The National Grid

The purpose of the National Grid is to transmit electricity across the

country with as little loss as possible.

Generated by large power stations

20kV to 25kV
Stepped up at power station
400kV
Bulk transmission over long distances

275kV / 400kV
Distribution to towns and cities & industry

132kV
Distribution to towns & cities and industry

11kV / 33kV
Light industry and commercial
400V 3-phase
Domestic supply
230V (50Hz) EJC
 Drax Power Station

Output power: 4 Gigawatts

Output current: 19,000 Amperes
Output voltage: 23,500 Volts
Provides 7% of the country’s electricity requirements.

One of the 660 Megawatt

alternators in the turbine
room of the power station.

EJC
Magnetism

Soft Iron
Used in relays and transformers.

A relay is a device that contains a

solenoid (coil of wire) and is used to
activate a number of switches.

Steel, nickel & cobalt

Used to make permanent magnets
such as magnetic welding clamps.

Copper
Copper is not strongly magnetic.
Copper is used in electrical cables.

EJC
Capacitor voltage ratings
Working voltage
A capacitor can be damaged if the

10V + voltage applied to it is greater than the

working voltage.

If two capacitors have a working voltage

of 10V each then the overall voltage
rating is 20V.

10V +
Electrolytic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors must be
connected to a d.c supply and in the
correct polarity. If the capacitor is
connected in reverse polarity then it can
become damaged.

Capacitors in parallel
If two capacitors are connected in
10V parallel then the maximum
10V working voltage is the lowest
value.

If two 10V capacitors are

connected in parallel then the
working voltage is 10V.

EJC
 Capacitors in series

When all capacitance

values are the same
If three identical capacitors are
10uF connected in series then you can
easily calculate the total capacitance
by dividing the capacitance by the
number of capacitors in the circuit.

10uF
Example

If three 10uF capacitors are

connected in series:
10uF

10 ÷ 3 = 3.3 µF

EJC
 Capacitors in series

The standard method

100uF You can calculate the total
capacitance of any series circuit using
this formula:

200uF 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
300uF
You can use this formula for any
number of capacitors.

Example
If 100uF, 200uF and 300uF capacitors are connected in series:

1 1 1 1
= + + = 0.0183
𝐶𝑇 100 200 300
1
𝐶𝑇 = = 54.5µF
0.0183 EJC
 Capacitors in parallel

10uF 10uF 10uF

Just add them up!

If capacitors are connected in parallel then to calculate
the total capacitance you simply add the values up.

Example

If three 10uF capacitors are connected in parallel:

10 +10 +10 = 30uF

EJC
 Resistors in parallel

100Ω 100Ω 100Ω

When all resistance values are the

same
If three identical resistors are connected in parallel
then you can easily calculate the total resistance by
dividing the resistance by the number of resistors in
the circuit.

Example

If three 100Ω resistors are connected in parallel:

100 ÷ 3 = 33.3 Ω
EJC
 Resistors in parallel

100Ω 200Ω 300Ω

The standard method

You can calculate the total resistance of any parallel circuit
using this formula:

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Example
If 100 ohm, 200 Ohm and 300 Ohm resistors are connected in
parallel:

1 1 1 1
= + + = 0.0183
𝑅𝑇 100 200 300
1
𝑅𝑇 = = 54.5 Ω
0.0183 EJC
 Resistors in series

Just add them up!

If resistors are connected in series
then to calculate the total resistance
you simply add the values up.
100Ω

Example

If three 100Ω resistors are connected in

parallel:

100Ω
100+100+100 = 300 Ω

100Ω

EJC
 RC Timing
Charging Capacitors
When a capacitor is connected in
series with a resistor it takes a
certain amount of time to charge up.

It charges quickly at first and

then slows down as it reaches
maximum.

The time it takes the capacitor

potential difference (pd) to reach
63% of the supply voltage is
calculated with:

T=CxR
Example
Resistor = 1K
Capacitor = 200µF

T = 200x10-6 x 1000
T = 0.2 Seconds
Which is the same as 200mS EJC
Charge in Capacitors
Capacitor Charge
When a capacitor is connected to a
supply it develops a charge as
electrons build up on the plates.

To calculate the charge stored in the

capacitor you can use this formula:

Charge = Capacitance x Voltage

Q = C xV
Example
Supply voltage = 1000V
Capacitor = 100nF

Q = 100x10-9 x 1000
0.0001 Coulombs
Which is the same as100µC
EJC
 Induction
Mutual Induction
This is where one coil of wire is
energised and causes a voltage to be
created in a second coil of wire.

Self Induction
This is where a voltage is induced
which opposes the initial flow of
current.

Dynamic Induction
This is where a voltage is created in
a length of wire when it is moved
within a magnetic field.

Generators apply this.

Motor Effect
A conductor that carries a current will move at right angles to
the magnetic field.

EJC
 Producing Heat
Heating elements
Devices that are designed to produce heat need a high current
to flow through a length of wire. For a high current to flow the
wire must have a low resistance.This is because I = V ÷ R.

LOW RESITANCE = HIGH CURRENT = LOTS OF HEAT!

Incandescent lamps
Incandescent lamps work by allowing a current to flow
through a tungsten filament.

HIGHER RESITANCE
=
LOWER CURRENT
=
LESS HEAT

EJC
 Transformers
Stepping up & down
A transformer is used to step-up or step-down voltages.They
are used in electronic equipment to produced a low voltage
from the mains voltage of 230V.

