THEORIES OF PERSON ALITY

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

I. Ps
Psy
ychoa
oana
nallyt
ytic
ic Th
Theo
eory
ry – Si
Sig
gm
mn!
n! "re!

“Turn your eyes inward, look into your own depths, learn to first know yourself.” 

Psychoanalysis
   Attempt to explain personality, motivation and psychological disorders by 
focusing
focusing on the influence of early childho
childhood
od exper
experience
iences,
s, on unconscio
unconscious
us
motives and conflicts, and on the methods people use to cope with their
sexual and aggressive urges

"OC#S$ unconscious – people are not aware of the most iimportant mportant
determina
determinants
nts o off their beha
behaviour/b
viour/body
ody llanguage
anguage;; and ssuch
uch cont
contains
ains the
unresolved issues of one’s self 

*the dynamic unconscious has the motivations or energies that can

influence behaviour and experience

"re!:
"re!:
• sychoanalysis emphasi!ed unconscious forces, biologically based drives
of sex and aggression
agg ression and unavoidable conflicts in early childhood
  "atisfaction of the libido
•

  #eredity $ environment % personality 

•

• unconscious consists of sexual and aggressive instincts that are

unacceptable to the conscious personality 

%e&els o' Personality (The ICE)ER*+

&' Conscios
  (ncludes all the sensations and experiences of which we are aware at any given
moment
   A portion above the surface of
of the water – tip of the iceberg

"re!$$ conscious is a limited aspect of personality because only a small

"re!
portion of our thoughts, sensations and memories exists in conscious
awareness at any time

)' Preconscios
  etween the conscious and the unconscious
  +he storehouse of memories, perceptions and thoughts, of which we are not
consciously
consciously aware at the moment but that we can easily summon into
consciousness

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' #nconscios
  #ome of the instincts, those wishes and desires that direct
di rect our behaviour
  -ontains the driving power behind all behaviors and is the repository of forces
f orces
 we cannot see or
or control

Instincts$ The Pro,elling "orces o' Personality 

Instincts
  +he motivating force that drives behaviour and determines its direction
  (t aim to satisfy the need and thereby reduces tension
  #omeostatic approach – people are motivated to restore and maintain a
condition of physiological e.uilibrium or balance,
balance, to eep the body free of 
tension

Ty,es o' Instincts

&' %i'e Instincts

  0or survival of the individual and the species by seeing to satisfy the needs
for food, water, air and sex

%i-i!o
  a form of psychic energy which is manifested by the life instincts, that
drives a person toward pleasurable behaviors and thoughts
 

Catheis
 an investment of psychic energy in an ob1ect or person

)' Death Instincts

  +he unconscious drive toward decay, destruction and aggression – Tanathus

 Aggressi&e Dri&e
Dri&e
  one of the components of death instincts that compels us to destroy,
con.uer and ill

Strctres o' Pe
Per
rsona
sonallity 

&' I!
  2eservoir of the instincts and libido and vitally and directly related to the
satisfaction of bodily needs
  3nly nows instant gratification – it drives us to what we want, when we
 want it, without regard for anyone
anyone else’s wants
  4o awareness of the reality 
  3perates in accordance with the  Pleasure Principle – increase pleasure
and avoid pain
  +he ways that it can attempt to satisfy it needs are through reflex action and
 wish5fulfilling hallucinations or fantasy experience labelled as Primary 
Thoght Process

)' Ego
  re5conscious
  2ational master of personality 
  urpose: to help the id obtain the tension reduction it craves
  6oes not prevent the id but it
i t postpone, delay or redirect the id in terms of the
demands of reality 
  (t perceives and manipulates the environment in a practical and realistic
the Reality Principle
manner so that it will operate in accordance with the Reality Principle
  6etermines the appropriate and socially acceptable times, places and ob1ects
that will satisfy the id impulses
i mpulses which involves the Secon!ary Thoght
Process

' S,erego
  (nternal morality of conscience
   A powerful and largely unconscious set of beliefs – we ac.uire through our
experience, childhood, rules and regulations, do’s and don’ts
do n’ts
  urpose: to inhibit the id and the ego completely, particularly to those
demands concerning
concerning sex and aggression
 

Parts$
Parts$

a' Conscien
Consciencece
 contains the behaviors for which a child has been punished
  where
 where guilt comes
comes from

 b' Ego/i
go/i!!ea
eall
  consists of the good or correct behaviors for which children have
 been punished

"re!$
• +he three parts of the psychic structure are in a  perpetual conflict – the
continuing conflict between the id, ego and superego
• +he dynamics of personality involve a continuous interaction and clash between
id impulses which sees to be released and the inhibitions or restraining forces
against such impulses – these urges or impulses and counter5forces motivate
personality 

+he inevitable result of the friction between the id, ego and superego, and the ego is
severely strained, is the development of aniety '

"re!$
• Anxiety is the fundamental
fundamental development of neurotic and psychotic
psychotic behaviour
• +he prototype of all anxiety is the -irth
the -irth trama

Three Ty,es o' Aniety 

&' Reality or O-0ecti&e Aniety 

  (nvolves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world

)' Nerotic Aniety 

  +he unco
unconscio
nscious
us ffear
ear of b
being
eing punis
punished
hed for impul
impulsivel
sively
y di
displa
splaying
ying id5

  dominated behaviour
6oing without thining

' Moral Aniety 

  +he fear of one’s conscience

*oals o' Psychoanalysis

  +o maintain and regain an acceptable level of dynamic e.uilibrium that
maximi!es pleasure and minimi!ing tension

Role o' Psychoanalysis

  "trengthen the ego; to mae it independent of the overly strict concerns of the
superego, and to increase its capacity to deal with formerly repressed
 behaviour hidden in the id
 

De'ense Mechanism Against A n.iety 

n.iety 

&' Re,ression
  +he unconscious denial of the existence of something that causes anxiety 

)' Denial
  2efusal to admit the existence of an existence of an external threat or
traumatic event

'  Asceticism
  +he renunciation of needs
   A person renounces
renounces his interest in what other pe
people
ople en1oy 

7' Isolation 1 Intellectali2atio

Intellectali2ationn
  "tripping the emotion from a difficult
diff icult memory or threatening impulse
  "omething that is to be treated as a big deal is treated as if it was not –
deadma

8' Reaction "ormation

  9xpressing an id impulse that is the opposite of the one that is truly driving
the person

' #n!oing
  agical gestures or rituals that are meant to cancel out unpleasant thoughts
or feelings after they have already occurred
  <oing bac to what had happened, step5by5step

=' Intro0ection1I!enti'ication
  +aing into you own personality, characteristics of someone else, because
doing so solves some emotional difficulty 

>' I!enti'ication
I!enti'ication 3ith the Aggressor
  0ocuses on the adoption of negative or feared traits
   A person can partially overcome the fear of another by becoming more lie
them

?' Pro0ection
  +he attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else

&@' Altristic
&@' Altristic Srren!er
Srren!er
   A form of pro1ection; when a person attempts to fulfil his own needs
 vicariously, through other people
people

&&' Regression
  2etreating to an earlier, less frustrating period of life and displaying the

usually childish behaviors characteristic of that more secure time

 

&)' Rationali2ation
  2einterpreting our behaviour to mae it more acceptable and less threatening
to us

&' Dis,lacement
  "hifting id impulses from a threatening ob1ect or from one that is unavailable
to an ob1ect that is available

&7' Trning against the Sel' 

   A form of displacemen
displacementt wherein the person becomes his own substitute
target, i'e' suicide

&8' S-limation
   Altering and displacing id impulses by diverting instinctual energy into
socially acceptable behaviors

Ho3 to ta, the nconscios$

 nconscios$

  0ree Association – spea freely about anything

  6ream Analysis – manifest and latent contents of dream/s
  9veryday life – little mistaes, slips of the tongue, body language, lapses in
memory 
  #umor – what has already been repressed thoughts in a society at approved
manner; what a person finds humorous

Psychoseal Stages o' Personality De&elo,ment

"re!$
   A person’s uni.ue character develops in childhood largely from parent5child
relationship
  6evelopment consists of several stages and each psychological stage is defined by 
an erogenous !one of the body 

Erogenos 2ones
   Areas of the body that are sensitive to pleasant and sensual feelings, hence
giving rise to sexual feeling
f eeling when simulated

*the conflict that exists in each developmental stage must be resolved before the
infant/child can progress to the next stage

*if the conflict has not been resolved or when the needs have been supremely 
satisfied by the parent, the individual is said to be fixated at his stage
stag e of 
development

