Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Structural properties of extruded corn starch

S. Thymi, M.K. Krokida, A. Pappa, Z.B. Maroulis *

Department of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece

Received 4 April 2004; accepted 7 July 2004

Abstract

Structural properties, such as apparent density, true density, expansion ratio and porosity, of extruded corn grits were measured.
Corn grits were extrusion-cooked in a Prism extruder with varied feed rate (1.16–6.44 kg/h), screw speed (150–250 rpm), product
temperature (100–260
C) and feed moisture content (12–25 kg/100 kg wet basis). A simple mathematical model was used to correlate
the examined properties with the extrusion conditions. Extruded product apparent density, porosity and expansion ratio were found
to be dependent on feed moisture content, residence time and temperature while they were not affected by screw speed. More spe-
cifically, the apparent density of extruded products had an increasing trend with feed moisture content and residence time, while it
decreased with product temperature. Porosity and expansion ratio of extruded products decreased significantly with feed moisture
content and residence time, while temperature rise resulted in products of higher porosity and expansion ratio.
 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Apparent density; True density; Expansion ratio; Porosity

1. Introduction istics, such as extruder type, screw configuration, feed

Extrusion cooking, as an attractive process for con-
tinuous food processing, has been developed extensively
in recent years. High temperature–short time extrusion
cooking is used in the food industry to produce direct
expanded products such as snack foods, breakfast cere-
als and pet foods (Miller, 1990; Moore, 1994; Rahman,
1995; Rokey, 1994). The thermal energy generated by
viscous dissipation during extrusion, combined with
the shearing effect, cooks quickly the raw mixture so
that the properties of the materials are modified by
physico-chemical changes of the biopolymers. Residence
time, temperature, pressure, and shear history character-
ize the extrusion cooking of food materials (Meuser &
Van Lengerich, 1992). Product quality can vary consid-
erably, depending on the extrusion processing character-
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +30 210 7723155.
E-mail addresses: mkrok@chemeng.ntua.gr (M.K. Krokida),
maroulis@chemeng.ntua.gr (Z.B. Maroulis).
moisture, and temperature profile in the barrel sections,
screw speed and feed rate. The influence of extrusion
processing variables on the product quality of starch-
based materials has been studied extensively (Barres,
Vergnes, Tayeb, & Della Valle, 1990; Bhattacharya &
Hanna, 1987; Kirby, Ollet, Parker, & Smith, 1988;
Mason & Hoseney, 1986).
The degree of expansion determines the extrudate
structure and consequently its texture. Several studies
have investigated the role of extrusion variables in the
expansion of starch based materials (Chinnaswamy
& Hanna, 1988; Falcone & Philips, 1988; Fletcher,
Richmond, & Smith, 1985; Kim & Maga, 1987; Vain-
ionpaa, 1991). Extrudate expansion has been reported
to be the most dependent on material moisture content
and extrusion temperature. Several theoretical consider-
ations for extrudate expansion have been published
(Alvarez-Martinez, Kondury, & Harper, 1988; Ilo,
Tomschik, Berghofer, & Mundigler, 1996; Kokini,
Chang, & Lai, 1992; Kumagai & Yano, 1993;

