Canada

Flag
The national colors of Canada were declared by king in 1921. Some people believe that red color is
the symbol of England, while white color is the symbol of France. These colors have been used
symbolically by those countries. However, others believe that red represents Canadian sacrifice
during World War I. Maple leaf has been a symbol of Canada since at least 1868. Red is the autumn
color of those leaves. The flag made its first official appearance on February 15, 1965; the date is now
celebrated annually as National Flag of Canada Day.

Naming Canada
Between 1534 and 1542, Jacques Cartier made three voyages across the Atlantic, claiming the land
for King Francis I of France. Cartier heard two captured guides speak the Iroquoian word kanata,
meaning “village.” By the 1550s, the name of Canada began appearing on maps.

Brief History
30,000 – 10000 BC Prehistoric hunters cross over into Canada from Asia
circa 1000AD Leif Ericsson leads a Viking expedition to the New World
1451 The Iroquois Confederacy is formed
1497 John Cabot reaches Newfoundland (or perhaps Cape Breton)
1534 Jaques Cartier first explores the St. Lawrence region
1608 Samuel de Champlain establishes a French colony at Québec
City
1670 Hudson’s Bay Company is formed
1755 Expulsion of the Acadians
1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham: Québec City is captured
1763 New France is formally ceded to Britain; Pontiac Rebellion
erupts
1783 Loyalist refugees begin arriving after the American Revolution
1812-14 War of 1812: U.S. invades Canada
1837-38 Rebellions against British rule in Upper and Lower Canada
1848 Responsible government has won, first in Nova Scotia, then in
Canada
1867 Confederation (first four provinces: Québec, Ontario, N.S., and
N.B.)
1870 Red River Resistance; province of Manitoba is created
1871, 1873 B.C. and P.E.I join Canada
1885 North-West Rebellion; the Canadian Pacific Railway is
completed
1905 The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan are created
1914–18 World War I
1916 Women win the vote in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta
1919 The Winnipeg General Strike
1929-39 The Great Depression
1939-45 World War II
1949 Newfoundland joins Canada
1950-53 Korean War
 1959 St. Lawrence Seaway (major transportation route) officially
opens
1960 Québec Quiet Revolution begins; Native Canadians given the
vote
1967 Canada’s 100th birthday; Expo 67 World’s Fair in Montréal
1970 October Crisis: political kidnappings, Ottawa suspends civil
rights
1980 Québec referendum on “sovereignty-association” defeated
60% to 40%
1982 Constitution comes home – with a Charter of Rights and
Freedoms
1987-90 Meech Lake Accord is put forward – and collapses
1992 Charlottetown Accord is rejected by a national referendum
1995 Québec referendum on sovereignty is narrowly defeated
1999 The new Arctic territory of Nunavut is created
2000 Clarity Bill outlines the terms of Québec separation
2003 Canada says “no” to joining the war in Iraq

Native Americans lived in Canada for thousands of years. In the early 1600s, colonists from Britain
and France began to settle in eastern Canada, along the St. Lawrence River. Canada proved to be an
excellent spot for trapping and trading the furs. In the 1800s, settlers began to push west, most of
the native Americans were displaced by the Europeans.

Canada was officially founded as a country on July 1, 1867.

Geography
Canada is the second largest country in the world (space wise, not population; 9.985 million km2). It
is slightly smaller than all of Europe which is made up of 45 countries. Canada is 4,800 km from north
to south and 5,000 km from west to east. It is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic
Ocean. It only borders 1 country, the United States. 90% of Canada is too cold for agriculture to take
place. Influences of physical geography: size, northern location, and isolation. The landscape of
Canada was also affected by glaciation and was under a thick sheet of ice called glacier. Almost all of
Canada was under ice a sometime during the last 1.5 million years. Now only 1% is under ice.

Canada consists of 6 major regions that make up its practices. These include:

1. Western Cordillera – maritime climate, major source of lead, zinc, copper and gold,
economies are based on logging, mining, and tourism
2. Prairie Plains – farming, historically this region was called the Canadian Northwest or simply
the West”, agriculture (wheat, barley, canola, oats), cattle and sheep ranching, oil production
3. Canadian Shield – largest region, lots of bog, muskeg, drumlins, eskers, and lake basins, very
rich mining opportunities (nickel, uranium, gold, silver and copper), mostly covered by Boreal
Forest (conifer threes)
4. Artic North – permafrost (soil that remains frozen for more than 2 years), over 20 Aboriginal
bands, over 30,000 Inuit, earliest Europeans came around 1500s; gold discoveries in the
Yukon in the 1890s and mining finds in the 1930 – more significant settlements, oil and gas
(Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean), trapping and fishing, zinc, iron ore, lead, diamonds
 5. St. Lawrence Lowlands (the Great Lakes Region) – 50% of Canada’s population, extremely
fertile soils and great agriculture, crops (tobacco, peaches, cherries, grapes, apples, hay,
vegetables – carrots, corn, onions, beets, peas, and beans), construction material (clay, sand,
gravel), largest manufacturing area
6. Atlantic Region – 2% of Canada’s area, 11,200km of shoreline, in the 20th century the Atlantic
provinces faltered with slow economic and population growth, offshore oil and gas

Canada has 5 main drainage basins:

o Hudson Bay
o Arctic Ocean
o Atlantic Ocean
o Pacific Ocean
o Gulf of Mexico

These drainage basins not only cycle water around the country, but also can be used for
transportation, opportunities for power (hydro dams), fishing, recreation and provide water for many
uses.