"iation
   A portion of the libido or psychic energy remains invested in a that
developmentall stage, leaving less energ
developmenta energyy for the following stage
 

 A' Oral Stage

  @5&> months
  9rogenous !one: outh
   Activity: sucing, biting and swallowing
swallowing
  rimary 3b1ect of ibido: mother or caregiver
  -onclusion/6evel
-onclusion/6evelopmental
opmental ilestone: time of weaning
  0ixations:
a' Oral Passi&e Personality – oral incorporative behaviour Btaing inC
 b' Oral Aggressi&e )eha&ior – oral aggressive or sadistic behaviour
Bbiting or spitting outC

'  Anal Stage

  )5 years old
  9rogenous !one: anus
   Activities: retention of feces
feces and wilful defecation
  6evelopmental ilestone: Toilet Training – gratification of an instinctual
impulse is interfered with as parents attempt to regulate the time and place of 
defecation
  0ixations:
a'  Anal E,lsi&e1A
E,lsi&e1Aggressi&e
ggressi&e Personality – defying attempts at
regulation, anal expulsion  over generous
 b'  Anal Retenti&e Personality – holding the feces in  problem with
discipline, perfectionist, orderly, stingy 

-' Phallic Stage

  )5 years old
  9rogenous !one: genitals
   Activities: exploring
exploring and manipulating the genital
genitals,
s, i'e' masturbation
  Oe!i
Oe!i,s
,s Com,
Com,lele – the unconscious desire of a boy for his mother
accompanied by a desire to replace or destroy his father; he interprets his fear
to his father as becoming fearful that his father will cut off the offending organ
BpenisC  castration anxiety
  Electra Com,le – the unconscious desire of a girl for her father
accompanied by a desire to replace or destroy her mother; she comes to envy 
her father and transfers her love to him because he possesses the highly 
 valued sex organ   penis
 penis envy
   Phallic Personality – strong narcissism, difficulty in establishing mature
heterosexual relationships,
  Se,aration In!i&i!ation – separation of the child to the mother, with the
help of the father; establishing own identity which may results to promiscuity 
seductivity or masculinity 

6' %atency Stage

   years old – puberty 
  "ex instinct is dormant, sublimated in school activities, sports and hobbies,

  and in developing
-onflict: friendships
social interaction with
with members of the same sex
others
 

9' *enital Stage

  &) years old – adulthood
  9rogenous !one: genital area
  Gen
Genita
itall Per
Person
sonality – person en1oys a satisfying adult sexuality   full
ality
development; reciprocity   being capable of genuine love, the narcissism on
the pregenital stages is overcome and the individual begins to love others for
altruistic behaviour
  0ixation: exhibitionist behaviour/sexual deviant behaviour

((' I n!i&i!a l Psy ch olog y – Al're! A!ler

“The goal of the human soul is conuest, perfection, security, superiority. !very
child is faced with so many o"stacles in life that no child ever grows up without 
striving for some form of significance.# 

*Adler’s theory focused on the ni4eness of each person, and not by the
 biological motives and
and goals as ascribed by 0
0reud
reud

 A!ler$
  9ach individual is primarily a social being
  ersonality is shaped by people’s uni.ue social environments and interactions
  +he conscios is the core of personality   people are actively involved in
creating themselves and directing their future

The Sorce o' Hman Stri&ing

&' In'eriority "eelings

  otivating forces in behaviour
  D+o be human being means to feel oneself inferior

)' Com,ensation
  (ndividual growth results from people’s attempt to overcome real and
imagined inferiorities

' In'eriority Com,le

  oor opinion of one’s self and feels helpless and unable to cope with the
demands of life

Three Sorces$

i' Organ In
In' 
' eriori
iority 
ty 
  defective parts or organs of the body through person’s efforts to
compensatee for the defect or weaness
compensat
 

ii' S,oiling or Pam,ering

  this child naturally develops the idea that he is the most important
person in any situation and that other people should always defer to him
  when
when confronted
confronted with obstacles to gratificatio
gratification,
n, a spoiled child com
comes
es to
 believe that he has some
some personal deficienc
deficiencyy that is thwarting him
 delayed gratification, tolerance and no sense of autonomy 

iii' Neglect an! Re0ection

 lac of love and security 
  this child develops the feelings of worthlessness, or even anger, and
 view others with distrust, i'e' street
street children

7' Mascline Protest

  (nferiority was ain to femininity, however, Adler widened and strengthened
it to include the generali!ed idea that all manind is inferior at birth and that
inferiority has nothing to do with femininity, but it is the result of hereditary
condition, followed after "irth "y a feeling of "eing incomplete

8' S,eriority Com,le

   A person may tend to overcompen
overcompensate;
sate; the exaggeration of opinions of one’s
capa bility 
  oasting, vanity, self5confidence and a tendency to denigrate others

Stri&ing 'or S,eriority or Per'ection

S,eriority 
  +he ultimate goal towards which a person strives
   An effort to perfect one’s self
self and to mae his self complete
complete or whole

 A' "ictional "inalism

  eople have an ultimate goal, a final state of being and a need to move
towards it according to their cognitive constructs
  DAEAAF – own understanding

' Teleology 
  otivation is a matter of moving towards the future
  eople are drawn towards their goals, purposes and ideals

-' Style o' %i'e

  +hrough many different behaviour patterns
  eople develop a uni.ue pattern of characteristics, behaviours and habits

i' The Creati&e Po3er o' the Sel' 

 choose personality and character
 the person creates the style of life – creates himself, his personality and

his character
 

  the way a person interprets his heredity and environment form the
 basis of the creative construction
construction of his attitude towards life
life

ii' Mista5en Styles o' %i

%i' 
' e
  people develop strategies for improving their situations that are
mala!a,ti&e

a' Rling Ty,e

  see to dominate others, may actively confront life’s problems in
a selfish way 
  becoming
becoming delin.uents, tyrants,
tyrants, sadists
  !e,recation com,le – people express their sense of
superiority over others by belittling them

 b' *etting Ty ,e

,e
 leaning on others; dependent
 adopt a passive attitude towards life
  becoming
becoming user5friendly 
user5friendly 

c'  A&oi!ing Ty,e

 try not to deal with problems, thereby, avoiding the possibility of 
defeat
 tends to be isolated and nay strie others as cold
 avoids commitments

iii' The Healthy Style o' %i'e

  the lifestyle is adaptive therefore, the person is said to be the socially 
useful type
  the person must act in ways beneficial to others – those persons who
taught us how to see, how to thin and
a nd how to feel
 such persons have a well5developed sense of social interest

Social Interest
  <erman: Gemeinschaftg
Gemeinschaftgefuhl
efuhl – $ommunity feeling
  (ndividual’s innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve
personal and social goals

 A!ler$
  +he importance of mother – through her behaviour towards the child, she can
either foster interest or thwart its development

)irth Or!er
  eing order or younger among siblings and being exposed to different
parental attitudes create different childhood conditions that help determine
personality 
 

((('  Analytica
ticall Psycholog y – Carl 6ng

7 %y life is a story of the self&reali'ation of the unconscious. !verything in the

unconscious seeks outward manifestations, and the personality too desires to
evolve out of its unconscious conditions.” 

*Gung’s theory focused on middle and late ages of life – self5actuali!ation'

(t is a hopeful theory' an is gradually becoming through the ages, a better and
more civili!ed human being, operating in a better frame of reference'

*Gung preferred the wor ,s ,syc

yche
he  which means spirit or soul ' (t also
suggests the integration of all aspects of personality'

6ng$
  +otal personality or psyche is composed of several systems or structures that can
influence one another

Ma0or Systems o' the Psyche

&' Ego
  9go
9g o witith
h th
thee conscious
mind 
  +he part concerned with perceiving, thining, feeling and
remembering
  erson’s awareness of himself and is responsible for carrying out the normal
activities of waing life
  gateeeper of the consciousness – as it acts in a selective way, admitting into
conscious awareness
awareness only a portion of the stimuli to which a person is exposed
  the center of an individ
individual’s
ual’s will
will,, enabl
enabling
ing him to strive for con
consciou
sciouss
goals
  Ego in'lation – overly focused on the ego and identifying too closely with
one’s conscious experience and intentions especially
especially in the first half of life
 which puts the person
person out of balance

 A'  Attiit!
 Att t!es
es

a' Etra&ersion
 attitude of the psyche characteri!ed by an orientation toward the
external world and the other people
pe ople
  open, sociable, socially assertive and prefer the external world
things, people and activities

 b' Intro&ersion
  attitude of the psyche characteri!ed by an orientation toward
one’s own thoughts and feelings
 
 withdrawn
their and often
internal world shy, tendfeelings,
of thoughts, to focusfantasies
on themselves and prefer
and dreams
 