Primary Secondary
voltage voltage
(input) (output)

Primary turns
Secondary turns
(copper wire)
(copper wire)

Secondary turns
Secondary voltage = x Primary voltage
Primary turns

Example
If a transformer has 50 turns on the primary, 100 turns on
secondary and has a primary voltage of 230V, calculate the
secondary voltage:

50
Secondary voltage = x 230 = 115V
100
EJC
 Self Induction
Effect of self induction
When an alternating current flows
through a coil an EMF (electromotive
force, measured in volts) is generated, or
induced in the coil.

The EMF induced is in the opposite

direction to the supply voltage and
opposes a change in current.

The EMF induced can be calculated like

this:

Inductance measured in Henrys

EMF = L x Rate of change

Amps / Second

Example

If coil has an inductance of 10 Henrys and the current

changes at a rate of 15 Amps / Second:

EMF = 10 x 15 = 150 V
EJC
 Magnetism & Force
Force created by an electric current
If a wire (conductor) is placed at right angles to a magnetic
field a force acts on the wire and causes it to move at right
angles to the magnetic field.

The amount force depends on:

• The strength of the magnetic field – known as the flux
density which is measured in Tesla
• The amount of current flowing through the wire
• The length of the wire

Flux density Length of wire

F=BxIxl
Current

Example

A wire has a length of 50 cm and carries a current of 20 Amps,

is placed in a magnetic field.The magnet field strength is
300mT. The force acting on the wire is:

F = 0.3 x 20 x 0.5 = 3 Newtons

EJC
 Capacitor theory
Capacitor structure
A capacitor consists of two
metal plates separated by an
insulating material called a
Metal plate
dielectric. A capacitor is
capable of storing electric
d Dielectric charge.

Metal plate The unit of capacitance is the

Farad and depends upon this
formula:

Relative Surface
permittivity area of the
Permittivity of metal
free space plates
(8.85x10-12)

εo εr x A
C=
d Distance
between the
metal plates

Key facts
The capacitance is the permittivity multiplied by the area,
divided by the distance between the metal plates.

Different insulating materials have different permittivity.

EJC
 Cells and Batteries
Cells
A cell converts chemical energy
into electrical energy.

Batteries
Batteries are made by
connecting a number of cells
together. Connecting cells in
series increases the voltage,
connecting them in parallel
increases the current it can
supply.

Primary and Secondary Cells

Primary cells and batteries can not be recharged
Secondary cells and batteries can be recharged

A car battery consists of six 2 Volt secondary cells connected

in series.

EJC
 Inductive & Capacitive
Circuits
Inductive Circuits
In a circuit that includes a coil such as a motor, the current
flowing through the circuit lags behind the voltage.

Capacitive Circuits
In a circuit that includes a capacitor the voltage lags behind
the current flowing through the circuit.

EJC
 Force, Mass and
Acceleration
What is force?
A force acting on an object causes it to accelerate. You can
work out the force needed to make the object accelerate by
using the formula:

Force = Mass x Acceleration

F=mxa
2m/s2
1.5kg
Example
A mass of 1500g is accelerated at 200cm/s2
The force required is:

F = 1.5 x 2
3 Newtons
EJC
 Cells and Batteries
Cells
A cell converts chemical energy
into electrical energy.

Batteries
Batteries are made by
connecting a number of cells
together. Connecting cells in
series increases the voltage,
connecting them in parallel
increases the current it can
supply.

Primary and Secondary Cells

Primary cells and batteries cannot be recharged
Secondary cells and batteries can be recharged

A car battery consists of six 2 Volt secondary cells connected

in series.

EJC
 SI Units
Basics
Measurement Abbreviation SI Unit SI Unit
Symbol
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Resistivity 𝜌 ohm-metre Ωm
Current I Ampere A
Voltage Volts
(potential difference, V V
EMF)

Power P Watts W
Charge Q Coulombs C
Energy E Joule J

a.c circuits
True power P Watts W
Apparent power S Volt-amp VA (or kVA)
Reactive power Q Volt-amp VAr (or kVAr)
reactive
Power factor p.f or COS ϴ none none
Inductance L Henry H
Capacitance C Farad F
Capacitive XL Ohm Ω
Reactance
Inductive XC Ohm Ω
Reactance
Impedance Z Ohm Ω
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Periodic time τ Second S EJC
Ohm’s Law
Formulae
Charge
V Q
I R Resistors in Series C V

𝑉 =𝐼 ×𝑅 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 … 𝑄 =𝐶 ×𝑉

Power Resistors in Parallel Impedance

P 1 1 1 1 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
= + + …
I V 𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑃=𝐼 × 𝑉 Capacitors in Parallel
𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 …
𝑉2
𝑃= Capacitors in Series Time Constant
𝑅
1 1 1 1
Series Resistors = + + … τ
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 C R
𝜌𝐿
𝑅= τ=𝐶 ×𝑅
𝐴 Inductive Reactance

Capacitance 𝑋𝐿 = 2 π 𝑓 𝐿
ε𝑜 ε𝑟 𝐴
𝐶= Inductive Reactance
𝑑
1
𝑋𝐶 =
Force 2π𝑓𝐶

F AC Power
m a 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 2 + 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 2

𝐹 =𝑚 ×𝑎

EMF
E
Δt
L
Force on a conductor
𝐸 = 𝐿 Δ𝑡 𝐹=𝐵𝐼𝑙
EJC