Rivers

• Mackenzie River – 4,241 km

• Yukon River – 3,185 km
• St. Lawrence River – 3,058 km
• Nelson River – 2,575 km
• Slave River – 2,338 km

Lakes

31,752 lakes that are larger than 3 km2 of which 561 are larger than 100 km2

▪ Great Lakes:
• Lake Erie – 25,700 km2
• Lake Huron – 59,600 km2
• Lake Michigan – 58,030 km2
• Lake Ontario – 18,960 km2
• Lake Superior – 82,100 km2
▪ Great Bear Lake – 31,328 km2
▪ Great Slave Lake – 28,568 km2

Highest major summits Mountain Ranges

❖ Mount Legan – 5959m ➢ Saint Elias Mountains

❖ Mount Saint Elias – 5489 m ➢ Coast Mountains
❖ Mount Lucania – 5260 m ➢ Canadian Rockies
❖ King Peak – 5173 m ➢ Columbia Mountains
❖ Mount Steele – 5020 m ➢ Rocky Mountains
Most extreme points:

✓ Highest: Mount Logan, Yukan – 5959 m

✓ Lowest: Great Slave Lake Bottom, Northwest Territories – depth 614 m
✓ Northernmost: Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut
✓ Southernmost: Middle Island, Ontario
✓ Westernmost: Yukon-Alaska Border
✓ Easternmost: Cape Spear, Newfoundland

Climate
Since Canada is the second largest country in the world it has variety of climates. The northern part
of Canada is extremely cold, with summer lasting less than two months. (Almost all Canadians live
near the southern border where the weather is warmer).

There are 8 distinct climate regions in Canada:

1. Pacific Maritime Climate Region

o Canada’s west coast
o Pacific Ocean moderates climate, keeping it above freezing in winter and cool in
summer
o Much precipitation along coastline
o Attractive to many people who do not like harsh winters
2. Cordilleran Climate Region
o Mix of various climatic conditions because of elevation of Rocky Mountains and
insulated valleys
o Much precipitation on westward slopes
o Milder and dried conditions in south, especially in valleys
3. Prairie climate region
o Flat land in Canada’s interior
o Continental climate – dry and humid in summer, dry and cold in winter
o Rain in spring and summer, very low precipitation in winter
4. Boreal Climate Region
o Continental climate: hot in summer, cold in winter
o Precipitation caused from cyclonic storms in the winter and convection when ground
heats up in summer
5. Taiga Climate Region
o Long cold winters (6 months or more)
o Some precipitation in summer, very low in winter
6. Arctic Climate Region
o Very cold, harsh and long winter (10 months)
o Short, cool summer
o Extremely low precipitation because Arctic Ocean and other water bodies are frozen
7. South-Eastern Climate Region
o Wide range of temperature
o Maritime conditions around Great Lakes (precipitation)
o Moderately cold winters and warm summers
o Home to Canada’s major centers
8. Atlantic Maritime Climate Region
o Atlantic Ocean moderates temperatures
 o Winters not too cold and summers cool
o Many cyclonic storms during year

Population
- 1851 – 1900 – population grew slowly by few million; high fertility was offset by very high
mortality
- 1901 – 1945 – despite the two world wars the growth rate generally accelerated (settlement
of Western Canada)
- Second half of 20th century – baby boom and strong immigration caused the population to
grow at even faster pace
- 1946 – 2006 – population went from 12,3 million to 32,6 million
- Population 2021 – 38 million
- Natality (2021): 10.224 births per 1000 people
- Mortality (2020): 7.8 (all ages) per 1000 people
- Capital city: Ottawa

Canadian demographics (ethnic group)

Demographics
35%
32%

30%

25%

20% 18.30%

15% 13.90% 13.60% 13.40%

9.60%
10%
5.10% 4.60% 4.40%
5% 4.00% 3.90%

0%
Canadian English Scottish French Irish German Chinese Italian First Indian Ukrainian
Nations

Religion
Canada is not very religious country in total.
 Religions in Canada
45%
39%
40%
35%
30%
23.90%
25% 20.30%
20%
15%
10% 6.30%
5% 3.20%
1.60% 1.50% 1.40% 1.10% 1% 0.60%
0%

Religions in Canada

Politics
Canada is federal state, parliamentary democracy, and constitutional monarchy.

A federal state brings together several different political communities with central government
(federal) for national (provincial/ territorial) for local affairs.

As a parliamentary democracy, people elect members to their parliament and legislatures across the
country.

