climate

Article
Relationship between City Size, Coastal Land Use,
and Summer Daytime Air Temperature Rise with
Distance from Coast
Hideki Takebayashi 1, * , Takahiro Tanaka 2 , Masakazu Moriyama 1 , Hironori Watanabe 3 ,
Hiroshi Miyazaki 4 and Kosuke Kittaka 1
1 Department of Architecture, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan; moriyama@kobe-u.ac.jp (M.M.);
kittaka@bear.kobe-u.ac.jp (K.K.)
2 Department of Architecture, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan;
ttanaka@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
3 Department of Architecture, Tohoku Institute of Technology, Sendai 982-8577, Japan;
hwatanab@tohtech.ac.jp
4 Department of Architecture, Kansai University, Suita 564-8680, Japan; h_miyazk@kansai-u.ac.jp
* Correspondence: thideki@kobe-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-78-803-6062




Received: 18 September 2018; Accepted: 25 October 2018; Published: 27 October 2018


Abstract: The relationship between city size, coastal land use, and air temperature rise with distance
from coast during summer day is analyzed using the meso-scale weather research and forecasting
(WRF) model in five coastal cities in Japan with different sizes and coastal land use (Tokyo, Osaka,
Nagoya, Hiroshima, and Sendai) and inland cities in Germany (Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe). Air
temperature increased as distance from the coast increased, reached its maximum, and then decreased
slightly. In Nagoya and Sendai, the amount of urban land use in coastal areas is less than the other
three cities, where air temperature is a little lower. As a result, air temperature difference between
coastal and inland urban area is small and the curve of air temperature rise is smaller than those in
Tokyo and Osaka. In Sendai, air temperature in the inland urban area is the same as in the other
cities, but air temperature in the coastal urban area is a little lower than the other cities, due to an
approximate one degree lower sea surface temperature being influenced by the latitude. In three
German cities, the urban boundary layer may not develop sufficiently because the fetch distance is
not enough.

Keywords: distance from coast; air temperature; land use; city size; Japan; Germany

1. Introduction
Urban heat island intensity is defined by the air temperature difference between an urban area
and its surrounding suburbs. Oke [1] revealed that urban heat island intensity is proportional to
the logarithm of the population, based on observations in a number of cities in North America and
Europe. Fukuoka [2] and Park [3] both showed the same relationship in Japanese and Korean cities and
revealed that the slope of the relationship is steep for cities with more than 300,000 people. Sakakibara
and Kitahara [4] also showed a similar relationship for cities in Nagano Prefecture, Japan; however,
the change in slope, such as that found by Fukuoka [2] and Park [3], was not obtained.
In these studies, population was used to indicate the degree of urbanization. An increase in
population, for example, was associated with high-rise buildings and land use change, as well as
with an expansion of the urban area. More specific indicators—such as urban area, artificial land
coverage, and average building height—should be used to implement more effective heat island
countermeasures. The mesoscale weather research and forecasting (WRF) model (Skamarock et al. [5]),

Climate 2018, 6, 84; doi:10.3390/cli6040084 www.mdpi.com/journal/climate

Climate 2018, 6, 84 2 of 13

which is used generically worldwide, is effective for these studies (Iizuka et al. [6], Kusaka et al. [7]).
Moriyama et al. [8] have reported that air temperature is more influenced by the building coverage
rate than the building height. When the building coverage rate is small or the building height is low,
air temperature is low.
In this study, for the purpose of actual recognition of urban heat island phenomenon, as the target
five coastal cities in Japan with different sizes and coastal land use (Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima,
Sendai), we have analyzed the relationship between city size, coastal land use and air temperature rise
with distance from coast during summer day, while the other factors such as the climatic environment
depending on the surrounding topography, the shape of the coastline, and the location would be
considered. In the previous study, the authors confirmed that air temperature near ground surface
observed in the daytime during the summer days in Osaka city was explained by the distance from
the coast, rather than building volume ratio, artificial exhaust heat, natural coverage ratio, roughness
length (Takebayashi et al. [9]). Air temperature around the coast was about two degrees lower than
that at about 10 km inland. However, both measurement sites are urbanized to almost the same extent.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the air temperature distribution within the urban land use
rather than the air temperature distribution due to different land use. From this point of view, we do
not change the land use parameters for urban land use in both Japanese and German cities. Kusaka et
al. [10] have simulated numerically the effects of land-use alternation on the sea breeze and daytime
heat island in the Tokyo metropolitan area. By comparison between 1900 and 1985, they pointed out a
clearer definiton of the sea breeze front, two hours delay of the sea breeze arrival to the inland area and
the maximum temperature rise in the inland area. Yamaoto et al. [11] have investigated the relationship
between sea breeze penetration and anomalously high summer daytime temperatures in the inland
suburbs of Tokyo, with consideration of the relative position of sea breeze fronts, by using data from
the high-density temperature observation network (Extended-METROS). The high temperature in the
inland area was considered based on the penetration condition of the sea breeze. The original definition
of urban heat island intensity by Oke [1] is the annual maximum air temperature difference. However,
since the higher air temperature in the summer is noticed socially, which causes a deterioration of
the thermal environment in outdoor space and an increase of energy consumption, the higher air
temperature period of the summer was selected as the objective period in this study. It was targeted at
14:00, when the maximum temperature is likely to occur. Hardin et al. [12] have analyzed regional air
temperature variability and urban heat island magnitude by using a high-density network of urban
and rural weather stations. They pointed out the need for consideration of spatial distribution of air
temperature for the analysis of urban heat island intensity. The spatial distribution of air temperature
was treated as the object in this study. In addition, we have similarly analyzed inland cities (Berlin,
Essen, and Karlsruhe in Germany).

