat control strategy that can be done at the study site is cooling by using a cooling device. An effective
cooling technique can be done by reducing humidity indirectly through the cooling process and dehumidification
through a cooling device. The compressor power needed to reduce heat at the study site (30 oC to 27oC) at the study
site was 73 kW and the evaporation rate was 1.9139 kg/s.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank to Universitas Trisakti, especially to Faculty of Technology, Earth and Energy that has
been supported in financial through the research fund, and the opportunity given to publish the manuscript.

REFERENCES

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Boundary Row, London.
[4] Torres V.F.N and Sigh, R.N. (2011): Thermal state and human comfort in underground mining, INTECH.
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