As a constitutional monarchy, Canada’s head of state is a hereditary sovereign (queen or king), who
reigns in accordance with the Constitution.

Three Branches of Government

֍ Legislative Branch:
▪ creates laws, rules, and regulations under federal jurisdiction
▪ is made up of federal elected representatives called members of Parliament
֍ Executive Branch:
▪ responsible for government operations, and implementing and enforcing laws and
regulations
▪ includes the Queen’s representative (the governor general) and cabinet ministers
(appointed by the prime minister)
֍ Judicial Branch:
▪ interprets the law and determines the penalty for those who violate established laws,
rules, and regulations
▪ includes Canadian court system, which is headed by the Supreme Court and nine
appointed judges
Federal:

❖ elected representative – Members of Parliament (MP)

❖ Canadians will elect 338 MPs in the current election – federal legislative body, which creates or
enacts laws
❖ MPs debate and pass laws in the House of Commons in Ottawa
❖ the leader of the government – prime minister
❖ the Queen’s represented by the governor general

Provincial/Territorial:

o elected representatives:
• Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs)
• Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs)
• Members of National Assembly (MNAs)
• Members of the House of Assembly (MHAs)
 name depends on the province or territory
o elected representatives debate and pass laws at the provincial or territorial legislature
o the leader of the government is called a premier
o The Queen is represented by a lieutenant governor in Canada’s 10 provinces and by a
territorial commissioner in the three territories

Municipal/Local:

➢ the elected representative at the municipal level is called councillor or alderman

➢ the head of the council is called a mayor, reeve or chairperson
➢ the size and structure of the council differs depending on the population it represents

Division of responsibilities:

▪ Federal: justice, citizenship and immigration, national defence, currency, public safety,
fisheries and oceans
▪ Provincial/Territorial: education, healthcare delivery, environment, energy
▪ Municipal/Local: road maintenance, water and sewer service, recreation and community
facilities, libraries, police protection services

Political parties:

https://lop.parl.ca/sites/ParlInfo/default/en_CA/Parties/politicalPartiesLeaders

Economy
Canada’s economy is highly developed and one of the largest in the world. In 2020, the country’s
annual gross domestic product (GDP) was $1.64 trillion in current USD, according to the latest
available World Bank data.

Canada has one of the ten largest economies in the world and is part of the G8 group of leading
industrialized countries with the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, France, Japan
and Russia.

➢ Exports: crude petroleum, cars, refined petroleum, aircraft, helicopters, spacecraft, coal,
potassic fertilizers, wheat, raw aluminium, rapeseed, pharmaceuticals, iron ore, sulfate
 chemical wood pulp, ethylene polymers, gold, rapeseed oil, gas turbines, copper ore, pork,
aircraft parts, spark-ignition engines
➢ Agriculture: wheat, canola, barley, corn, soybeans, rye, oats, white beans, mixed grains,
cattle and calves, beef and veal, vegetables and poultry
➢ Trading partners: United States, China, United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Mexico

Canada uses Canadian dollar - CA$, C$, CAD, …

Canada’s Economy Includes Three Main Types of Industries:

• Service industries provide thousands of different jobs in areas like transportation, education,
health care, construction, banking, communications, retail services, tourism and government.
More than 75% of working Canadians now have jobs in service industries.
• Manufacturing industries make products to sell in Canada and around the world.
Manufactured products include paper, high technology equipment, aerospace technology,
automobiles, machinery, food, clothing and many other goods. Our largest international
trading partner is the United States.
• Natural resources industries include forestry, fishing, agriculture, mining and energy. These
industries have played an important part in the country’s history and development. Today,
the economy of many areas of the country still depends on developing natural resources,
and a large percentage of Canada’s exports are natural resources commodities.

Culture

The culture of Canada has been primarily influenced by the various European cultures and traditions,
particularly British and French culture. There are also influences of its indigenous people, and from
the neighbouring USA.

Attractions
1. The Canadian Rockies – known for being the source of several major river systems, and also
for many rivers within the range itself; they form the divide between the Pacific Ocean
drainage on the west and that of Hudson Bay and the Artic Ocean on the east
2. Pacific National Rim Park – known for its ancient rainforest, abundant marine life, and
ferocious winter squalls
3. Niagara Falls – group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge, spanning the
border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the USA;
total height is 51m
4. Cabot Trail (Nova Scotia) – 300 km trail through the highlands of Nova Scotia’s Cape Breton,
on Canda’s east coast, is a drive
5. Baffin Island (Oikiqtaaluk) – Canada’s largest island, and the fifth largest island in the world,
lying between Greenland and the Canadian mainland
6. Vancouver/Victoria – Vancouver (metropolitan city in the southwest corner of British
Columbia – Canada’s west coast); Victoria (smaller city at the south end of Vancouver Island);
prettiest and cleanest cities in the world
7. The Prairies – a vast steppe-land area between Rocky Mountains and central Canada
8. The Rocky Mountaineer – a train vacation experience, the Rocky Mountaineer travels from
the coast if British Columbia to the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, and vice versa
 9. Old Québec City – has old-world charm unique in North America (Quebec – where the river
narrows)
10. Bay of Fundy – an ocean bay stretching between the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia, highest tides in the world, many water animals

Australia
Flag
The first Australian flag was flown in 1901. The flag has three symbols on the blue background:

1. The Union Jack – represents history of British settlement

2. The Commonwealth (Federation) Star – it has 6 points representing the unity of 6
states and territories of the Commonwealth of Australia
3. The Southern Cross – it is a constellation of 5 stars that can only be seen from the
southern hemisphere, and it is a reminder of Australia’s geography

Naming Australia
During the 17th century this newly found continent was called ‘New Holland’ after Dutch navigators
charted the northern, western and southern coast of Australia.