2. Outline of Calculation
We used mesoscale weather research and forecasting (WRF) model (version 3.0.1.1-ARW). For the
turbulence model (planetary boundary layer scheme), we used the Mellor–Yamada–Janjic model.
The Noah-LSM was used for the land surface model, and the urban canopy model was applied in
urban areas (Kusaka et al. [13]). The objective study areas are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The outer
square is domain 1 (3 km grid, 360 km square) and the inner filled square is domain 2 (1 km grid,
103 km square). The nesting technique was used in each region. The latitude of each city is as follows;
Tokyo: N35◦ , Osaka: N34◦ , Nagoya: N35◦ , Hiroshima: N34◦ , Sendai: N38◦ , Berlin: N52◦ , Essen: N51◦ ,
Karlsruhe: N49◦ . The calculation results of air temperature at 2 m high and wind velocity at 10 m high
in domain 2 were used for the analysis.
Calculation conditions are shown in Table 1. The period for which calculations were done was
from August 1 to 31, 2010 for Japanese cities, from July 23 to August 23, 2008 for German cities.
In Japanese cities, based on digital national land information (spatial resolution of 100 m) and a
normalized vegetation index (NVI) created from Landsat7 ETM+ data, urban areas were classified into
Climate 2018, 6, 84 3 of 13

three categories according to the previous study (Kitao et al. [14]), for using the urban canopy model
(Kusaka et al. [13]); Urban A: high-rise and high-density (mean building height: 10 m, gross building
ratio: 44 %), Urban B: middle-rise and moderate-density (mean building height: 7.5 m, gross building
ratio: 38 %), Urban C: low-rise and low-density (mean building height: 5 m, gross building ratio: 29
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW
%).
3 of 15
In German cities, they were classified
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW based on USGS data as shown in Table 1. 3 of 15

Figure1.1. Objective
Figure Objective study
study areas
areas in
in Tokyo,
Tokyo,Osaka,
Osaka,Nagoya,
Nagoya,Hiroshima,
Hiroshima,and
andSendai
Sendai(Domain
(Domain1:1: 33 km
km
Figure
grid, 1.
360 Objective
km square, study
Domainareas
2: 1in
kmTokyo,
grid, Osaka,
103 km Nagoya,
square).
grid, 360 km square, Domain 2: 1 km grid, 103 km square). Hiroshima, and Sendai (Domain 1: 3 km
grid, 360 km square, Domain 2: 1 km grid, 103 km square).

Figure 2. Objective study areas in Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe (Domain 1: 3 km grid, 360 km square,
Figure 2.2:Objective
Domain 1 km grid,study areas
103 km in Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe (Domain 1: 3 km grid, 360 km square,
square).
Figure 2.2:Objective
Domain study
1 km grid, areas
103 km in Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe (Domain 1: 3 km grid, 360 km square,
square).
Domain 2: 1 km grid, 103 Table 1. Calculation conditions for WRF model.
km square).
Calculation conditions are shown in Table For 1. The period
Japanese Cities for which calculationsFor German were done was
Cities
from Calculation toconditions
August 1 Period 31, 2010 for areJapanese
shown in Table
cities, 1. The
from
August Julyperiod
1–31, for which
23 to August
2010 23,calculations
2008 were
for German
July 23–August done
cities.was
23, 2008 In
from August Vertical
1 to grid
31, 2010 for Japanese cities, from 28 layers (surface
July 23 to August - 100 hPa)
Japanese cities, based on digital national land information (spatial 23, 2008 for of
resolution German
100 m)cities.
and Ina
Horizontal grid Domain 1: 3 km (120 x 120 grids), Domain 2: 1 km (103 x 103 grids)
Japanese cities,
normalized based index
vegetation on digital
(NVI)national
created land
from information
Landsat7
JMA: Meso-scale analysis ETM+ (spatial
data, resolution
urban areas of 100
were m) and
classifieda
normalized
into vegetation
three Meteorological
categories index (NVI)
according
data to thecreated
previous from
(3 hourly, 10 Landsat7
study 20 ETM+
(Kitao
km gird, data, for
et al. [14]),
layer) urban areas
using thewere
urbanclassified
canopy
into three categories according to A:
thehigh-rise
previous NCEP:
studyfinal(Kitao
analysiset
(6 al.
hourly, 1 degree
[14]), grid, 17
for using layer)
the urban
model (Kusaka et al. [13]); Urban and high-density (mean building height: 10 m,canopy
gross
Terrain height Digital map (50 x 50 m resolution)
model
building(Kusaka
ratio: 44
Geographical data
et al.
%), [13]);
Urban Urban
B: A: high-rise
middle-rise and and high-density
moderate-density
Digital national land information (mean United
building height:
states
height: 10
geological
7.5 gross
survey
m, gross
Land use (about 100 x 100 m resolution)
building ratio:
building ratio: 38 44 %), Urban B: middle-rise and moderate-density (mean building
C: low-rise and low-density (mean building height: 5 m, gross building
(about 100 x 100 m resolution) + NVI height: 7.5 m, gross
Microphysics process Purdue Lin et al. scheme
building
ratio: ratio:
29 %). 38 %), Urban
In German cities,C:they
low-rise and low-density
were classified based on (mean
USGS building
data as height:
shown in 5 m, gross
Table 1. building
Long wave RRTM long wave scheme
Radiation
ratio: 29 %).process
In GermanShortcities, they were classified based on USGS data as shown in Table 1.
wave Dudhia short wave scheme
Table 1. Calculation conditions
Planetary boundary layer process for WRF modelPBL scheme
Mellor–Yamada–Janjic
Urban area
Table 1. Calculation UCM
conditions for(urban canopy model)
WRF model
Surface process
Non-urban area For Japanese Cities Noah LSMFor German Cities
Cumulus parameterization
Period For Japanese
August 1–31, Cities
2010 None For
July German Cities
23–August 23, 2008
Four-dimensional data assimilation None
Period
Vertical grid August 1–31, 2010 July
28 layers (surface 23–August
- 100 hPa) 23, 2008
Vertical grid 28 layers
Domain 1: 3 km (120 x 120(surface - 100 hPa)
grids), Domain 2: 1 km (103 x 103
LandHorizontal grid and number of urban meshes in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and
use conditions Domain 1: 3 km (120 x 120 grids)
grids), Domain 2: 1 km (103 x 103
Horizontal
Sendai; and grid and Karlsruhe are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The numbers of urban land use
Berlin, Essen,
JMA: Meso-scale grids)
meshes are 3,698 in Tokyo; 1,271 in Osaka;
JMA: 1,416 in Nagoya; 364 in Hiroshima; 239 in Sendai; 460 in
Meso-scale
analysis
Meteorological data analysis
(3 hourly, 10 km gird, 20
Meteorological data (3 hourly,layer)
10 km gird, 20
NCEP:layer)
final analysis (6 hourly, 1 degree grid, 17 layer)
Geographical Terrain NCEP:
Digital mapfinal
(50 xanalysis
50 m (6 hourly,
United1states
degree grid, 17 layer)
geological survey
 Urban area UCM (urban canopy model)
Surface process Non-urban
Noah LSM
area
Cumulus parameterization None
Four-dimensional data
Climate 2018, 6, 84 assimilation None 4 of 13