0260-8774/$ - see front matter  2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.07.002
520 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526
Nomenclature
E expansion ratio (–)
e porosity (–)
q density (kg/m3)
d diameter (m)
L length per gram of extrudate (m/kg)
m mass (kg)
N number of experimental points (–)
n constant (–)
p number of estimated parameters (–)
R screw speed (rpm)
S sum of squares (kg/m3)
T product temperature (
C)
t residence time (s)
V volume (m3)
Padmanabhan & Bhattachayrya, 1989). During extru-
sion cooking of biopolymers the viscoelastic material is
forced through a die so that the sudden pressure drop
causes part of the water to vaporize, giving an expanded
porous structure. The resulting extrudate expansion has
extrusion contributions from both elastic swell and bub-
ble growth effects (Padmanabhan & Bhattachayrya,
1989). A general model of extrudate expansion was
developed including the radial, longitudinal and volu-
metric expansion (Alvarez-Martinez et al., 1988).
Several studies have reported chemical changes dur-
ing extrusion cooking and related them to product func-
tional qualities such as expansion volume, water
solubility and product color. Most of these studies used
radial expansion as a measure of quality for extrudate
expansion. However, studies by Launay and Lisch
(1983) and Lai, Guetzlaff, and Hoseney (1989) showed
that extrudate expansion occurred in both the longitudi-
nal and lateral directions during extrusion cooking.
Chinnaswamy and Hanna (1990) noted that normal
corn starch produced the most desirable product. Few
studies have reported changes in structure of constitu-
ents and the chemical reactions that occur during extru-
sion (Chinnaswamy & Hanna, 1988; Mitchell & Areas,
1992). Addition of lipids at low levels benefits the
starch–protein extrusion process by preventing the for-
mation of insoluble materials (Ho & Izzo, 1992).
Goedeken (1991) investigated single screw extrusion
cooking of corn starch with selected proteins. Dairy pro-
teins showed good results, such as acceptable expansion,
but they also indicated a mixed effect on solubility,
expansion and shear strength depending on the tech-
nique used to isolate the protein.
Lacourse and Altieri (1989) extruded corn starches
with varying amounts of amylose content (0–700 g/kg)
and reported that when the amylose content of corn
X feed moisture content (kg/100 kg wet basis)
Subscripts
b apparent
d die
0 reference
p true
r screw speed
s dry solids
t residence time
T temperature
tot total
X feed moisture content
1 constant
starch is at least 450 g/kg a low density biodegradable
packaging material can be produced. The advantages
of agricultural commodities based foams are their
degradability and the fact that they are derived from a
renewable resource. Furthermore, agricultural commod-
ities, such as starch and protein, can be expanded easily
using high temperature, short time extrusion cooking
processes, instead of chemical or physical blowing
agents.
Arambula-Villa, Gonzalez-Hernandez, and Ordo-
rica-Falomir (2001) studied the structural properties of
tortillas from extruded instant corn flour supplemented
with various types of corn lipids. Each type and concen-
tration of lipids was observed to have a different effect in
the quality of masas and tortillas.
The objective of this study was to examine the struc-
tural property changes of corn starch materials during
extrusion cooking as a function of process characteris-
tics and feed moisture content. A simple mathematical
model developed by Krokida and Maroulis (1997),
was used in order to reveal the significant parameters
that influence structural properties.
2. Mathematical modeling
A simple mathematical model has been proposed in
the literature to predict structural properties of materials
during drying as a function of moisture content
(Krokida & Maroulis, 1997). Extruded products are as-
sumed to have very low levels of moisture content after
extrusion process, even if initial materials have various
moisture contents, so their structural properties, namely
true density, apparent density and porosity, are similar
to the structural properties of dried materials at zero
moisture content. The proposed model is summarised
 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526 521

Table 1
Mathematical model
Properties
qb Apparent density (kg/m3)
qp True density (kg/m3)
e Porosity (–)
E Expansion ratio (–)
Properties equations
 nT  nt  nr  nX
ms T t R X
qb ¼ ¼ n1 (1)
V tot T0 t0 R0 X0
ms
qp ¼ (2)
Vs
q
e ¼ 1  b qffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (3)
qp 4m
d tot plqb
E¼ ¼ (4)
dd dd
Extrusion conditions affecting the structural properties
• Product temperature, T (
C)
• Rotation speed, R (rpm)
• Resident time, t (s)
• Feed moisture content, X (kg/100 kg wb)