English explorer Matthew Flinders was the first to circumnavigate the continent in 1803 and used the
name ‘Australia’ to describe the continent on a hand drawn map in 1804. When the map and book
describing his journey was finally published in 1814 the name ‘Terra Australis Incognita’ (‘Unknown
South Land’) was used instead.

Australia – from Latin ‘australis’ meaning southern

Brief History
Thousands of years before the arrival of the British, Australia was settled by indigenous people of
Australia called Aborigines. Australia was founded as a country on January 26, 1788.

1606 The first European to land at Australia is Dutch explorer Captain Willem Janszoon
1688 English explorer William Dampier explores the western coast of Australia
1770 Captain James Cook lands at Botany Bay with his ship, the HMS Endeavour. He then
proceeds to map the eastern coast of Australia, claiming it for Great Britain
1788 The first British settlement is established at Sydney by Captain Arthur Phillip. It is the
start of the British penal colony which is made up of mostly prisoners
1803 Australia is proven to be an island when English navigator Matthew Flinders
completes his sail around the island
1808 The Rum Rebellion occurs and the current governor, William Bligh, is arrested and
removed from office
1824 The name of the island is changed from “New Holland” to “Australia”
1829 The settlement of Perth is founded on the southwest coast. England lays claim to the
entire continent of Australia
1835 The settlement of Port Phillip is established. It will later become the city of Melbourne
1841 New Zealand becomes its own colony separate from New South Wales
1843 The first elections are held for parliament
1851 Gold is discovered in the southeast region of Victoria. Prospectors flock to the area in
the Victoria Gold rush
1854 Miners rebel against the government in the Eureka Rebellion
1859 The rules for Australian football are officially written down
1868 Great Britain stops sending convicts to Australia. It is estimated that around 160,000
convicts were shipped to Australia between 1788 and 1868
1880 Folk hero Ned Kelly, sometimes called Australian “Robin Hood”, is executed for
murder
1883 The railroad between Sydney and Melbourne opens
1890 The famous poem The Man from Snowy River is published by Banjo Paterson
1901 The Commonwealth of Australia is formed. Emund Barton serves as the first Prime
Minister of Australia. The Australian national flag is adopted
1902 Women are guaranteed the right to vote through the Franchise Act
1911 The city of Canberra is founded. It is named as the capital
1914 World War I begins. Australia fights on the side of the Allies and Great Britain
1915 Australian soldiers take part in the Gallipoli Campaign in Turkey
1918 World War I comes to an end
1919 Australia signs the Treaty of Versailles and joins the League of Nations
1920 Qantas airlines is founded
1923 The popular spread vegemite is first introduced
1927 Parliament id officially moved to the capital city of Canberra
1932 Construction is completed on the Sydney Harbour Bridge
1939 World War II begins. Australia joins the side of Allies
1942 The Japanese begin air raids of Australia. The Japanese invasion is stopped at the
Battle of the Coral Sea. Australian forces defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Milne
Bay
1945 World War II ends. Australia is a founding member of the United Nations
1973 The Sydney Opera House is opened
1986 Australia becomes fully independent from the United Kingdom
2000 The summer Olympics are held in Sydney
2002 88 Australians are killed in the terrorist bombing of a nightclub in Bali
2003 Prime Minister John Howard receives a no-confidence vote from the Senate based on
the Iraq crisis
2004 John Howard is elected to hid fourth term as prime minister
2006 The country experiences extreme drought
2008 The government officially apologizes for previous treatment of the indigenous people
including the “Lost Generation”
2010 Julia Gillard is elected prime minister. She is the first woman to hold the office

Six colonies were formed in Australia:

o New South Wales, 1788

o Tasmania, 1825
o Western Australia, 1829
o South Australia, 1836
o Victoria, 1851
o Queensland, 1859
Geography
Australia is the world’s smallest and flattest continent. It is a country comprising the mainland of the
Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is world’s sixth largest
country by total area (7.692 million km2). Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia and East Timor to the north; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New
Zealand to the south-east.

It has some of Earth’s oldest and least fertile soils. Only Antarctica receives less rainfall than some
parts of Australia. It’s surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Commonwealth of Australia also
includes Tasmania, an island south of the mainland.

Australia has around 245 basins.