Land use conditions and number of urban meshes in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and
Sendai; and Berlin,
Berlin; 637 in Essen; andEssen,
38 inand Karlsruhe Frequency
Karlsruhe. are shown inof Figures
urban3 andland4.use
The at
numbers of urban land
each distance point from
use meshes are 3,698 in Tokyo; 1,271 in Osaka; 1,416 in Nagoya; 364 in Hiroshima; 239 in Sendai; 460
the coast for Japanese cities is shown in Figure 5. Main wind direction is not specified for German
in Berlin; 637 in Essen; and 38 in Karlsruhe. Frequency of urban land use at each distance point from
cities where the natural land use is located around the city. Frequency of urban land use in Japanese
the coast for Japanese cities is shown in Figure 5. Main wind direction is not specified for German
cities is cities
larger in the
where thecoastal area use
natural land andis decreases gradually
located around the city.in the inland
Frequency area.land
of urban In Tokyo, the number of
use in Japanese
urban land use meshes is very large in comparison with other cities all over the inland
cities is larger in the coastal area and decreases gradually in the inland area. In Tokyo, the number offrom the coast.
urban land use meshes is very large in comparison with other cities all over the
The number of urban land use meshes along the coastal area in Nagoya and Sendai is slightly smallerinland from the coast.
compared Thetonumber
thoseofforurban land Osaka,
Tokyo, use meshes
andalong the coastal area in Nagoya and Sendai is slightly smaller
Hiroshima.
compared to those for Tokyo, Osaka, and Hiroshima.

(a) Tokyo (3698） (b) Osaka (1271） (c) Nagoya (1416）

Dry farm land
Wet farm land
Grass
Mixture trees
Water
Wasteland
Urban C
Urban B
(d) Hiroshima (364) (e) Sendai (239） Urban A
Figure 3. Land use conditions and number of urban meshes in (a) Tokyo, (b) Osaka, (c) Nagoya,
Figure 3.and
(d) Hiroshima, Land(e)use conditions
Sendai (1 kmand number
grid, of square).
103 km urban meshes in (a)Tokyo, (b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya,
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
(d)Hiroshima, and (e)Sendai (1 km grid, 103 km square).

(a) Berlin (460) (b) Essen (637)

Urban
Dry cultivated land
Irrigated cultivated land
Mixed cultivated and grassland
Mixed cultivated and forest
Grassland
Deciduous broad-leaved forest
Evergreen coniferous forest
Water
(c) Karlsruhe (38)
Figure 4. Land use conditions and number of urban meshes in (a) Berlin, (b) Essen, and (c) Karlsruhe
Figure 4. Land use conditions and number of urban meshes in (a)Berlin, (b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe
(1 km grid, 103 km square).
(1 km grid, 103 km square).
 Evergreen coniferous forest
Water
(c) Karlsruhe (38)

ClimateFigure
2018, 6, 4.
84Land use conditions and number of urban meshes in (a)Berlin, (b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe
5 of 13
(1 km grid, 103 km square).

Figure 5. Frequency of urban land use at each distance point from the coast.
Figure 5. Frequency of urban land use at each distance point from the coast.
3. Calculation Accuracy
3. Calculation Accuracy
Fine days conditions were selected according to weather conditions as follows; weather: mostly
sunnyFine
anddays conditions
sunny, sunlight were selected
hours: according
more than 7.0tohours,
weather conditions
solar radiation:as follows; weather:
more than mostly
19 MJ/m 2,

precipitation: less than 0.5 mm. Sea breeze conditions only for Japanese cities were selected according to ,
sunny and sunny, sunlight hours: more than 7.0 hours, solar radiation: more than 19 MJ/m 2

precipitation:
weather less than
conditions 0.5 mm.wind
as follows; Sea breeze conditions
velocity: more than only
2.0for
m/s Japanese cities were
at observatory, windselected according
direction: main
to weather conditions as follows; wind velocity: more than 2.0 m/s at observatory,
wind direction at each observatory, duration time: more than six hours under the above conditions. wind direction:
main
The wind direction
calculated at each
values and observatory,
observed duration
values, which time: more than
are instantaneous valuessixevery
hours under
hour, the above
are compared
conditions. The calculated values and observed values, which are instantaneous
using observation station data in domain 2 of each city. Position of measurement sites are shown values every hour,
in
are compared using observation station data in domain 2 of each city. Position of measurement
Figures 6 and 7. Since the number of measurement sites was limited, observation data in land use other sites
are shown
than in Figures
the urban land use6 and
were7.also
Since thefor
used number of measurement
verification. sites was
The calculation limited,
accuracies ofobservation data
air temperature
in land use other than the urban land use were also used for verification. The
and wind velocity for various observatories at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and Sendai; and calculation accuracies
Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe are shown in Tables 2 and 3. For the five Japanese cities, calculation
accuracy is comparable to previous studies (Kitao et al., 2009 and Moriyama et al., 2014). The accuracy
of the nighttime air temperature calculation results is a little worse than during the daytime. The error
during the daytime was within 1 ◦ C, while it was over 2 ◦ C during the nighttime. Calculation results
during the day are used for analysis in the following. Most of measurement sites in Tokyo, Osaka, and
Nagoya areas are located within metropolitan areas, whereas most of measurement sites in Hiroshima
and Sendai areas are located outside metropolitan areas. At measurement sites outside metropolitan
areas, a bit of poor calculation precision of wind velocity is confirmed due to the local topography. It is
a similar problem for Karlsruhe with a narrow metropolitan area. However, we judged that it does
not significantly affect the study of air temperature distribution in the urban area. A comparison of
observed and calculated period average air temperatures at the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and
Sendai; and Berlin, Essen, and Karlsruhe observatories are shown in Figures 8 and 9. The difference
was a little large in Sendai, but it was not noticeable in Table 2. It was recognized that the difference
was large in Karlsruhe since the comparison could be carried out only in the land use other than urban,
while it was done in the urban land use in Berlin and Essen.
 metropolitan area. However, we judged that it does not significantly affect the study of air
temperature distribution in the urban area. A comparison of observed and calculated period average
temperature distribution in the urban area. A comparison of observed and calculated period average
air temperatures at the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and Sendai; and Berlin, Essen, and
air temperatures at the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and Sendai; and Berlin, Essen, and
Karlsruhe observatories are shown in Figures 8 and 9. The difference was a little large in Sendai, but
Karlsruhe observatories are shown in Figures 8 and 9. The difference was a little large in Sendai, but
it was not noticeable in Table 2. It was recognized that the difference was large in Karlsruhe since the
it was not noticeable in Table 2. It was recognized that the difference was large in Karlsruhe since the
comparison
Climatecomparison could be carried out only in the land use other than urban, while it was done in the urban6 of 13
2018, 6, 84 could be carried out only in the land use other than urban, while it was done in the urban
land use in Berlin and Essen.
land use in Berlin and Essen.