in Table 1. Therefore, the true density of extruded prod- evaluated for all combinations of the remaining three
ucts (qp) is equal to the density of solid materials and it parameters. In this way, the parameter chosen to be
is assumed to be constant. In order to examine the influ- eliminated was the one whose elimination produced
ence of process characteristics on the apparent density the minimum sum of squares. Continuing the former
(qb), a power model was used, in which, nt, nT, nr and procedure, the minimum sum of squares was evaluated
nX are the exponents of residence time, temperature, for 3, 2 and 1 parameters, respectively. Obviously, the
screw speed and feed moisture content, respectively. It best value of minimum sum of squares is the one that in-
is expected that not all of these parameters will influence volves all parameters. However, comparing the values of
to the same degree the apparent density of extruded the sum of squares obtained by reducing the number of
products and this may be revealed through regression parameters, there must be an optimum that gives an
analysis. The porosity of extruded products (e) is a func- acceptable accuracy.
tion of the apparent density and true density. Moreover,
the expansion ratio (E) of the extruded products is cal-
culated as the extrudate diameter to die diameter ratio. 3. Materials and methods
The values of the required parameters can be deter-
mined by fitting the proposed model to the experimental 3.1. Sample preparation
data. This can be done by minimising the following
residual sum of squares: Yellow corn powder was used for sample prepara-
" #1=2 tion. Distilled water and sugar were blended with corn
X
N
2
in a mixer. The ingredients were mixed 24 h before
S¼ ðqb  qb Þ =ðN  pÞ ð1Þ extrusion so that the mixture had been homogenised
i¼1
before extrusion. After mixing, the samples were stored
where, qb and qb are the experimental and the predicted at 25
C in plastic bottles for 24 h in order to equili-
values of apparent density respectively, N is the number brate. The composition of the samples is shown in
of experimental points and p is the number of estimated Table 2.
parameters.
Table 2
Following a regression analysis procedure, all the
Composition (% wet basis) of the samples
four parameters (n1, nt, nT, nr, nX) can be determined
Sample Moisture content Corn (dry) Sugar
simultaneously. However, it is not likely that all of these
parameters affect the residual sum of squares (S) to the 1 13.2 76.8 10
2 13.6 76.4 10
same degree. In order to distinguish between the ones
3 14.5 75.5 10
that are necessary to accurately predict the shrinkage 4 15.5 74.5 10
properties, the following procedure was adopted: 5 17.8 72.2 10
Firstly, the minimum change in the sum of squares 6 18.6 71.4 10
was evaluated for all the four parameters. Secondly, 7 23.0 67.0 10
8 25.0 65.0 10
omitting one parameter at a time, the value of S was
522 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526
3.2. Extrusion cooking
A Prism Eurolab conical, counter-rotating twin screw
extruder, model KX-16HC was used. The general screw
geometry was: length 1 m, diameter 16 mm, maximum
rotation speed 500 rpm and die diameter 2 mm. The
material was fed into the extruder with a twin screw vol-
umetric feeder. The extruder had five temperature con-
trol zones. The pressure at the die during extrusion
was measured with a pressure transducer. All extrusion
variables were displaced on the control panel (barrel,
screw die and product temperature, screw speed). The
product temperature during extrusion was adjusted by
varying the temperature in the barrel screw and die.
The independent extrusion variables considered were
varied in the following ranges: feed moisture content
from 13.2 to 25 g/100 g (wet basis), product temperature
from 100 to 260
C, retaining time from 1 to 2.5 s, rota-
tion speed from 150 to 250 rpm. Steady state extrusion
conditions were reached after 20 min. The steady-state
samples were then collected, dried in air, and stored
for further structural property measurement.
4. Measurement of structural properties
4.1. Apparent density
The apparent density of extrudate products was
determined as the average value of two measurements,
using two different experimental methods reported in
the literature. In the first method, the apparent density
was calculated by measuring the actual dimensions of
the extrudates as suggested by Launay and Lisch
(1983). The diameter of the extrudates was measured
with a Vernier caliper and the length per unit weight
(g) of the samples was determined. The bulk density of
the extrudates was determined using the equation:
qb ¼ 4=pd 2 L
where d is the diameter (m) and L (m/kg) is the length
per kg of the extrudate.
In the second method, the bulk density is determined
by measuring the volume of the extrudates to an accu-
racy of 0.05 ml by immersing them in n-heptane and
by determining the volume displacement, using the
apparatus reported by (Zogzas, Maroulis, & Marinos-
Kouris, 1994). To determine the mass of dry solids, all
samples were dried to constant weight in a 5 mm Hg vac-
uum oven at 70
C for 48 h (Van Arsdel & Copley, 1963).
4.2. True density
The sample weight was measured using a Mettler
AE-160 electronic balance with an accuracy of 104 g.
The true volume was measured using a Quantacrome
stereopycnometer (model SPV-3) with an accuracy of
0.001 ml.
4.3. Porosity and expansion ratio
The porosity of the extrudates was determined from
the bulk and apparent volumes. The expansion ratio
was determined as the ratio of the diameters of the extr-
udate to the die.
5. Results and discussion
The regression analysis procedure showed that the
optimum number of parameters which produce a rea-
sonable minimum residual sum of squares is four. The
use of less parameters increases dramatically the mini-
mum sum of squares. These four parameters were found
to be n1, nt, nT, nX.
The results of fitting the proposed structural property
predictions into the experimental data are shown in
Figs. 1–3. The corresponding parameter estimates for
all materials are shown in Table 3. Generally, rotation
speed does not seem to affect significantly structural
properties of extrudate products. The true density of
the extrudate products is approximately constant. This
should be expected since particle density ranges between
the density of water and the dry solid density. Thus, for
the extruded products of very low moisture content, the
particle density reaches the value of the dry solid
density.
In Fig. 1(a), the apparent densities are presented as
functions of residence time for various moisture con-
tents and product temperatures, while in Fig. 1(b) the
apparent densities are presented as functions of temper-
ature and feed moisture content. Solid lines are used to
plot the calculated values of apparent density using the
mathematical model and the parameters of Table 3.
ð2Þ
The fitting of the proposed model to the experimental
data is considered satisfactory. The apparent density in-
creased slightly as the residence time increased for all the
temperature and moisture contents (Fig. 1).
An explanation for the observed changes in the
apparent density is that the increase of residence time
in a counter rotating twin screw extruder caused a deg-
radation of the amylopectin molecular structure of the
starch-based material and reduced the radial expansion,
resulting in higher density values.
An increased feed moisture content during extrusion
increased the apparent density values (Fig 1(b)), while a
temperature rise seems to have the opposite effect,
resulting in a significant decrease of the density. Increas-
ing the moisture content changes the amylopectin
molecular structure in the starch-based material
reducing the melt elasticity that decreased the radial
 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526 523