Drainage basins Rivers

▪ Tanami-Timor Sea Coast – 1,162,000 ➢ Murray River – 2375 km

km2 ➢ Murrumbridgee River – 1485 km
▪ Lake Eyre Basin – 1,281,000 km2 ➢ Darling River – 1472 km
▪ South-Western Plateau – 1,093,000 ➢ Lachlan River – 1448 km
km2 ➢ Warrego River – 1380 km
▪ Murray-Darling Basin – 1,061,000 km2
▪ North-Western Plateau – 716,000km2

Lakes Highest major summits

✓ Lake Eyre – 9500 km2 ❖ Mount Kosciuszko – 2228 m

✓ Lake Torrens – 5745 km2 ❖ Mount Townsend – 2209 m
✓ Lake Carnegie – 5714 km2 ❖ Mount Twynam – 2195 m
✓ Lake Mackay – 3494 km2 ❖ Rams Head – 2190 m
✓ Lake Frome – 2596 km2 ❖ Unnamed peak on Etheridge Ridge –
2180 m

Mountain Ranges

- Australian Alps
- Blue Mountains
- Snowy Mountains
- Great Dividing Range
- Hann Range

Most extreme points

• Highest: Mount Kosciuszko – 2228 m

• Lowest: the dry bed of Lake Eyre – 15 m below the sea level
• Northernmost: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland
• Southernmost: the tip of Wilson Promontory National Park near Tidal River in Victoria
• Westernmost: Steep point in Western Australia
• Easternmost: Cape Byron in New South Wales
Climate

Due to the huge size of the country, Australia has several different climate zones (8 climate zones)

1. Hot humid summer, warm winter

2. Warm humid summer, mild winter
3. Hot dry summer, warm winter
4. Hot dry summer, cool winter
5. Warm temperate
6. Mild temperate
7. Cool temperate alpine
8. Alpine

Population
Fore generations, most immigrants came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still
mainly of British or Irish ethnic origin. Australia’s population has grown from estimated population of
about 350,000 at the time of British settlement in 1788 due to numerous waves of immigration
during the period since. Also due to immigration, the European component of the population is
declining as a percentage. Australia has fewer than three people per square kilometer of total land
area.

- Population (2021): 25 million

- Natality (2021): 12,4 births per 1000 people
- Mortality (2020): 6,6 deaths per 1000 people
- Capital city: Canberra

Australian demographics (ethnic group)

DEMOGRAPHICS
30.00%
25.90% 25.40%
25.00%

20.00%
Religion
15.80%
15.00%

10.00%
7.50%
6.40%

5.00% 3.30% 3.20% 3.10%

1.40% 1.40% 1.20%
0.00%
English Australian Irish Scottish Italian German Chinese Indian Greek Dutch other
Religion

RELIGION
30.10%

22.60%

13.30%

3.70%

2.60%

2.60%

2.40%

2.10%

1.90%

1.50%

1.10%

0.70%

0.50%

0.40%
Politics
The politics of Australia take place within the frame work of a federal constitutional parliamentary
democracy and constitutional monarchy.

Political system

• based on the liberal democratic tradition

➢ which includes religious tolerance and freedom of speech and association
• institutions and practices reflect British and North American models but are uniquely Australian

The Constitution

o sets out the rules and responsibilities of government and outlines the powers of its 3
branches – legislative, executive and judicial
▪ the legislative branch – contains the parliament (the body with the legislative power) to
make laws
▪ the executive branch – administers the laws made by the legislative branch
▪ the judicial branch – allows for the establishment of the country’s courts of law and the
appointment and removal of its judges
o the purpose of the court is to interpret all laws, including the Constitution, making the rule of
law supreme
o can only be changed by referendum
Australia’s Constitutional Monarchy

▪ head of state is Queen Elizabeth II. (although she is also Queen of the United Kingdom, the
two positions now are quite separate, both in law and constitutional practice)
▪ in practice, the Queen plays no role within the Australian political system and is merely a
figurehead
▪ in Australia the Queen is formally represented by a Governor General whom she appoints on
the recommendation of Australia’s Prime Minister

The Governor General and State Governors

❖ while recognized as the Queen’s representative, the Governor General is in no way subject to
the direction, supervision or veto of the Queen or the British Government
❖ the Governor General’s powers and duties:
1. summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament
2. assenting to Bills
3. appointing Ministers
4. setting up Departments of State
5. appointing judges
❖ the Governor General’s acts only on the advice of Ministers in virtually all matters and the
appointee to the office is selected on the advice of the Government
❖ the six State Governors perform similar roles in their States

The Commonwealth or National Government

- is bicameral, having two chambers: the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the
Senate (Upper House)
- both are responsible for national laws, such as: trade, taxation, immigration, citizenship,
social security, industrial relationship and foreign affairs
➢ legislation has to be proved by both houses before it can become law

The House of Representatives:

➢ initiates most legislation

➢ currently has 148 elected members (each representing around 80,000 voters)
➢ the political party or parties with the most seats in the House of Representatives forms the
Government

The Senate:

➢ known as the ‘house of review’