Saitama Tsukuba Toyonaka Hirakata Gifu Tajimi

Saitama Tsukuba Toyonaka Hirakata Gifu Tajimi
Kobe Aisai
Nerima Tokyo Kobe Osaka Aisai Nagoya
Nerima Tokyo Osaka
Yao
Yao Nagoya
Fuchu
Fuchu Chiba Sakai Toyota
Chiba Sakai Toyota
Tokai
Tokai

(a) Tokyo
Tokyo (b) Osaka
Osaka (c) Nagoya
(c) Nagoya
(a) (b)

Miiri Higashi Ishinomaki

Miiri Higashi Ishinomaki
Shiogama
Hiroshima hiroshima Shiogama
Hiroshima hiroshima Sendai
Kure Sendai
Kure Zao
Otake Zao
Otake
Watari
Watari
(d) Hiroshima
(d) Hiroshima (e) Sendai
(e) Sendai

Figure 6. Position
Figure of measurement
6. Position sites
of measurement in in
sites (a)(a)Tokyo,
Tokyo, (b) Osaka, (c)Nagoya,
(b)Osaka, (c) Nagoya, (d) Hiroshima,
(d)Hiroshima, and and
Figure(103
(e) Sendai 6. Position
km of measurement sites in (a)Tokyo, (b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya, (d)Hiroshima, and
square).
(e)Sendai (103 km square).
(e)Sendai (103 km square).

(a) Berlin (b) Essen (c) Karlsruhe

(a) Berlin (b) Essen (c) Karlsruhe
Figure 7. Position of measurement sites in (a) Berlin, (b) Essen, and (c) Karlsruhe (103 km square).

Table 2. Calculation accuracies of air temperature and wind velocity for Japanese cities.
Air Temperature Wind Velocity
Measurement site Bias (◦ C) RMSE (◦ C) Correlation Bias (m/s) RMSE (m/s) Correlation
Tokyo 0.50 0.72 0.92 −0.38 0.54 0.78
Nerima 0.72 0.79 0.92 1.74 1.85 0.63
Tokyo Fuchu 1.80 2.14 0.90 0.01 0.72 0.70
area Saitama 1.13 1.19 0.91 0.41 0.72 0.69
Tsukuba 0.82 0.88 0.94 0.73 0.95 0.74
Chiba −0.24 0.28 0.90 −0.97 1.03 0.78
Osaka 0.20 0.31 0.92 −0.13 0.43 0.67
Kobe 0.30 0.45 0.89 −1.14 1.19 0.59
Osaka Sakai 0.40 1.15 0.91 0.28 0.71 0.58
area Toyonaka 0.43 0.54 0.91 −0.18 0.52 0.62
Yao 0.92 0.98 0.92 −0.71 0.92 0.56
Hirakata 0.42 0.63 0.87 0.86 0.94 0.47
Nagoya 0.71 0.80 0.90 −0.46 0.56 0.64
Tokai 0.24 0.48 0.89 0.97 1.02 0.53
Nagoya Aisai −0.18 0.32 0.93 1.37 1.52 0.62
area Toyota 0.59 0.75 0.93 0.42 0.58 0.33
Gifu 0.97 1.01 0.90 −0.29 0.40 0.64
Tajimi 0.47 0.84 0.93 0.46 0.59 0.53
Climate 2018, 6, 84 7 of 13

Table 2. Cont.
Air Temperature Wind Velocity
Hiroshima 0.01 0.02 0.91 −0.56 0.77 0.56
Kure −0.05 0.06 0.93 0.04 0.55 0.59
Hiroshima
Otake 0.05 0.05 0.86 −0.70 0.74 0.41
area
Higashi hiroshima −0.08 0.08 0.94 −0.50 0.77 0.30
Miiri 0.03 0.03 0.89 −1.38 1.68 0.01
Sendai −0.03 0.04 0.90 −0.19 0.44 0.46
Watari −0.06 0.06 0.81 −0.36 0.62 0.31
Sendai
Shiogama 0.47 1.08 0.91 1.38 1.45 0.32
area
Zao −0.02 0.04 0.83 −0.82 0.90 0.12
Ishinomaki −0.05 0.06 0.83 −0.74 0.82 0.57