' Psychological "nctions o' the Psyche

  different and opposing ways of perceiving and apprehending both the
external and real world and one’s sub1ective inner world

a' Sensing
  irrational 'nction – involved ,erce,tion rather than
 1udging of information
 getting of information by means of the senses

 b' Thin5ing
  rational 'nction – involves !ecision ma5ing or 0!ging
rather than simple intae of information
 evaluating information or ideas rationally or logically 

c' Intiting
  irrational or ,erce,tal  but comes from the com,le
integration o' o' large amonts o' in'ormation rather than
simple hearing or seeing
  the ind of perception that wor’s outside of the usual conscious
processes

d' "eeling
 rational
  matter of evaluating information, this time, by weighing one’s
overall emotional response

*eople all have these functions but in different proportions

 S,erior "nction – preferred and best developed in a person
 Secon!ary "nction – one is aware of and uses in support of the
superior function
 Tertiary "nction – slightly less developed but not very
conscious
 In'erior "nction – poorly developed and so unconscious that
the person might deny its existence in himself 

-' Psychological Ty ,es

,es

a' Etra&erte!
Etra&erte! Thin5ing Ty,e
 lives according to fixed values and society’s
s ociety’s rules
  feelings are repressed to be ob1ective in all aspects of life and to
 be dogmatic in thoughts and opinions
opinions
 may be perceived as rigid and cold

 b' Etra&erte!
Etra&erte! "eeling Ty,e
  very
 very emotional and conforms to the traditional values and moral

codes he has been taught

 

  thining mode is repressed hence, the person is unusually 

sensitive to the opinions and expectations of others
 emotional responsive, mae friends easily and sociable

c' Etra&erte! Sensing Ty ,e ,e

  focuses on pleasure and happiness and on seeing new 
experiences
  strongly oriented to the real world and adaptable to different
inds of people and changing situations
 intuiting function is repressed
 outgoing and en1oys life

d' Etra&erte! Intiting Ty,e

  with
with een ability to exploit opportunities, creative and attracted
to new ideas
 person is able to inspire others to accomplish and achieve
 maing decisions based more on hunches than on reflection
 sensation is repressed

e' Intro&erte!
Intro&erte! Thin5ing Ty,e
 focuses on thought rather than on feelings and has poor
p oor practical
 1udgment
 feeling is repressed
 concerned with privacy and prefers to understand himself 
  does not get along well with others and has difficulty 
communicating
communicat ing ideas
 stubborn, aloof, arrogant and inconsiderate

f' Intro&erte!
Intro&erte! "eeling Ty ,e ,e
 rational thought is repressed
 person avoids outward expression of deep emotion
  has little consideration for other’s feelings and thoughts and
appears withdrawn, cold, self5assured, mysterious, inaccessible,
.uiet, modest and childish

g' Intro&erte! Sensing Ty ,e ,e

 loos most on human activities with benevolence and
amusement
  aesthetically sensitive but appears positive, calm and detached
from the everyday world
 intuition is repressed

h' Intro&erte! Intiting Ty ,e ,e

 focuses on the intuition that leads to little contact with reality 
  visionary and daydreamer – aloof, unconcerned with practical

matters and poorly understood by others

 

  odd and eccentric, has difficulty coping with everyday life and
planning for the future

)' Personal #nconscios

#nconscios
   Anything which is not presently
presently conscious but ca
can
n be made conscious anytime
  (t includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have
 been forgotten or suppressed
suppressed for some reason
  0ocuses on information not vivid, repressed or forgotten but are easily 
recalled

Com,le
 a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions and wishes organi!ed
around a common them

*reoccupation of certain theme directs thoughts and behaviour in various

 ways, thus determining how
how the person perceives tthe
he world'

' Collecti&e #nconscios

  an’s Dpsychic inheritanceF
  2eservoir of man’s experiences as a species, a ind of nowledge people are all
 born with
  6eepest and least accessible level of psyche

 A'  Archety 
 Arche ty ,es
,es
 contents of the collective unconscious
 unlearned tendency to experience things in a certain way 

i'   Sha
Sha!o3 
!o3 
 sex and the life instincts in general
  the dar side of the ego and the evil that people are capable of is
often stored here
 unwanted part of the body / repressed part of the person’s life
ii' Persona
 man’s public image / external self 
  the mas that a person puts before he shows himself to the
outside world

iii'  Anima an!

an! Anims
  anima – female aspect present in the collective unconscious of 
men
  animus – male aspect present in the collective unconscious of 
 women
 together, they are called sy2ygy 1 an!rogyny 

8Anima may be personified as a young girl, very spontaneous and

intuitive, or as a witch or as the mother earth'

 

* Anims may be personified as a wise old man, or often a number

of males, and tends to be logical, often rationalistic, even
argumentative'

iv' The Sel' 

 most important archetype
  represents the transcendence of all opposites, so that every 
aspect of the personality is expressed e.ually 
 through developing the self results to self&reali'ation
 a new center, a more balanced position for the psyche

6ng$
  erfection of the personality is only achieved in !ea
eath
th

The Dynamics o' the Psyche

 A' %i-i!o
 the life energy or the psychic energy by which the wor of the personality is
performed
  the creative life force that could be applied to the psychological growth of 
the person
 the driving force behind the psyche which is focused on the needs, whether
psychological or spiritual

Three ,rinci,les that !escri-e ho3 the ,syche o,erates$

 A' Princi,e o' O,,osites

 it is the opposition that creates the power or libido of the psyche
  in order to have a concept of the good, one must have a concept
of the bad, 1ust lie one canno
cannott have up without down or "lack
without white
' Princi,le o' E4i&alence
  the energy, created from the opposition, is given to both sides
e.ually 

-' Princi,le o' Entro,y 

  tendency of the oppositions to come together, and so for the
energy to decrease over a person’s lifetime
  tendency of all physical systems to run down, that is, for all
energy to become e.ually distributed
 transcen!ence – the process of rising above one’s opposites, of 
seeing both sides of who one is Bmetaphysical aspectC

'   Synch
Synchr roni
onicity 
city 
 
 the occurrence
teleologically, yet areofmeaningfully
two events related
that are not lined causally, nor lined
 

De&elo,ment o' Personality 

 A' Chil!hoo!
 a little more than reflection of the parents’ personalities
  consciousness forms when the child is able to say D(F or when the child
 becomes able to distinguish between himself and other people or ob1ects in
the world

' Teenage to Yong A!lthoo!

  psychic "irth Bfirst transitionC – the psychic assumes a definite form and
content; mared
mared by diffi
difficulties
culties and the need to adapt
 the aim of life is to achieve goals and establish a secure, successful place for
oneself in the world

-' Mi!!le Age

 time of personal crisis Bsecond transitionC
  shift of focus on the ob1ective world of reality – education, career and
family – to one’s inner, sub1ective world that had
ha d earlier been neglected
   when
when one naturally begins the process of self5actuali!ation to a new level of 
positive psychological health called in!i&i!ation

*In!i&i!ation
 the process of restoring wholeness to the psyche in adult development
  goal: to move the center of personality from the ego to some midpoint
 between the ego and the unconscious
unconscious

*Transcen!ence "nction
 occurs in the later phase of the individuation process
  an aspect of personality that integrates the diverse aspects into a unified
 whole
 restoration of the balance in the psyche
(H' Personolog y – Henr y Mrra
Mrra y 

“(or me, personality is a )udge without "oundaries.” 