➢ proposed legislation is generally considered clause-by-clause and often referred to
committees
➢ one of the original roles was to ensure that laws were fair to all states
➢ voters therefore elect 12 Senators from each State and Senators from each of Australia’s two
Territories

State and Territory Governments

• are responsible for those powers not administered by the Commonwealth Government
• has its own Parliament and its own Constitutional powers of the Commonwealth
• all State Parliament other than Queensland and bicameral with an Upper and Lower House
• the Parliament of each Territory has only one House
 • responsible for matter which include:
1. public health
2. education
3. roads
4. public land use
5. police, fire and ambulance service
6. local government within their own States or Territories

Local Government

▪ approximately 900 local government bodies in Australia

▪ the powers of local government vary from State to State and are responsibility of State
Governments
▪ some local government bodies operate transport and energy enterprises
▪ most levy tares as well as receiving funding from higher ties of government
▪ local government responsibilities typically include:
1. town planning
2. supervision of building codes, local roads, water, sewerage and drainage
3. waste and sanitary services
4. community recreational facilities

Relations between levels of Government

The Commonwealth and State Governments co-operate in many areas where States and Territories
are formally responsible, such as education, transport, health and law enforcement.

Income tax is levied federally, and debate between the levels of governments about access to
revenue is a perennial of Australian politics.

Economy
- is a developed, modern market economy with GDP of approximately US$ 1,23 trillion
- Australia was also ranked the 19th largest importer and 19th largest exporter
- is a member of the APEC, G20, OECD and WTO organisations
- is dominated by its service sector, representing 68% of Australian GDP
- is dependent on imported crude oil and petroleum products, the economy’s petroleum
import dependency is around 80%
- trading partners: Japan, Singapore, China, USA, Germany
- natural resources: iron ore, coal, natural gas, gold, aluminium, petroleum
- exports: ores, slag, ash; mineral fuels including oil; gems, precious metals; meat; inorganic
chemicals; machinery including computers; cereals; pharmaceuticals; electrical machinery,
equipment; aluminium
- agriculture: wheat, coarse grains (barley, oats, sorghum, maize, and triticale), rice, oilseeds
(canola, sunflowers, soybeans, and peanuts), grain legumes (lupins and chick peas),
sugarcane, cotton, fruits, gapes, tobacco, and vegetables

Australia uses Australian dollar – AUD, $

Culture
The culture of Australia is a Western culture derived primarily from Britain but also influenced by the
unique geography of the Australian continent, the diverse input of Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders
and other Oceania people.

Attractions
1. Sydney Opera House – 20th century architectural masterpiece; it was designed to reflect the
image of a huge sailing ship; it houses multiple venues that together host more than 1,500
performances each year
2. Great Barrier Reef – one of the top destinations for underwater explorers and scuba divers;
it is located in the Coral Sea; encompasses a huge area of more than 2,900 coral reefs and
hundreds of islands and cays
3. Uluru/Ayers Rock – is located within the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park of the Northern
Territory; this large sandstone formation stands more than 340 meters high; one of the
rock’s peculiarities is that it changes colors dramatically at sunset from terra cotta to blue,
violet and red
4. Kakadu National Park – country’s largest national park located in Northern Territory; largest
concentration of Aboriginal rock art, some are estimated to be up to 20,000 years old;
different species of wildlife
5. Whitsunday Islands – this stunning collection of 74 islands lies in the middle of Australia’s
Great Barrier Reef; most islands are deserted, seven do have outstanding resorts on them;
one of the most beautiful of the Whitsunday Islands is Whitehaven Beach, which boasts
blinding white sand
6. Blue Mountains National Park – located in New South Wales; best known for the Three
Sisters (a rock formation that towers 900 meters above Jamison Valley)
7. Purnululu National Park – located in Western Australia; most unique tourist attraction is the
Bungle Bungle Range – striking orange-and-black-striped sandstone domes that resemble
huge beehives
8. Great Ocean Road – located in Victoria; one of the most beautiful drives in Australia; this
243km drive starts in Torquay (100 km from Melbourne) and ends in Allansford
9. Fraser Island – located in Queensland; boasts rainforests, sand dunes, more than 100
freshwater lakes and pretty colored sand cliffs; largest sand island in the world
10. Cable Beach, Broome – located in Broome in Western Australia; stunning beach known for
its white sands, beautiful sunsets and the brilliant blue waters of Indian Ocean

New Zealand
Flag
The New Zealand flag is the symbol of the realm, government and people of New Zealand. Its royal
blue background is derived from the ensign of the Blue Squadron of the Royal Navy. The stars of the
Southern Cross emphasise this country’s location in the South Pacific Ocean. The Union Jack in the
first quarter recognises New Zealand’s historical origins as a British colony and dominion. This flag
was widely used since 1869, but it was only formally adopted in 1902 amidst the pomp and
patriotism of the South African War.
However, the flag we know today wasn’t the first New Zealand’s flag. Between 1834 and 1840, the
Flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand was recognised as the first ‘national’ flag of these islands.
New Zealand has 6 other flags that are flown for official purposes in New Zealand.