Table 3. Calculation accuracies of air temperature and wind velocity for German cities.
Air Temperature Wind Velocity
Measurement site Bias (◦ C) RMSE (◦ C) Correlation Bias (m/s) RMSE (m/s) Correlation
Alexanderplatz 0.11 0.61 0.93 - - -
Buch −0.30 0.58 0.93 - - -
Dahlem 1.44 1.84 0.94 - - -
Marzahn 0.47 0.73 0.93 - - -
Berlin Tegel 0.59 0.78 0.94 1.29 1.35 0.84
area Tempelhof 0.73 0.84 0.94 0.97 1.08 0.82
Neuruppin −0.15 1.27 0.90 2.08 2.14 0.79
Potsdam −0.74 1.88 0.91 0.86 0.90 0.74
Zehdenick −0.28 0.95 0.91 - - -
Heckelberg 0.02 0.94 0.91 - - -
Bochum −0.15 0.73 0.87 - - -
Borken in Westfalen −0.53 1.84 0.90 - - -
Essen-Bredeney 0.47 0.76 0.92 1.37 1.40 0.74
Toenisvorst −0.69 0.95 0.92 - - -
Essen Wuppertal-Buchenhofen 1.19 1.34 0.91 - - -
area Remscheid −0.56 0.82 0.90 - - -
Luedinghausen-Brochtrup −0.82 0.92 0.92 - - -
Duisburg-Baerl −1.00 1.32 0.91 - - -
Waltrop-Abdinghof −0.12 0.45 0.92 - - -
Gevelsberg-Oberbroeking −0.60 0.88 0.90 - - -
Bergzabern-Ba −1.63 1.70 0.91 - - -
Heidelberg −2.93 3.00 0.91 - - -
Kaiserslautern −0.99 1.15 0.93 - - -
Karlsruhe
Karlsruhe −1.60 1.73 0.92 −0.54 0.61 0.73
area
Pforzheim-Ispringen −0.13 0.72 0.92 0.46 0.66 0.61
Rheinau-Memprechtshofen −0.44 0.71 0.91 - - -
Neubulach-Oberhaugstett 0.12 0.94 0.91 - - -
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

40 40 40
38 38 38
Calculation Calculation Calculation
Air temperature [oC]
Air temperature [oC]

36 36
Air temperature [oC]

36
34 34 34
32 32 32
30 30 30
28 Observation 28 28
Observation Observation
26 26 26
24 24 24
22 22 22
20 20 20
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00
(a) Tokyo (b) Osaka (c) Nagoya
40 40
38 38
Observation
Air temperature [oC]
Air temperature [oC]

36 36
34 34 Calculation
32 32
30 30
28 28
26 Calculation 26
24 24 Observation
22 22
20 20
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00

(d) Hiroshima (e) Sendai

Figure 8. Comparison of observed and calculated period average air temperatures at the (a) Tokyo,
Figure 8. Comparison of observed and calculated period average air temperatures at the (a)Tokyo,
(b) Osaka, (c) Nagoya, (d) Hiroshima, and (e) Sendai observatories.
(b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya, (d)Hiroshima, and (e)Sendai observatories.

Calculation Observation
mperature (oC)

mperature (oC)
perature (oC)

Calculation

Observation
Calculation
Observation
 20 20
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00

(d) Hiroshima (e) Sendai

Figure 8. Comparison of observed and calculated period average air temperatures at the (a)Tokyo,
Climate 2018, 6, 84 8 of 13
(b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya, (d)Hiroshima, and (e)Sendai observatories.

Calculation Observation

Air temperature (oC)

Air temperature (oC)

Air temperature (oC)

Calculation

Observation
Calculation
Observation

Time (h)
Time (h) Time (h)

(a) Berlin in urban (b) Essen in urban (c) Karlsruhe in dry cultivated land

Figure 9.9. Comparison

Figure Comparison of of observed
observed and
and calculated
calculated period
period average
average air
airtemperatures
temperatures at
atthe
the(a) Berlin,
(a)Berlin,
(b) Essen, and (c) Karlsruhe observatories.
(b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe observatories.
4. Analysis on Air Temperature Distribution
4. Analysis on Air Temperature Distribution
Air temperature distribution at 2 m height in Japanese cities, at 2:00 p.m., 25 August 2010 is
Air temperature distribution at 2 m height in Japanese cities, at 2:00 p.m., 25 August 2010 is
shown in Figure 10. However, it is 7 August only in Sendai, due to weather condition. Air temperature
shown in Figure 10. However, it is 7 August only in Sendai, due to weather condition. Air
was lower in the coastal areas and higher in the inland areas. Number of higher air temperature
temperature was lower in the coastal areas and higher in the inland areas. Number of higher air
points in Tokyo was larger than those in the other cities, which are located mainly in the inland
temperature points in Tokyo was larger than those in the other cities, which are located mainly in the
areas. Air temperature distribution at 2 m height at 2:00 p.m., in 25 July for Berlin and Karlsruhe,
inland areas. Air temperature distribution at 2 m height at 2:00 p.m., in 25 July for Berlin and
in 24 July for Essen, 2008 is shown in Figure 11. The time when maximum air temperature occurred
Karlsruhe, in 24 July for Essen, 2008 is shown in Figure 11. The time when maximum air temperature
was selected from the hottest period in Japan and Germany, respectively, based on statistical analysis
occurred was selected from the hottest period in Japan and Germany, respectively, based on statistical
of meteorological data measured on meteorological observatory. Air temperature was lower in the
analysis of meteorological data measured on meteorological observatory. Air temperature was lower
boundary areas with the suburbs and higher in inner urban areas. Although we selected for cities with
in the boundary areas with the suburbs and higher in inner urban areas. Although we selected for
relatively large and small metropolitan areas, since the metropolitan areas in Berlin and Essen are half
cities with relatively large and small metropolitan areas, since the metropolitan areas in Berlin and
or less of those in Osaka and Nagoya, it is difficult to confirm the trend of air temperature distribution
Essen are half or less of those in Osaka and Nagoya, it is difficult to confirm the trend of air
in the urban area. It is especially difficult in Karlsruhe with a narrow metropolitan area. Relationship
temperature distribution in the urban area. It is especially difficult in Karlsruhe with a narrow
between distance from the coast and air temperature in Japanese cities at 2:00 p.m., 25 August 2010 is
metropolitan area. Relationship between distance from the coast and air temperature in Japanese
shown in Figure 12. In all five cities, as the distance from the coast increases, air temperature rises.
cities at 2:00 p.m., 25 August 2010 is shown in Figure 12. In all five cities, as the distance from the
The curve of air temperature rise varies in five cities. It is also different from day to day in a city. It is
coast increases, air temperature rises. The curve of air temperature rise varies in five cities. It is also
considered that the cause is the cloud amount during the night and the sea surface temperature during
different from day to day in a city. It is considered that the cause is the cloud amount during the night
the day. In the previous study [15], we analyzed the relationship between wind velocity, altitude, and
and the sea surface temperature during the day. In the previous study [15], we analyzed the
air temperature in the same way, but could not obtain higher correlation coefficients than those in
relationship between wind velocity, altitude, and air temperature in the same way, but could not
Figure 12. Since the objective area is distinguished in only urban A, B, C, we cannot see the correlation
obtain higher correlation coefficients than those in Figure 12. Since the objective area is distinguished
with land use condition. Relationship between distance from the windward boundary with the suburbs
and air temperature at 2:00 p.m., in 25 July for Berlin and Karlsruhe, in 24 July for Essen, 2008 is shown
in Figure 13. In all three cities, as the distance from the suburb increased, air temperature rose.
The relationship between distance from the coast and air temperature at 14:00 averaged in fine
weather conditions for Japanese cities is shown in Figure 14. Air temperature rise increases with
distance from coast and they are nearly the same in Tokyo and Osaka. The number of higher air
temperature points in Tokyo was larger than those in Osaka and Nagoya, which are located mainly in
the inland areas. The heat island intensities of Osaka and Tokyo were almost the same at the same
distance points from the coast regardless of different urban areas. There is no relationship between
city size and air temperature rise. City size is indicated by the distance from the coast to the inland
edge of each city as shown in Figure 14; Tokyo 60 km, Osaka and Nagoya 35–40 km, and Hiroshima
and Sendai 20 km. In Hiroshima, the urban area is spread along coastal line as in Tokyo and Osaka,
and the inland urban area is less than these cities, where air temperature is a little higher. As a result,
the curve of air temperature rise in Hiroshima is smaller than those in Tokyo and Osaka.
 Climate 2018,
Climate 2018, 6,
6, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of
10 of 15
15