Personology 
  +he study or system of personality 

Mrray$
  ersonality is rooted in the -rain
the  -rain which
 which guides and governs every aspect of the
personality'
  +he ideal state of human nature involves always having a certain level of tension
to reduce' (t is the process of acting to reduce the tension that is satisfying, rather
than the attainment of condition free of all tension'
tension'
  (ndividual’s personality continues to develop over time and is constructed of all

  the events that

ersonality occurand
changes during the course of that person’s life
progresses
 

  9mphasi!ed the uni.ueness of each person while recogni!ing similarities among

all people

Di&ision o' Personality 

 A' I!
 contains the primitive, amoral and lustful impulses described by 0reud, but
it also contains desira"le impulses such as empathy and love

' S,erego
 the internali!ation of the culture’s values and norms
  shaped not only by parents and authority figures, but also by the peer
group and culture

Ego/i!eal
 a component of the superego that contains the moral or ideal behaviour for
 which a person should
should strive

*Ihile the superego is developing, so is the ego5ideal, which provides people

 with long5range goals for which to strive'

-' Ego
 the central organi!er of behaviour
 consciously reasons, decides
decides and wills the direction of behaviour

Nee!s$ The Moti&ation o' )eha&ior

Nee!
   A physiochemical force in the brain that organi!ers and directs intellectual
and perceptual abilities
Ty,es o' Nee!s

 A' Primary Nee!s

  A'E'A'
 A'E'A' viscerogenic needs
  arise from internal bodily states and include those needs re.uired for
survival, as well as such needs as sex and sentience

' Secon!ary Nee!s

  A'E'A' psychogenic
 A'E'A' psychogenic needs
  arise indirectly from primary needs and are concerned with emotional
satisfaction and include psychological needs such as achievement and
affiliation

-' Reacti&e Nee!s

  involve a response to something specific in the environment and are
aroused only when that ob1ect appears
 

6' Proacti&e Nee!s

  spontaneous needs that elicit appropriate behaviour whenever they are
aroused, independent of the environment or of the presence of a particular
ob1ect

Characteristic
Characteristic o' Nee
ee!
!s

 A' Pre,otency 
 urgency with which needs impel behaviour
  basic
 basic needs

' "sion
   when some needs are complementary and can be satisfied by one
 behaviour or a set of behaviours
behaviours

-' S-si!iation
  a situation in which one needs is activated to aid in the satisfaction of 
another need
 i'e', dependant and dominant

6' Press
  the pressure caused by environmental ob1ects or past events to behave in a
certain way 

9' Thema
 the combination of press Bthe environmental facto
factorC
rC and need Bthe personal
factorC that brings order to a person’s behaviour

PSYCHOSOCIA% THEORIES O" PERSONA%ITY 

(' "eminine Psychology – 9a

9aren
ren H
Horne
orne y 

“The "asic evil is invaria"ly a lack of genuine warmth and affection.” 

Horney$
  en are envious of women for their capability to give birth B 3om-
 3om- en&y C
  <ives great emphasis on social relationshi,s as significant factors in
personality formation
  eople are motivated not by sexual or aggressive factors but by needs of security
and love

Parental )eha&ior an! De&elo,ment

+hehis
child and eyorfactor in personality development is the social relationship "etween the
her parents.
 

-hildhood was dominated by the safety need Bif satisfied will result to trustC
 which means that the needs for security and freedom from fear determines the
normality of one’s personality development'

 A child’s security depends

depends entirely on ho3 the ,arents treat the chil!'
chil! '

Parental In!i''erence 1 )asic E&il

   A ma1or way parents
parents weaen or prevent se
security
curity in the child’s percep
perception
tion

)asic Hostility 
  -hildren’s first reaction to parental indifference
  3ften, it is anger – an aggressive coping strategy 
  “*f * have power, no one can hurt me.” 

)asic Aniety 
  -hildren’s fear of helplessness
helplessness and abandonment

*for survival’s sae, basic hostility is suppressed and let the parents win; if this
seems to wor for the child, it may become a coping strategy called com,liance
*”*f * can make you love me, you will not hurt me.
me.FF

"ome children find that neither aggression nor compliance eliminates

eliminates the
perceived parental indifference' +hey solve the problem by  3ith!ra3ing from family 
involvement into themselves, eventually becoming sufficient unto themselves'
“*f * withdraw, nothing can hurt me.” 

 Aniety$ The "on!ati

"on!ation
on o' Nerosis
Nerosis

 Aniety 
  (nsidiously increasing, all pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a
hostile world – (ree
– (ree &floating anxiety
 
the foundation
feelings on which later neurosis develop, and it is inseparably tied to
of hostility 

(n childhood, people try to protect themselves against basic anxiety in four B7C
 ways:

&' Secring a''ection an! lo&e from other people

)' )eing s-missi&e as a means of self5protection which involves complying with
the wishes of wither of one part
particula
icularr person or of everyone
everyone in the socsocial
ial
environment
'  Attaini
 Attaining
ng ,o3er o&er others
others wherein
 wherein a person compensat
compensatee for helplessne
helplessness
ss
and achieve security through success or through a sense of superiority 
7'  :ith!ra3ing psychologically from other people wherein the person attempts to
 become
internal independent of others, not relying on anyone else for the satisfaction of 
and external needs
 

<oal of these four self5protective mechanisms: to !e'en! against -asic an.ie

an.iety 
ty 

Nerotic Nee!s 1 Nerotic Tren!s 1 Nerotic Soltions 1 Inter,ersonal

Orientations

NEEDS
NEEDS TRENDS1SO%#TIONS1ORIENTATIONS

•  Affection and Approval ovement towards eople:

• 6ominant partner +he "elf59ffacing "olution
BCom,liant Personality C

• ower ovement against eople:

+he 9xpansive ersonality
• 9xploitation
B Aggressi&e Personality 
Personality C
• restige
•  Admiration
•  Achievement

• "elf5sufficiency  ovement away from eople:

• erfection +he 2esignation "olution
• 4arrow limits to life BDetache! Personality C

a' Com,laint Personality – adopts the self&effacing solution to neurotic conflict

and displays attitudes and behaviours that reflect an intense and continuous need
for affection and approval, an urge to be loved, wanted and protected

 b'  Aggressi&e Personality – adopts the expansive solution to neurotic conflict

 whereby mastery of tass and power over others are emphasi!ed even if close
relationships are impeded

c'  whereby
Detache! Personality
freedom sought–even
is sought adopts theexpense
at the resignation solution toand
of relationships neurotic conflict
achievement
achievement

Horney$
  +he dominant neurotic trend is the one that determines the person’s behaviours
and attitudes toward others which is the mode of acting and thining that best
serves to control basic anxiety and any deviation from it is threatening to the
person
   Any indication that a repressed trend is pushing for expression causes conflict
 within the individual

Con'lict
  +he basic incompatibility of the three neurotic trends
 
 ecomes the core of neurosis
 

(n a healthy, normal person, all three trends can be expressed as circumstances

 warrant' +here is flexibility in behaviours and attitudes and he/she can adapt to
changing situations'

Sel' Theory 

–  Self-image because
#orney’s another way of looing at neurosis – Self-image  because the sel' is
the core of one’s being and one’s potential'

(f a person is free to reali!e his/her full potential which is a state of sel'/

reali2ation,, the self5image must clearly reflect the true self'
reali2ation

 A neurotic has a different view of things' +he neurotic self is split into a
!es,ise! sel' and i!eal sel' '

+he neurotic’s ideal self is not a positive goal' (t is unrealistic and ultimately 
impossible' (t is based on illusion, an unattainable ideal of absolute perfection'

sel'/reali2ation &acillation

Despis Ideal self 

a
re
ed
l self 
sel
f 

#ealthy erson 4eurotic erson

 Ihile vacillating between the two impossible selves, the real self is distorted or
denied and the ideal self escapes the real self' +he neurotic is
i s alienated from his/her true
core and prevented from actuali!ing his/her potentials' +he neurotic’s self5image is an
unsatisfactory substitute for a reality5based sense of self5worth, i'e' being paranoid'

Eternali2ation
   A way in which neurotic attempt to defend themselves against the inner
conflicts caused by the discrepancy between ideali!ed and real self5images
  +his is through pro1ecting the conflicts unto the outside world
  i'e' internali!ing the insecurity 

Protecti&e
Protecti&e Strctres +lower level of efforts

 A' )lin! S,ots

  being unaware of aspects of behaviour that are blatantly incompatible or
inconsistent with the ideali!ed5self +repression
 

' Com,artmentali2ation
  allowing the incompatible behaviours to be consciously recogni!ed, but not
at the same time; each is allowed to experience in a separate DcompartmentF
of life
 dividing one’s life into various compartments

-' Rationali2ation
 explaining behaviour in a way that it seems consistent with what is socially 
acceptablee and with the desirab
acceptabl desirable
le .ualities one has accep
accepted
ted as part ooff the
personality 
 giving good reasons to excuse conduct, rather than giving the real reason to
explain conduct
 sour5graping

6' Ecessi&e Sel'/control

  avoiding emotion; the person prevents being overwhelmed by a variety of 
emotions, including Denthusiasm, sexual excitement, self5pity or rageF
 living life within narrow limits

9'  Ar-itrary Rightness

Rightness
  attempting to settle conflicts once and for all by declaring arbitrarily and
dogmatically that one is invariably right; rigidly declaring that one’s own view 
is correct
 inner doubts are denied and extreme challenges are discredited
 everything is final; authoritarian