0.8 0.8
o Xo=14.5kg/100kg wb
T=200 C

25 kg/100kg wb

23 kg/100kg wb
0.6 0.6
Apparent density (kg/lt)

Apparent density (kg/lt)

18.5 kg/100kg wb

17.8kg/100kg wb

o
0.4 0.4 150 C
15.5 kg/100kg wb o
170 C
14.5 kg/100kg wb o
200 C
13.6 kg/100kg wb o
230 C
13.2 kg/100kg wb
o
260 C

0.2 0.2
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
(a) Residence Time (s) (b) Residence Time (s)

0.8 0.8

o
200 C

X=17.8 kg/100kg wb
o
100 C
o
0.6 170 C 0.6
Apparent density (kg/lt)

Apparent density (kg/lt)

o
150 C X=18.6 kg/100kg wb

X=15.5 kg/100kg wb

o
230 C
0.4 X=14.5 kg/100kg wb
0.4

X=13.6 kg/100kg wb
o
260 C

X=13.2 kg/100kg wb

0.2
0.2
10 15 20 25
0 100 200 300
(c) Feed Moisture Content (kg/kg wb) (d) o
Temperature C

Fig. 1. Apparent density of extrudate corn starch.

expansion ratio and increased the apparent density. A tents (Fig. 2(b)), showing the opposite effect than the
temperature increase leads to higher expansion ratio val- apparent density.
ues, resulting in lower apparent densities. Increased feed moisture content during extrusion de-
In Fig. 2(a), the porosity is presented as a function of creased the porosity values (Fig. 2(b)), while a tempera-
residence time for various moisture contents and prod- ture increase seems to have the opposite effect, resulting
uct temperatures, while in Fig. 2(b), the porosity is pre- in a significant porosity increase.
sented as a function of temperature and feed moisture The radial expansion ratio of extrudate products is
content. The porosity decreased slightly as the residence presented in Fig. 3 as a function of extrusion character-
time increased for all temperatures and moisture con- istics. The expansion ratio was found to depend mostly
524 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526

Fig. 2. Porosity of extrudate corn starch.

on feed moisture content, product temperature and res-
idence time. The radial expansion ratio of corn extruded
products ranged from 1.4 to 4.0. Feed moisture content
had a highly significant effect on the radial expansion
ratio. The radial expansion decreased with an increased
feed moisture content. Launay and Lisch (1983) sug-
gested that radial expansion was most dependent on
the melt elasticity. The stored energy was released in
the expansion process, increasing the radial expansion
ratio. An increased feed moisture content during extru-
sion would change the amylopectin molecular structure
of the starch-based material, reducing the melt elasticity
that decreases the radial expansion ratio. The increase of
residence time results in a degradation of amylopectin
networks in the material that changes the radial expan-
sion. The increase of melt temperature increased signif-
icantly the expansion ratio values for all the examined
feed moisture contents.
 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526 525

4 4
o Xo=14.5kg/100kg wb
T=200 C

o
260 C
o
230 C
o
o 200 C
3 3 170 C
o
150 C
Expansion ratio

Expansion ratio
13.6 kg/100 kg wb

14.5 kg/100 kg wb

2 2

18.5 kg/100 kg wb

1 1
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
(a) Residence Time (s) (b) Residence Time (s)
4
4

o
170 o X=13.2 kg 100 kg wb
260 C

X=14.5 kg/100kg wb

3 3
Expansion ratio
Expansion ratio

o
150 C
o X=17.8 kg/100kg wb
230 C
o
200 C X=18.6 kg/100kg wb

2 2

1 1
10 15 20 25 0 100 200 300
(c) Feed Moisture Content (kg/kg wb) (d) Temperature (oC)

Fig. 3. Expansion ratio of extrudate corn starch.

Table 3 6. Conclusions
Results of parameter estimation
qp 1500 (kg/m3) The effect of extrusion conditions (temperature, feed
n1 0.14 (–)
moisture content, residence time and rotation speed)
nT 0.40 (–) on the structural properties of extruded corn starch
nt 0.10 (–) was investigated.
nx 1.45 (–) The apparent density increased slightly as the resi-
S 0.15 (kg/m3) dence time increased for all temperature and moisture
526 S. Thymi et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 68 (2005) 519–526
contents, while the porosity and the expansion ratio of
extruded products decreased with the residence time.
Higher feed moisture contents decreased the radial
expansion ratio of the extrudates, resulting in a higher
apparent density and lower porosity values. The temper-
ature increase seems to have the opposite effect, resulting
in a significant density decrease and higher porosity.
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