in only
in only urban
urban A,
A, B,
B, C,
C, we
we cannot
cannot see
see the
the correlation
correlation with
with land
land use
use condition.
condition. Relationship
Relationship between
between
distance from the windward boundary with the suburbs and air temperature at 2:00
distance from the windward boundary with the suburbs and air temperature at 2:00 p.m., in 25p.m., in 25 July
July
Climatefor
2018, 6, 84 and Karlsruhe, in 24 July for Essen, 2008 is shown in Figure 13. In all three cities, as the9 of 13
Berlin
for Berlin and Karlsruhe, in 24 July for Essen, 2008 is shown in Figure 13. In all three cities, as the
distance from
distance from the
the suburb
suburb increased,
increased, air
air temperature
temperature rose.
rose.

10. Air
FigureFigure
Figure 10.temperature
10. Air distribution
Air temperature
temperature atat
distribution
distribution 2 22mm
at mheight in Japanese
height in
height Japanesecities
Japanese cities
cities (103
(103
(103 kmkm
km square).
square).
square). (a) Tokyo,
(a)Tokyo,
(a)Tokyo,
(b) Osaka, (c) Nagoya, (d) Hiroshima,
(b)Osaka, and (e)
(c)Nagoya, Sendai.
(d)Hiroshima, and (e) Sendai.
(b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya, (d)Hiroshima, and (e) Sendai.

Figure
Figure Figure 11.
11. Air11. Air temperature
temperature
temperature
Air distribution
distribution at
2 22mm
atat
distribution mheight
height in
height in German
in German cities
Germancities (103
cities kmkm
(103
(103 km square). (a)Berlin,
square).
square). (a) Berlin,
(a)Berlin,
(b)2018,
Essen, (b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe.
(b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe.
Climate 6, x and
FOR (c)
PEERKarlsruhe.
REVIEW 11 of 15

Figure 12.12.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweendistance
distance from the coast
from the coastand
andair
airtemperature
temperature
in in Japanese
Japanese cities.
cities.
(a) Tokyo, (b) Osaka,(a)Tokyo,
(c) Nagoya, (d) Hiroshima,
(b)Osaka, and(d)Hiroshima,
(c)Nagoya, (e) Sendai. and (e) Sendai.
 Figure
Climate 2018, 6, 84 12. Relationship between distance from the coast and air temperature in Japanese cities. 10 of 13
(a)Tokyo, (b)Osaka, (c)Nagoya, (d)Hiroshima, and (e) Sendai.

Figure 13.13.
Figure Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweendistance
distancefrom
from the suburb and
the suburb and air
airtemperature
temperatureininGerman
German cities.
cities.
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
(a) Berlin, (b) Essen, and (c) Karlsruhe.
(a)Berlin, (b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe.
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
The relationship between distance from the coast and air temperature at 14:00 averaged in fine
weather conditions for Japanese cities is shown in Figure 14. Air temperature rise increases with
distance from coast and they are nearly the same in Tokyo and Osaka. The number of higher air
temperature points in Tokyo was larger than those in Osaka and Nagoya, which are located mainly
in the inland areas. The heat island intensities of Osaka and Tokyo were almost the same at the same
distance points from the coast regardless of different urban areas. There is no relationship between
city size and air temperature rise. City size is indicated by the distance from the coast to the inland
edge of each city as shown in Figure 14; Tokyo 60 km, Osaka and Nagoya 35–40 km, and Hiroshima
and Sendai 20 km. In Hiroshima, the urban area is spread along coastal line as in Tokyo and Osaka,
and the inland urban area is less than these cities, where air temperature is a little higher. As a result,
the curve of air temperature rise in Hiroshima is smaller than those in Tokyo and Osaka.