0' Elsi&eness
  avoiding commitment to any opinion or action because of Dhaving
established no definite ideali!ed imageF to avoid the experience of conflict

<' Cynicism
 avoiding conflict by Ddenying and deriding moral valuesF
 
some
 values butpeople use them
do not live this unconsciously; they consciously accept society’s
 do not believe in anything to protect one’s self 

)asic Princi,les in Horney;s Theory 

&' O,timism/Positi&ism Princi,l

Princi,le
  9ach individual has the capacity to grow and the capacity to change for the
 better
  9ach one has the capacity to consciously shape and change his/her
personality 
   An individual could resolve his/her neurotic
neurotic conflict and lead a happier life by 
striving for perfection which results to self5reali!ation
 

)' Society/Cltre Princi,le

   An individual’s personality is a product of his/her interactions with other
people or social forces; these interactions are affected by the traditions,
folways and mores that are taught by his/her culture
  +hese interactions are bounded not only by the society in which he/she lives
 but as well as the past societies in which he/she had lived and the cultural
rules he/she had to follow 

' Character/Strctre Princi,le

  +hroughout an individual’s life, he/she creates a structural character which
may be changed; such character sets the limits within which the individual
has a free choice on how to behave

7' Sel'/Conce,t Princi,le

   Awareness of of oneself as a human being and the importance or or the significance
of oneself in the roles of life
  6istinguishes the person’s self from all the other selves he/she sees around
  +he actual or real self is all that people have to operate within life

8' Com,lementation/Co
Com,lementation/Con'lict n'lict Princi,le
   A protective mechanism
mechanism
  6isturbances in the parent5child relationship produce conflict and anxiety 
   An individual has at its disposal,
disposal, ma1or and minor techni.ues
techni.ues

' Sel'/Analysis Princi,le

   Acceptance of of what is real
  (ndividual has the capacity to analyse his/her own defects and with rough
sills to solve many of his/her problems
   An individual must learn to use his innate
innate creative powers through developing
developing
his/her ability to analyse his/her role

)EHA<IORA% APPROACH TO PERSONA %ITY  %ITY 

(' O,erant Rein'orceme nt Theory – )rrh s "re!eric S5inner

“*t is the environment which must "e changed.” 

S5inner$
  ersonality – condition reflex
  ehaviour is explained and controlled by manipulating the environment 

Rein'orcement$
Rein'orcement$ The )asis o' )eha&ior

 An animal or human could be trained to perform virtually any act and that the
type of reinforcement
it' +hus, thatthe
whoever controls followed the behaviour
reinforcers wouldtobecontrol
has the power responsible
humanfor determining
behaviour'
 

 A' Res,on!ent )eha&ior

   A response made
made to or elicited by a specific stim
stimulus
ulus

Re'le )eha&ior
  an example of respondent behaviour
 this behaviour is unlearned as it occurs automatically and involuntarily 

2espondent behaviour can also be learned through con!itioning  which

involves the substitution of one stimulus to another'

Pa&lo&$
   A conditioned response
response cannot be establishe
established
d in the absence of reinforcem
reinforcement
ent
  +he act of reinforcing a response strengthens it and increases the lielihood
that the response will be repeated

Rein'orcement is the act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thus

increasing the lielihood that the response will be repeated'

 An established conditioned response will not be maintained in the absence of 
reinforcement' Et
Etinct
inction
ion is the process of eliminating a behaviour by withholding
reinforcement' +he learned response can be extinguished if reinforces or rewards are no
longer provided'

' O,erant )eha&ior

  ehaviour emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the
environment to change it

O,erant Con!itioning
  the behaviour
behaviour is foll
followed
owed by a conse.uen
conse.uence,
ce, and the natur
naturee of the
conse.uence modifies the organisms’ tendency to repeat the behaviour in the
future
*a reinforcing stimulus has the effect of increasing the operant – the behaviour

occurring 1ust before the reinforce

Sche!les o' R ein' 
ein' orce
orcemen
mentt
  atterns or rates of providing or withholding reinforcers

 A' Continos
Continos Rein'orcemen
Rein'orcementt Sche!le
  9very time that an organism or an individual does the desired behaviour, he
gets a reward
  roduces a .uic learning, provided that reinforcement follows the desired
 behaviour immediately 
immediately 
  Although learning is fast, extinction
extinction is also rapid

' Partial Rein'orcement Sche!le

 
 3nly learning
  "low some of the
butresponse or behaviours
greater resistance are followed by reinforcement
to extinction
e xtinction
 

i' "ie! Ratio Sche!le

  if the individual or organism emits the desired behaviour x
number of times, he gets a reward

ii' "ie! Inter&al Sche!le

 if the organism or individual emits the desired behaviour at least
once during a particular stretch of time Bi'e' )@ secondsC, then he
gets a reward; if he fails to do so, he doesn’t get a reward
  even if he emits the desired behaviour a hundred times during
the )@ seconds, he still gets only one
o ne reward

iii'  <aria-le Ratio Sche!le

 the reinforce change the DxF each time
ti me
  i'e' first it taes  repetitions of the desired of the desired
 behaviour to get a reward, then &@, then &, then
then =J''

iv'  <aria-le Inter&al

Inter&al Sche!le
 the reinforce eep on changing the time period
 i'e' first )@ seconds, then 8, then 8, then &@J''

Sccessi&e A,,roimation$
A,,roimation$ The Sha,ing o' )eha&io eha&ior r
  9xplains the ac.uisition of complex behaviour
  (nvolves first reinforcing a behaviour that is only vaguely similar to the one
desired
  3nce the behaviour is established, loo out for and reinforce variations that
come a little closer to the desired behaviour, and so on, until you have the
animal or individual performing the final desired behaviour

Discrimination %earning
  An individual responding to discriminative stimuli in order to ac.uire
adaptive behaviour
  +he behaving organism or person, learns to behave in ways appropriate to a

changing
  (f situation
a behaviour some
sometimes
times leads to de
desirable
sirable outcomes and sometimes not, the
organism or person learns to tae advantage of stimuli in the environment
that signal whether the behaviour will pay off this time

Discriminati&e Stimli
 the environmental signals

Stimls *enerali2atio
*enerali2ation n
  2esponding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus
  +he more closely the stimulus resembles the discriminative stimulus that was
present during conditioning, the more liely the desired behaviour is
i s to occur
  "timulus <enerali!ation $ "timulus 6iscrimination % personality consistency 

and change
 

S,erstitios )eha&ior
S,erstitios
  ersistent behaviour that has a coincidental relationship to the reinforcement
received
  Accidental reinforcement
reinforcement happens a after
fter a display of some behaviour

The Sel'/Control o' )eha&ior

  +he individual has the ability to use self5control or the ability to exert control
over the variables that determine behaviour
  "elf5control alters the impact of external events
  2ationale: behaviour can be directed by manipulating the application of 
reinforcement contingencies

 A' Stimls A&oi!ance

  one removes himself from an external variable that affects his behaviour
  avoiding a person or situation reduces the control that person or situation has
over one’s behaviour

' Sel'/a!ministere!
Sel'/a!ministere! Satiation
  3ne exerts control to cure one’s self of bad habits by overdoing the behaviour
until one becomes disgusted, uncomfortable or ill, so that one .uits engaging
in the undesirable behaviour

-'  A&ersi&e Stimlation

Stimlation
  Knpleasan
Knpleasantt or repugnant conse.uences are involved
  3ne engages in the desired behaviour so as to prevent unpleasant
conse.uences

6' Sel'/rein'orcement
  3ne rewards the self for displaying good or desirable behaviours

 A&ersi&e
 A&ersi&e Stimls
 
3pposite
painful if a reinforcing stimulus; something one might find unpleasant or
  A behaviour followed by this ind of stimulus results in a decreased
probability of the behaviour occurring in the future
fu ture

Pnishment
  +he application of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour in an effort to
decrease the lielihood that the behaviour will recur

S5inner$
  unishment is ineffective in changing behaviour from undesirable to desirable
or from abnormal to normal
 

Positi&e Rein'orcement
  Administered for desirable behaviours is much more effective than
punishment

Negati&e Rein'orcement
  An already aversive stimulus is removed after one performs a certain
 behaviour
  (t maes one Dfeel goodF when the aversive stimulus stops or is removed, so
this serves as a reinforce
  ehaviour followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an
increased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future

S5inner;s Theory$
6evelopmental <oal: "elf5control of ehaviour
6ynamics: reinforcement and extinction

TRAIT THEORIES O" PERSONA%ITY 

  +he influence of genetic factors in the formation of traits, however, there is
also recognition that behaviour is a function of the interaction between both
personal and situational variables

I. Tr
Tra
ait T
Th
heo
eory
ry – *or!on A
All
ll,or
,ortt

“-s the individual matures, the "ond with the past is "roken.” 