1. Queen’s personal flag – adopted in 1962, flown only by Her Majesty when she is in the New
Zealand
2. The Governor-General’s flag – was introduced in 2008 (replacing an earlier version which
had been approved by King George V in 1931 and adopted in 1937), flown on all occasions
when Governor-General is present and takes precedence over the New Zealand Flag
3. New Zealand Red Ensign – adopted in 1903, is based on the Red Ensign that has been flown
for centuries by merchant ships registered in the United Kingdom; may be flown on land in
places or on occasions of Māori significance
4. New Zealand White Ensign – in 1968 this flag replaced the British White Ensign that had
been previously used by ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy; flown by ships and
commissioned shore establishments of the Royal New Zealand Navy
5. Royal New Zealand Air Force Ensign – was approved in 1939, based on the Royal Air Force
with ne letters ‘NZ’ inserted in the roundel; hoisted daily at Air Force establishments; flown
on Royal New Zealand Air Force aeroplanes carrying foreign and Commonwealth heads of
state and heads of government
6. New Zealand Civil Air Ensign – instituted in 1938; the flag became ‘recognised as the proper
national colors to be flown by British aircraft registered in New Zealand’

Naming New Zealand

The first European to arrive in New Zealand was the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642. The name
New Zealand comes from the Dutch ‘Nieuw Zeeland’, the name first given to us by a Dutch
mapmaker.

Brief History
AD 800-900 The first Polynesians arrive in New Zealand (some scientists believe this occurred
later)
1642 Abel Tasman is the first European to sight the country
1769 Captain James Cook is the first European to explore, and set foot in, New Zealand
1790s European seal hunters and whalers move into the region
1809 First European settlers arrive in Russell
1817 Anglican mission established at Bay of Islands
1818 The Māori “Musket Wars” begin; 12 years on inter-tribal conflict kills 20,000
people
1830s Early Europeans settlements grow in size; beginnings of trade with New South
Wales
1840 Māori chiefs sign the Treaty of Waitangi; Auckland becomes the capital; New
Zealand Company colonists reach Wellington and establish settlements
1845 Hone Heke cuts down the flagstaff at Kororareka (Russell); 1,000 Māori take arms
against the British
1848-50 Otago and Canterbury are settled
1852 Taranaki colonisation begins
1856 New Zealand becomes a self-governing British colony; gold rush and land
struggles
1860-72 Māori Land Wars (New Zealand Wars); vast tracts of land are confiscated
1861 Otago gold rush begins
1865 Wellington becomes New Zealand’s capital
1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable is laid
1867 Māori are given the vote
1868 Raids by Titokowaru and Te Kooti throe country into crisis
1869 Te Kooti is defeated; Otago University is established
1870 First rugby match is played in New Zealand
1877 Treaty of Waitangi ruled bull by Chief Justice Prendergast; free compulsory
education introduced
1882 The first refrigerated agricultural produce cargo id dispatched to England
1886 Mount Tarawera erupts
1893 Women are given the vote, 25 years before the Britain and the US
1896 Māori population drops to 42,000 (from 100,000 in 1769)
1898 World’s first old-age pension for men is introduced
1899-1902 New Zealand troops fight in Boer War
1907 New Zealand is elevated from a colony to a dominion
1908 Ernest Rutherford awarded Nobel Prize for chemistry; population exceeds 1
million
1915 New Zealand suffers heavy loses in Gallipoli campaign in WWI
1918-19 Influenza kills 6,700
1938 Health care and social security are introduced
1939 WWII breaks out, New Zealand suffers heavy losses
1947 New Zealand becomes fully independent
1951 ANZUS defence alliance with Australia and the US is signed
1953 New Zealander Edmund Hillary becomes the first person to climb Mount Everest
1958 Hillary reaches the South Pole
1962 Maurice Wilkins shares Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine for discovery of
DNA
1965 New Zealand troops are sent to Vietnam
1971 New Zealand joins South Pacific Forum
1975 Parliament passes the Treaty od Waitangi Act, establishing a tribunal to
investigate claims
1981 Anti-apartheid protests during South African rugby team tour creates civil unrest
1985 Greenpeace protest vessel Rainbow Warrior is bombed in Auckland; government
bans visits by ships carrying nuclear weapons
1987 Māori becomes official language by law
1993 Proportional representation election system, Mixed Member Proportional –
introduced
1995 New Zealand wins the prestigious America’s Cup
1997 The National Party’s Jenny Shipley becomes New Zealand’s first woman prime
minister
1999 Labour Party leader Helen Clark elected prime minister
2005 Civil Union Act passed
2008 John Key’s National Party voted into power following Helen Clark’s nine-year
reign
2010 Christchurch is hit by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake; New Zealand signs
“Wellington” Treaty with the US; Pike River Mine disaster kills 29 miners on the
West Coast
2011 New Zealand is placed in National State of Emergency as a magnitude 6.3
earthquake devastates Christchurch; 172 lives are lost, the CBD and numerous
historic buildings are destroyed
 2012 The nation works to rebuild Christchurch city; the Tuhoe tribe reaches a historic
Treaty agreement with the Crown over governance of Te Urewera National Park
2013 The first census since 2006 is held (it was postponed in 2011 due to the
Christchurch earthquakes)
2014 General election year