Figure 14. Relationship

Figure between
14. Relationship distance
between distancefrom
fromthe
the coast andairair
coast and temperature
temperature at p.m.
at 2:00 2:00 averaged
p.m. averaged
in in
fine weather
fine weather condition
condition for Japanese
for Japanese cities.
cities.
Figure 14. Relationship between distance from the coast and air temperature at 2:00 p.m. averaged in
Frequencies
Frequencies
fine of air
weather oftemperature
air temperature
condition atatcities.
for Japanese 2:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m. on onAugust
August 25 and 7, 2010
25 and 7, are
2010shown
are in Figurein
shown 15.Figure
In 15.
these days, the cities indicated in the figure were fine and sea breeze condition. In Nagoya and Sendai,
In these days, the cities indicated in the figure were fine and sea breeze condition. In Nagoya and
the number of urban
Frequencies land
of air use in coastal
temperature areas
at 2:00 is less
p.m. than the25
on August other
and three
7, 2010cities, where air
are shown temperature
in Figure 15. In
Sendai, these
the number
is a little
days,lower.
of urban
As a indicated
the cities
land
result, air in
use in coastal
temperature
the figure were
areas
difference
is lesscoastal
between
fine and sea breeze
than the other
and inland
condition.
threeand
urban area
In Nagoya
cities,
is
where air
small
Sendai,
temperature
and is
the a little
curve oflower.
air As a
temperatureresult,riseair is temperature
smaller than difference
those in between
Tokyo and
the number of urban land use in coastal areas is less than the other three cities, where air temperature coastal
Osaka. In and
Sendai,inland
air urban
area is small
is and
temperature
a little the
incurve
lower. As of airair
theainland
result, temperature
urban area is the
temperature rise
same is smaller
difference in the than
as between other thoseandin
cities,
coastal butTokyo andarea
air temperature
inland urban Osaka.
isin In Sendai,
the
small
coastal
and the urban
curve area
of is
air a little lower
temperature than
rise the
is other
smaller cities,
than due to
those an
in approximately
Tokyo
air temperature in the inland urban area is the same as in the other cities, but air temperature in the and 1-degree
Osaka. In lower
Sendai, sea
air
surface area
temperature
coastal urban temperature
in
is athe influenced
inland
little lowerurban byarea
than thethe
islatitude.
the same
other As a result,
as
cities,in due the
to air
the other temperature
ancities, difference
but air temperature
approximately between
1-degree in the
lower sea
and inland
coastal urban area isurban
a littlearea is large
lower than and the curve
the other cities,ofdue
air to
temperature rise is larger
an approximately 1-degreethanlower
thosesea in
surface temperature influenced by the latitude. As a result, the air temperature difference between
Tokyo and
surface Osaka. Asinfluenced
temperature described above, coastal land
by the latitude. As ause has athe
result, large
airinfluence
temperatureon air temperature
difference betweenrise.
coastal and
coastal inland urban
and inland areaarea
urban is large
is largeandandthe the curve
curve of ofair
airtemperature
temperature rise rise is larger
is larger thaninthose in
than those
Tokyo and Osaka. As described above, coastal land use has a large influence
Tokyo and Osaka. As described above, coastal land use has a large influence on air temperature rise. on air temperature rise.

Figure 15. Frequencies of air temperature at 14:00 on August 25 (left) and 7 (right), 2010.

5. Discussion
Figure 15. Frequencies of air temperature at 14:00 on August 25 (left) and 7 (right), 2010.
Figure 15. Frequencies of air temperature at 14:00 on August 25 (left) and 7 (right), 2010.
Distance from boundary and air temperature rise in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Berlin, Essen, and
5. Discussion
Karlsruhe is shown in Figure 16. Air temperature rises in three German cities are almost the same as
that in Nagoya.
Distance Theboundary
from development of the
and air urban boundary
temperature layer isOsaka,
rise in Tokyo, expressed by following
Nagoya, equation
Berlin, Essen, and
(1), if the advection
Karlsruhe byFigure
is shown in the sea16.
breeze is dominant,rises
Air temperature as a in
function of the distance
three German from
cities are the boundary
almost the same asL
that in Nagoya. The development of the urban boundary layer is expressed by following equation
(1), if the advection by the sea breeze is dominant, as a function of the distance from the boundary L
Climate 2018, 6, 84 11 of 13

5. Discussion
Distance from boundary and air temperature rise in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Berlin, Essen, and
Karlsruhe is shown in Figure 16. Air temperature rises in three German cities are almost the same as
that in Nagoya. The development of the urban boundary layer is expressed by following equation
(1), if the advection by the sea breeze is dominant, as a function of the distance from the boundary L
(m). Air2018,
Climate temperature distribution
6, x FOR PEER REVIEW is affected by a wider range of pressure systems; however, since air15
13 of
temperature distribution only in the urban area is focused in this study, this equation is assumed.
(m). Air temperature distribution is affected s by a wider range of pressure systems; however, since air
+ k) HLαin this study, this equation is assumed.
temperature distribution only in the urban area2(is1 focused
∆T = (1)
C p ρU
2(1 + 𝑘)𝐻𝐿𝛼
∆𝑇 = √ (1)
𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝑈 heat flux from the ground surface (W/m2 ),
where k is the ratio of entrainment (0 to 1), H is the sensible
which is calculated reflecting the advection effect on upper air by the sea breeze, α is air temperature
where k is the ratio of entrainment (0 to 1), H is the sensible heat flux from the ground surface (W/m2),
gradient (K/m), Cp is the specific heat of air (=1000 J/(kgK)), ρ is air density (=1.2 kg/m3 ), and U is
which is calculated reflecting the advection effect on upper air by the sea breeze, α is air temperature
wind velocity (m/s). Assuming α = 0.006 (K/m), it becomes
gradient (K/m), Cp is the specific heat of air (=1000 J/(kgK)), ρ is air density (=1.2 kg/m3), and U is wind
√ √
velocity (m/s). Assuming α = 0.006∆T (K/m),
= (0.0032it becomes
∼ 0.0045) H/U L (2)
∆𝑇 = (0.0032~0.0045)√𝐻/𝑈 √𝐿 (2)
Assuming H = 150 (W/m2 ), U = 5 (m/s), it becomes
Assuming H = 150 (W/m2), U = 5 (m/s), it becomes √
∆T = (0.55 ∼ 0.78) x (3)
∆𝑇 = (0.55~0.78)√𝑥 (3)
wherex x(=(=1000
where 1000L)L)isisthe
thedistance
distancefrom
fromthetheboundary
boundary(km).(km).Air
Airtemperature
temperaturerises
risesininTokyo
TokyoandandOsaka
Osaka
are
arealmost
almostconsistent
consistent with Equation
with Equation (3).(3).
Approximate
Approximate curves of air
curves oftemperature rise of
air temperature each
rise of day
eachinday
finein
days
fine in German
days cities are
in German shown
cities in Figure
are shown 17. Although
in Figures the distance
17. Although from the
the distance inflow
from the boundary to the
inflow boundary
outflow points in
to the outflow urbaninarea
points differs
urban areaaccording to the wind
differs according direction,
to the they arethey
wind direction, almost
are 15 km in15Berlin
almost km in
and Essen,
Berlin andand 5 kmand
Essen, in Karlsruhe. In three German
5 km in Karlsruhe. In three cities,
German thecities,
urbantheboundary layer maylayer
urban boundary not develop
may not
sufficiently because the
develop sufficiently fetch distance
because the fetchisdistance
insufficient.
is insufficient.