0unctional Autonomy: motives and motivation

"tructure: personality traits, conditions/disp

conditions/dispositions,
ositions, habits

6ynamics: result of interaction between heredity and environment

6evelopmental <oal:
+he sel' must be #ealthy
the ma1or ersonality 
focus of personality growth'

The Natre o' Personality 

 All,ort$
  ersonality – as the dynamic organi!ation within the individual of those
psychophysicall systems that determine his characteristic beha
psychophysica behaviour
viour and
thought; thus, each person is uni.ue
  eople reflect both their heredity and environment

#eredity provides the personality with raw materials, such as physi.ue,

intelligence and temperament, that may be shaped, expanded or limited bu
the conditions of one’s environment'
 

 As the genetic endowment interacts with one’s social environment, the
inevitable result is a uni.ue personality'

  -onsidered personality to be discrete or discontinuous; there is no continuum

of personality 

+here are two B)C personalities:

&' 0or childhood w whereby
hereby primitive biological urges an
and
d reflexes drive
infant behaviour
)' 0or adultho
adulthood
od whereby psychological forces drive adult functioning

  9mphasi!ed the conscios rather than the unconscious, the ,resent an!
'tre rather than the past
  2ecogni!ed ni4eness o' ,ersonality rather than proposing generalities
or similarities for large groups of people
  -hose to study normal rather than the abnormal

Personality Traits as !istingishe! 'rom Personality Dis,osition= Ha-its

an! Attit!es

Personality Traits
Personality
  redispositions to respond, in the same or a similar manner, to different
inds of stimuli
  -onsistent and enduring ways if reacting to the environment
  -ommon among humans

Characteristics o' Traits$

a' 2eal and ex
exist
ist w
within
ithin ea
each
ch o
off us
 b' 6etermine and cause behaviour
c' -an be demonstrated empirically 
d' (nterrelated; they may overlap even though they represent different
hara i i
c
e' ay cter with
vary st cs the situation

Personality Dis,ositions
  +raits that are peculiar to an individual as opposed to traits shared by a
number of people

a' Car!inal Trai

Traits
ts
  ost pervasive and powerful or influential human traits, that they touch
almost every aspect of a person’s life

 All,ort$
  +he Druling passionF – a powerful
p owerful force that dominates behaviour
 

 b' Central Traits

  +he handful outstanding traits that describe a person’s behaviour

c' Secon!ary Traits

  +he least important and least influential individual traits, which a person may 
display inconspicuously and inconsistently 

Ha-its
  "pecific or inflexible responses to stimuli in order to initiate and guide
 behaviour
  #ave a more limited impact on traits and personal dispositions
  "everal habits that share some adaptive function combine, these may form a
single trait

 Attit!es
  +hese are similar to traits, attitudes differ from traits in two B)C general ways:
attitudes have some specific o")ect of reference and attitudes involve either
 positive or negative
negative evaluations

Personality an! Moti&ation

 A' +he influence of a person’s present situation not only in personality but also in
the view of motivation; the past is no longer active and does not explain adult
 behaviour unless it exists as a current motivating force

' -ognitive proces

processes
ses – one’s cons
conscious
cious plans and intent
intentions
ions – are also important'
6eliberate (ntentions/ersonality
(ntentions/ersonality +raits are an essential part of one’s personality'
hat one wants and what one strives for are the keys to understanding human
"ehaviour.

-' "nctional Atonomy o' Moti&es

  otives of normal, mature and emotionally healthy adults are independent of 

or not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially 

appeared
  0orces that motivated an individual early in life become autonomous or
independent of their original circumstance
circumstancess

i' Per&asi&e "nctional Atonomy 

  elementary level of functioning autonomy that is concerned with
such behaviours as addictions and repetitive physical actions such
as habitual ways of performing some everyday tas 
  the behaviours continue or persevere on their own without any 
external reward

ii' Pro,riate "nctional Atonomy 

 
 more important level of functioning autonomy that relates to
one’s values, self5image and lifestyle
 

 essential to the understanding of adult motivation

 the ego determines which motives will be maintained and which
 will be discarded
  an individual retains motives that enhance his self5image or self5
esteem; thus, a direct relationship exists between one’s interests
and one’s abilities

Pro,riate Moti&es
 aspects which are uni.ue to each person; hence, these unite one’s
attitudes, perceptions and intentions

Pro,riate "nctioning
 an organi!ing process that maintains one’s sense of self 
  determines how one perceives the world, what one remembers
from his experiences and how one’s thoughts
th oughts are directed

Three (>+ Princi,les$

a' Organi2ing an! energy le&el
 explains how one ac.uires new motives

 b' Mastery an! com,etence

 refers to the level at which one chooses to satisfy motives

c' Pro,riate ,atterning

  describes a striving for consistency and integration of the
personality 

Personality
Personality De&elo,ment$ The #ni4e Sel' 

 A' Stages o' De&elo,ment o' the Pro,im B"elf/9goC

a' )o!ily Sel'  become aware of their own existence and distinguish their
  the infants
own bodies from ob1ects in the environment
 b' Sel'/i!entity 
  children reali!e that their identity remains intact despite the many 
changes that are taing place

c' Sel'/esteem
  children come to recogni!e the ob1ects and people that are part of their
own world

d' Etension o' sel' 

  children come to recogni!e the ob1ects and people that are part of their

own world
 

e' Sel'/image
  children develop actual and ideali!ed images of themselves and their
 behaviour and become aware of satisfying or failing to satisfy parental
expectations

f' Sel' as a rational co,er

  children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday 
problems

g' Pro,riate Stri&ing

   young
young people begin to formulate long5range goals and plans
plans

' arent@child relationship is vitally important' 3f particular significance

significance is the
infant&mother "ond as a source of affection and security'

(f the mother or primary caregiver provides sufficient affection and security, the
propium will develop gradually and steadily, and the child will achieve positive
psychological growth' A pattern of personal dispositions will form and the result
 will be a mature, emotionally
emotionally healthy adult'

(f the childhood needs are frustrated, the propium will not mature properly' +he
result is a neurotic adult who functions at the level of childhood drives' Adult
motives do not become functionally autonomous but remain tied to their original
conditions' +raits and personality dispositions do not develop and t he personality 
remains undifferentiated, as it was in infancy'
i nfancy'

-' (n adul
adultho
thood,
od, nor
norma
mall and ma matur
turee adul
adults
ts are fun
functi
ctiona
onally
lly aut
autono
onomo
mous,
us,
independent of childhood motives' +hey function rationally in the present and
consciously create their own lifestyle' The sel' has -ecome the knower.

The Healthy A!lt Pe

Per
rsona
sonallity 

Si (?+ Criteria$

&' +he mature adult extends his sense o off self to people and to activities beyond
himself'
)' +he mature adult related warmly to other people, exhibiting intimacy,
compassion
compass ion and tolerance'
' +he mature adult’s self5ac
self5acceptance
ceptance helps him achieve emotional ssecurity'
ecurity'
7' +he mature adult holholds
ds a realistic percep
perception
tion of life, develops personal
personal sills
and maes a commitment to some type of wor'
8' +he mature adult has a sense of humor and self5ob1ectificat
self5ob1ectification'
ion'
' +he mature adult subscribes to a unifying philosophy of life, which is
responsiblee for directing the personality toward future goals'
responsibl
 

PARENT/CHI%D ATTACHMENT

ropium  propriate motives  propriate functioning/striving  propriate patterning

Bhealthy personalityC

PHENOMENO%O*ICA% THEORIES O" PERSONA%ITY 

PHENOMENO%O*ICA%
  0ocus on the individual’s immediate and sub1ective experiences, his personal
 view of the world and of himself
himself and his private concep
concepts
ts

(' Person/Cente
on/Centere! Theory – Carl R
Rog
ogers

“The organism has one "asic tendency and striving – to actuali'e, maintain and 
enhance the experiencing organism.” 