Figure 16.Distance
Figure16. Distancefrom
fromboundary
boundaryand
andair
airtemperature
temperaturerise
riseininTokyo,
Tokyo,Osaka,
Osaka,Nagoya,
Nagoya,Berlin,
Berlin,Essen,
Essen,
and Karlsruhe.
and Karlsruhe.
Climate 2018, 6, 84 12 of 13
Climate 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 15

Air temperature rise (oC)

Wind direction
NE
NE
E
E
E
E
SE

Distance from suburb (km)

(a) Berlin

Air temperature rise (oC)

Air temperature rise (oC)

Wind direction
Wind direction
E
N E
N E
E S
SE S
SE S
SE S
S W
S W
W W
W

Distance from suburb (km) Distance from suburb (km)

(b) Essen (c) Karlsruhe

Figure 17. Approximate curves of air temperature rise of each day in fine days in German cities.
Figure 17. Approximate curves of air temperature rise of each day in fine days in German cities.
(a) Berlin, (b) Essen, and (c) Karlsruhe.
(a)Berlin, (b)Essen, and (c)Karlsruhe.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The relationship between city size, coastal land use, and air temperature rise with distance
from The
coastrelationship
during summer between daycity size, coastal
is analyzed land
using theuse, and air temperature
meso-scale weather research rise with and distance from
forecasting
coast during
(WRF) modelsummer day is cities
in five coastal analyzed usingwith
in Japan the meso-scale
different sizes weather research
and coastal landanduseforecasting
(Tokyo, Osaka,(WRF)
model inHiroshima,
Nagoya, five coastaland cities in Japan
Sendai). with different
In addition, sizes and
the similar coastal
analysis land use
is carried out(Tokyo,
for inlandOsaka,citiesNagoya,
(Berlin,
Hiroshima,
Essen, and Sendai).
and Karlsruhe In addition,
in Germany). Airthetemperature
similar analysis is carried
increased out for from
as distance inland thecities (Berlin,suburb
coast/the Essen,
and Karlsruhe
increased, reachedin its
Germany).
maximum,Air andtemperature
then decreased increased
slightly. asAirdistance
temperature fromincreases
the coast/the suburb
with distance
increased, reached its maximum, and then decreased slightly.
from coast and they are nearly the same in Tokyo and Osaka. The number of higher air temperature Air temperature increases with
distance from coast and they are nearly the same in Tokyo and
points in Tokyo was larger than those in Osaka and Nagoya, which are located mainly in the inland Osaka. The number of higher air
temperature
areas. The heat points
islandinintensities
Tokyo was of larger
Osaka than those were
and Tokyo in Osaka almostandtheNagoya,
same atwhich
the same are distance
located mainly
points
in the inland areas. The heat island intensities of Osaka and Tokyo
from the coast regardless of different urban areas. There is no relationship between city size andwere almost the same at the same
air
distance points from the coast regardless of different urban areas.
temperature rise. In Nagoya and Sendai, the number of urban land use in coastal areas is less than There is no relationship between
cityother
the size andthreeair temperature
cities, where airrise. In Nagoyais and
temperature Sendai,
a little lower.the Asnumber
a result,ofairurban land usedifference
temperature in coastal
areas is less than the other three cities, where air temperature is
between coastal and inland urban area is small and the curve of air temperature rise is smaller than a little lower. As a result, air
temperature
those in Tokyodifference
and Osaka. between
In Sendai, coastal and inlandinurban
air temperature area urban
the inland is smallareaand thesame
is the curve of the
as in air
temperature rise is smaller than those in Tokyo and Osaka. In Sendai, air temperature
other cities, but air temperature in the coastal urban area is a little lower than the other cities, due to an in the inland
urban area is the
approximately same as lower
one-degree in the seaother cities,temperature
surface but air temperature
influenced inbythethecoastal
latitude.urban area land
Coastal is a little
use
lower
has than the other
an influence on air cities, due torise.
temperature an approximately
In three German one-degree lower boundary
cities, the urban sea surface temperature
layer may not
influenced
develop by the latitude.
sufficiently becauseCoastal
the fetch land use hasisan
distance notinfluence
enough.on air temperature rise. In three German
cities,
Tothe urban boundary
summarize the above, layer maysuch
in cities not asdevelop
Tokyo sufficiently
and Osaka that becausehavethe fetch distance
sufficiently is not
large urban
enough.
areas, the urban boundary layer develops from the windward boundary, and it is possible to explain
To summarize
air temperature the above,
distribution in citiesto
according such
the as Tokyo from
distance and Osaka that have
the boundary. sufficiently
However, it islarge urban
difficult to
areas, the
confirm theurban boundaryoflayer
development develops
the urban from thelayer
boundary windward
in citiesboundary, and it isHiroshima,
such as Nagoya, possible to Sendai
explain
air temperature
and German cities distribution
where urban according
areas are to thenotdistance from the boundary.
well developed. However,init this
Analysis presented is difficult
study is to
confirm the development of the urban boundary layer in cities such
effective for cities with large metropolitan areas where air temperature distribution occurs within theas Nagoya, Hiroshima, Sendai
and German
urban land use. cities where
In that urban
case, it isareas
possible are to notdiscuss
well developed.
the thermal Analysis
mitigation presented
strategyinby this study is
assuming
effective for cities with large metropolitan areas where air temperature distribution occurs within the
urban land use. In that case, it is possible to discuss the thermal mitigation strategy by assuming air
Climate 2018, 6, 84 13 of 13

air temperature rise with the half power of the distance from the boundary as an index. At present,
discussions on adaptation measures to the extremely hot temperature influenced by heat waves are
drawing attention around the world. It is often directed to a high temperature during the daytime,
discussion on air temperature distribution influenced not only by land use, but advection would also
be effective for situations such as this study.

Author Contributions: H.T. supervised the entire study. T.T. analyzed mainly in Hiroshima city. M.M. analyzed
mainly in Tokyo and Nagoya cities. H.W. analyzed mainly in Sendai city. H.M. analyzed mainly in Osaka city.
K.K. analyzed mainly in German cities.
Funding: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant number 16H04464.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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