Dynamics$ organisms valuing process  evaluate life experiences B$/5C

De&elo,mental
De&elo,mental *oal$ self5actuali!ation

De&elo,mental Tas5$ fully functioning person

De&elo,mental
Rogers$
   Attention to the concept of
of the self and experiences related
related to the self 
  (llustrates a conscious focused effort to combine clinical intuition with
ob1ective research
   /umanistic psychologist0 emphasi!ed the importance of considering the
 whole person, and the special need to pay attention to sub1ective
experience, the self and purpose striving
   !xistentialist0 shared the focus upon present conscious, experiences but
especially those Demotionally tingedF experiences that he called
7'eelings@
  +heory – emphasi!es the uni.uely experienced reality of the person
  ehaviour is the result of immediate perceptual events as the individual
actually experiences them
   1ehaviour is "asically the goal&directed attempt of the organism to
satisfy its needs as experienced in the filed perceived 

The Actali2ation Ten!ency 

eople are motivated by an innate tendency to actuali!e, maintain and enhance

the self'

+he governing process throughout the life span is the organismic &aling
,rocess'' +hrough this proces
,rocess process,
s, we evaluate all llife
ife experiences by how they serve the
actuali!ation tendency'
 

Positi&e <ale
  9xperiences that we perceive as promoting actuali!ation are evaluated as good
and desirable

Negati&e <ale
  9xperiences perceived as hindering actuali!ation are undesirable

The De&elo,ment o' the Sel' in Chil!hoo!

+he separate part of the experiences as defined by the words – *,

– *, me and myself –
is the sel' or sel'/conce,t.

a' Positi&e Regar!

  Acceptanc
 Acceptance,
e, love and approval from others

 b' Positi&e Sel'/regar!

  "elf5esteem, self5worth, a positive self5image

c' #ncon!itional Positi&e Regar!

  Approval granted
granted regardless of a person’s be
behaviour
haviour

d' Con!itions o' :orth

  A belief that we are worthy of approval only when we express desirable
 behaviours and attitudes and refrain from expressing those that bring
disapproval from others

e' Con!itional Positi&e Regar!

  Approval, love or acceptance only when a person expresses desirable
 behaviours and attitudes

f' Con!itional
Con!itional Positi&e
Positi&e Sel'/regar!
  iing oneself only if one meets the standards others have applied to us,

rather than if one is truly

tru ly actuali!ing his/her potentials
g' Incongrence
  A discrepanc
discrepancyy between a person’s self5concept and aspects of his or her
experience

De'enses
  Ksed to psychologically avoid the situation where there is incongruity between
the ideal and the real self which results to the feeling anxiety 

 Aniety 
  A signal indicating that there is trouble ahead and that the situation
situ ation should be
avoided
 

a' Denial
  loc out the threatening situation altogether
  (ncludes re,ression – eeping a memory or an impulse out of awareness
 which are being refused to be perceived
perceived

 b' Perce,tal Distorti

Distortion on
  2einterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening
  Accepting life’s realities
realities

Sel'/actali2ation Process
Process

Characteristics
Characteristics o' "lly "nctioning Person

&' O,enness to E,erience

  4ot only aware of all experiences but has accurate perception of his/her
experiences in the world, including his/her feelings
 

  +here is acceptance of reality and of his/her feelings

  +he person is open to positive feelings and to negative feelings

)' Eistential %i&ing

  0reshness of appreciation for all experiences / all experiences are potentially 
fresh and new 
  +he person lives in here5and5now 
  9xperiences cannot be predicted or anticipated, but are participated fully 
  9ach moment allows the self to emerge, possibly changed by the new 
experience wherein the self becomes experiences as a fluid 
a fluid 

' Organismic Trsting

  +here is trust in one’s own behaviour and feelings
  (nner experience is used at each moment to guide
gu ide behaviour
  +rust own reactions rather than "eing guided "y the opinions of others, "y a
social code or "y their intellectual )udgments

7' E,eriential "ree!om

  0reedom of choice, without inhibitions but taes responsibility for his/her

choicesof power – they do not feel compelled, wither by themselves or by 

  "ense
others, to behave in only one way 

8' Creati&ity an! S,ontaneity 

  -reative and live constructively and adaptively as environmental conditions
change
  0lexible and see new experiences and challenges which includes
participating in the world and as one self5actuali!es, one also feels obliged to
contribute to the actuali!ation of others, or of even life itself 

' Continal nee! to gro3= to stri&e= to maimi2e one;s ,otential

  -ontinually testing, growing, striving and using all of one’s potential, a way of 

life that brings complexity and challenge

((' Search 'or Meaning – <i5tor "r

"ra
an5l

“ithout suffering and death, human life cannot "e complete.” 

"ran5l$
  #uman motivation arise from the  3ill to meaning – for his life and to
transcend himself – to go beyond the limitations of and concern of himself 
   A will to meaning iis s not only e.ual but also ultimately more fundamental than
the theories of 0reud and Adler; this is on the observation that man can live or
die for his ideals or that man can be heroic
  +he person himself does not invent the meaning of existence, rather, he discovers
it and it is Dout thereF in some sense
 

The Meaning o' %i'e

ife is unconditionally meaningful in every person’s life; there are uni.ue

situations in which he/she has a uni.ue person can find a uni.ue meaning' (t is up to
the person to find the meaning that each situation holds for him/her' Conscience is
the gi!e.

Conscience
  Kncons
Knconscious
cious spirituality 
  +he core of the human being and the source of personal integrity 
  (ntuitive and highly personali!ed
  A real person in a real situation and cannot be reduced to simple Duniversal
lawsF

The E,erience o' "in!ing the Meaning o' %i'e

&' E,eriential
E,eriential <ales
  y experiencing someone or something that is valued
 
ost important: the lo&e to3ar!s another
"ran5l$
  ove is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire'

Through love, the loving person may make the "eloved aware of his
 potentials and ena"le him to
to make these come true.

)' Creati&e <ales

  y doing a deed
  y becoming involved in one’s pro1ects or better, in the pro1ects of one’s own
life
  (ncludes the creativity involved in art, music, writing, invention and so on

'  Attit!inal <ales

<ales
  (ncludes virtues such as compassion, bravery, a good sense of humor
hu mor
  Achieving meaning
meaning by way of suffering

Transcen!ence – developmental goal

  A'E'A' s,ra/meaning
  +he idea that there is in fact an ultimate meaning in life – meaning that is not
dependent on others, on pro1ects or even on dignity 
  A reference to <od and spiritual meaning
meaning

Sel'/transcen!ence
  #uman existence is always directed to something or someone, other than

itself 
 

The E,erience o' "rstration o' the :ill to Meaning

 A' Noogenic Nerosis 1 S,irital or Eistential Nerosis 1 S,irital

Distress
  eople of today’s world are suffering from a frustration of their will to
meaning

Eistential <acm
Eistential
  A sense of futility, purposelessne
purposelessness, ss, aimlessnes
aimlessness,
s, emptiness of life and
meaninglessness
meaninglessness in life, in spite of success
  -ommon sign: "oredom

' Sn!ay Nerosis

  A prevalence of existential
existential vacuum is seen
  A person ddoes
oes not seem to want to do anything when he/she finally has the
time to do what he/she wants
  2eflected in the plight of the aged and retired people, in 1uvenile delin.uency,
in alcoholism and suicide

Nerotic
   "uch as<icios Cycle
obsession with germs and cleanliness or fear5driven obsession with a
phobic ob1ect
  Ihatever we do, it is never enough

-'  Antici,atory
 Antici,atory Aniety 
  Ihere neurotic vicious cycle
cycle are founded
  -auses the very thing that is feared

Hy,erintention
  A matter of trying too hard, which itself prevents the person fro, succeeding
at something

Hy,erre'lection
  atter of thinking too hard

6' Mass Nerotic Tria!

  6epression
6epression,, addiction a
and
nd aggression

(((' Hmanistic Theory – A-raha

ham
mMMas
asllo3 

“hat humans can "e, they must "e. They must "e true to their own nature.” 

Maslo3$
  9very person there is an active will toward health, an impulse toward

growth or toward the actuali!ation of human personalities

 

  (n every self5actuali!ing personality, there is a hierarchy of need priorities

 wherein on person must successfully achieve the first degree in order to go
on the second degree
  +he man is more intended in need gratification than in need of frustration
  an is essentially and innately good
  +he badness in man’s behaviour comes out of a bad environment rather
than an inherent rottenness

Personality De&elo,ment$ The Hierarchy of  N ee

eed s

+hese needs are called instinctoi!

instinctoi! which
 which he meant that they have a hereditary 
component' #owever,
#owever, these needs can be affected or overridden by learning, social
expectations and fear of disapproval'

sychosocial

4eeds

hysical 4eeds

a' The Physiological Nee!s

  (nclude the needs for oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar and other minerals
and vitamins
  (nclude the need to maintain p# balance and temperature
  +he needs to sleep, rest, get rid of wastes, avoid pain and have sex

 b' The Sa'ety an! Secrity Nee!s

  +he needs in finding safe circumstances, stability, protection, structure, order
and some limits

c' The %o&e an! )elonging Nee!s

  (nclude the needs for friends, sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships
in general and even a sense of community 

d' 
The Esteem
  +wo Nee!s
versions:
 

i' %o3er "orm

 the need for respects of others
  the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, reputation, appreciation,
dignity, dominance

ii' Higher "orm

 the need for self5respect
 feelings of confidence, competence, achievement, mastery,
independence and freedom

e' The Sel'/Actali2ation Nee

Nee!
!

i' Cogniti&e Nee!s

 the innate needs to now and to understand

ii'  Aesthetic
 Aesthetic Nee!s
 the needs for aesthetically pleasing experiences and beautiful
surroundings
  the continuous desire to fulfil potentials, to Dbe all that you can beF, to

 become the most

most complete and the fullest DyouF
Characteristics
Characteristics o' the Nee!s

ater in lif e'
 A' #igher needs appear llater e'
hysiological and safety needs arise in infancy'
elongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence'
+he need for self5actuali!ation arises in midlife'

' 0ailure to sat

satisfy
isfy a higher need d
does
oes not produce a ccrisis'
risis'
0ailure to satisfy a lower need does produce a crisis'

Maslo3$
 
 -alled the lower needs – !e'icit or !e'iciency nee!s;
these produces a deficit or lac in the individual nee!s; failure to satisfy 
  -alled the higher needs – gro3th or -eing nee!s although these are
less necessary for survival, these contribute to survival and growth –
satisfaction of the higher needs leads to improve health and permanency 

Note$  A need does not need to have be satisfied fully before the next need in
hierarchy becomes important'

The St!y o' Sel'/Actali2ers

Metamoti&ation 1 )/moti&ation 1 )eing/moti&ation

  A motivation for self5actuali!ers
self5actuali!ers
  (nvolves the maximi!ing personal potential rather than striving for a
particular ob1ect
 

Metanee!s
  +he states of growth or being – such as goodness, uni.ueness and perfection
–toward which self5actuali!ers ev olve
olve

Meta,athology 
  0ailure to satisfy metaneeds
  +hwarts the full development of the personality 

D/moti&ation 1 De'iciency Moti&ation

D/moti&ation
  otivation of people who are not self5actuali!ers
self 5actuali!ers
  (nvolves the striing for something specific to mae up for something that is
lacing within

Characteristics
Characteristics o' Sel'/Actali2ers

a'  An e''icient ,erce,tion o' realit

reality 
y 
  +hey perceive their world, including other people, clearly and ob1ectively,
unbiased by pre1udgments or preconceptions

 b'  An acce,tance

  Accept o' themsel&es=
their own tand
hemsel&es= others and
others’ strengths
others’ an!weane
n
natre
atre
weanesses
sses
  +hey do not try to distort or falsify their self5image and they do not feel guilty 
about their failures

c'  A s,ontaneity=
s,ontaneity= sim,licit
sim,licityy an! natralness
  ehaviour is open, direct and natural
  0eel secure enough to be themselves without being overly assertive

d'  A 'ocs on ,ro-lems

,ro-lems otsi!e themsel&e
themsel&ess
  #ave a sense of mission, a commitment,
c ommitment, to which they devote their energy 

e'  A sense o' !etachment an! the nee

nee!
! 'or ,ri&acy 
  9xperience isolation without harmful effects and seem to need solitude more
than persons who are not self5actuali!ers

f'  A 'reshness o' a,,reciatio

a,,reciation n
  #ave the ability to perceive and experience their environment with freshness,
 wonder and awe
  Appreciate what
what they have and tae littl
littlee for granted

g' Mystical an! ,ea5 e,eriences

  Enow moments of intense ecstasy that can occur with virtually any activity 
  6uring these experiences, the self is transcended and the person feels
supremely powerful, confident and decisive

h' Social Interest

  #ave sympathy and empathy for all humanity 
 

  0eel a inship with and an understanding of others as well as a desire to help

them

i' Pro'on! inter,ersonal relations

  -ircle of friends is not large but have a deep, lasting friendships

 1'  A !emocratic character strctre

  Kncond
Knconditional
itional acceptance
  +olerant and accepting of the personality and behaviour of others
  Iilling to listen to and learn from anyone capable of teaching them and are
rarely condescen
condescending
ding

' Creati&eness
  #ighly creative and exhibit inventiveness and originality in their wor and
other facets of life
  0lexible, spontaneous and willing to mae mistaes and learn from them

l' Resistance to encltration

  Autonomous, independent
independent and self5sufficient
 
6o not openly
governed rebel
by their own against cultural
nature rather norms
than or socialofcodes,
the structures society but they are

6onah Com,le
  0ailure to become self5actuali!er
  3ne’s doubts about his own abilities
  +here is a fear that maximi!ing one’s potential that will lead to a situation
 with which one will
will be unable to cope

CO*NITI<E APPROACH TO PERSONA%ITY 

  0ocuses on the ways in which people come to now their environment and
themselves, how they perceive, evaluate, learn, thin, mae decisions and
solve problems
  0ocuses exclusively on conscious mental activities because
activities  because it believes that all
aspects of personality, including its emotional components, are under the
control of cognitive processes

(' Cogniti&e Theory o' Personality – *eorge 9ell y 

“*t occurred to me that what seemed true of myself was pro"a"ly no less true of 
others. *t * initiated my actions, so did they.” 

9elly$
  9ach person creates a set of cognitive constructs about the environment which
involves interpreting and organi!ing events and social relationships into a system
or pattern
 

  3n the basis of the pattern, the person maes predictions about one’s self and
about other people and events, then these predictions are used to formulate one’s
responses and guide one’s actions
  odel of human nature reflects that people function in the same way scientists
do – lie scientists, a person constructs theories or personal constructs, by which
he tries to predict and control the events in his life
  -onstructs can become nown only through behaviour which means that to study 
an individual’s constructs, one has to find behavioural examples or referents for
them

Personal Constrct Theo

Theory 
ry 

Constrct System
  A uni.ue pattern created by an individual wherein
wherein his personal interpretation,
interpretation,
explanation and in construing his experiences represent his uni.ue view of 
events within which he places his experiences
e xperiences

Constrct
  An intellectual hypothesis
hypothesis devised to explain and interpret events
events
 
asis of behaviour
  Anticipatory – usedwhich later on
to predict theevaluates
future sothe effects
that an individual has some idea
of the conse.uences of his actions or of what is liely to occur if he behaves in
a certain way 

Constrcti&e Alternati&ism
  An individual is free to revise or replace his constructs with alternatives as
needed
  9nables a person to cope with new situations

 Antici,ating
 Antici,ating %i'e E&ent
E&ents
s

&' "n!amental Postlates

 
  An individual’s psychological processes are directed by the ways in which he
anticipates events

rocesses   individual’s feelings, thoughts, experiences and behaviours

 which are determined by the individual’s efforts to anticipate the world, other
people and himself 

)' Ele&en Corollaries 1 Characteristi

Characteristics
cs o' Constrcts

a' Constrction
  because
 because of repeated events, aan
n individual can predict or anticipate how h
hee
 will experience
experience such event in the future

 b' In!i&i!ality 
 people perceives events in different ways
 

c' Organi2ation
  an individual arranges his constructs in patterns, according to his view of 
his constructs’ similarities and differences
diff erences

d' Dichotomy 
 constructs are bipolar

e' Choice
  an individual chooses the alternative for each construct that wors best for
him, the one that allows him to predict the outcome of anticipated events

f' Range
 an individual’s constructs may apply to many situations or people, or these
may be limited to a single person or situation

g' E,erience
  an individual continually tests his constructs against life’s experiences to
mae sure these remain useful

h' Mo!lation
 an individual may modify his constructs as a function of new experiences

i' "ragmentation
"ragmentation 1 Discrimination
 an individual may sometimes have contradictory or inconsistent
subordinate constructs within his overall construct system

 1' Commonality 
  although people’s individual constructs are uni.ue to them, people in
compatible groups or cultures may hold similar constructs

' Sociality 
  in individual tries to understand how other people thin and also predicts

 what they will do and he modifies

modifies his behaviour accordingly 

interpret
0undamental ostulate L M -34"+2K-+" ehaviour

predict

 Anticipates 9vents -ause L 9ffect