New Zealand is a young country in terms of its human history. It was the last large and livable place in
the world to be discovered. The first people to arrive in New Zealand were Polynesian ancestors of
the Māori, between 1200 and 1300 AD.
The term 'Māori' did not exist until the Europeans arrived. It means 'ordinary' and the Māori used it
to distinguish themselves from the new, fair-skinned European settlers.
New Zealand has no fixed date of independence from the United Kingdom; instead, political
independence came about as a result of New Zealand's evolving constitutional status. The concept of
a national "Independence Day" does not exist in New Zealand.
Geography
New Zealand, Māori Aotearoa, is an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the south-
westernmost part of Polynesia. New Zealand is a remote land—one of the last sizable territories
suitable for habitation to be populated and settled—and lies more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km)
southeast of Australia, its nearest neighbour. The country comprises two main islands—
the North and South islands—and a number of small islands, some of them hundreds of miles from
the main group.. The two main islands make up 98,5% of New Zealand’s land.
New Zealand is the sixth-largest island country in the world, with a land size of 267,710 km2.

Rivers Lakes

• Waikato River – 425 km o Lake Taupo – 616 km2

• Clutha River / Mata-Au – 338 km o Lake Te Anau – 344 km2
• Whanganui River – 290 km o Late Wakatipu – 291 km2
• Taieri River – 288 km o Lake Wanaka – 192 km2
• Rangitikei River – 253 km o Lake Ellesmere – 180 km2

Highest major summits Mountain ranges

▪ Aoraki / Mount Cook – 3,724 m ❖ Southern Alps

▪ Aoraki: Middle Peak – 3,717 m ❖ Kaikoura Ranges
▪ Aoraki: Low Peak – 3,593 m ❖ Kaweka Range
▪ Mount Tasman – 3,497 m ❖ Tararua Ranges
▪ Mount Dampier – 3,440 m ❖ Remutaka Range

Most extreme points

➢ Highest: Aoraki / Mount Cook – 3,724 m

➢ Lowest: near Momona, Taieri Plains – 2 m below sea level
➢ Northernmost: Nugent Island, in the Kermadec Islands
➢ Southernmost: Jacquemart Island in the Campbell Island group
➢ Westernmost: Cape Lovitt, Auckland Islands
➢ Easternmost: Forty-Fours/Motuhara, in the Chatham Islands
Climate

Since the Māori people named New Zealand, ‘The Land of the Long White Cloud’ / Aotearoa, the
climate has been of paramount importance to the people of New Zealand – many of whom make
their living from the land. New Zealand has mild temperatures, moderately high rainfall, and many
hours of sunshine throughout most of the country. Its climate is dominated by two main
geographical features: the mountains and the sea.

✓ Auckland region – warm, humid and changeable without extremes of temperature

✓ Tauranga region – warm, humid summers and mild winters
✓ Hamilton region – mild and temperate with moderate rainfall
✓ Napier region – dry and temperate with long hot summers and cold winters
✓ Wellington region – temperate marine climate, relatively windy
✓ Nelson region – warm summers and cool winters
✓ Christchurch region – warm dry summers and cold winters
✓ Dunedin region – temperate coastal climate with four distinct seasons
✓ Invercargill region – cooler and wetter than other parts of New Zealand

Population
- not distributed evenly
- some places have more people than others
- in some parts on NZ where the population density is as much as 150 people per square km
the population is described as dense
- in rough hill country where there is a population density of 1 person per square km the
population is described as being sparse
- population (2021): 4.866 million
- natality (2021): 12,4 births per 1000 people
- mortality (2021): 7,1 deaths per 1000 people
- Capital city: Wellington

New Zealand’s demographics (ethnic group)

DEMOGRAPHICS
89.90%

20.50%
3.50%

1.60%

1.20%

1.20%
2%

1%

ENGLISH MAORI SAMOAN HINDI FRENCH NORTHERN YUE OTHER/NOT

CHINESE STATED
 Religion

Religion
45.00%
38.50%
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00% 11.60% 10.80% 9.90%
7.80% 8.20%
10.00%
5.00% 2.40% 1.80% 2.10% 1.40% 1.30% 1.10% 1.90%
0.00%

Politics
New Zealand’s government is formed from a democratically elected House of Representatives. The
Government advises the Sovereign (head of State). By convention, the Sovereign, the source of all
executive legal authority in New Zealand, acts on the advice of the Government in all but most
exceptional circumstances. This system is known as a constitutional monarchy.

- the system is based on the principle that power is distributed across three branches of
government – Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary
- Parliament makes the law
- the Executive (Ministers of the Crown also known as the Government) administers the law
- the Judiciary interprets the law through the courts

Head of State

New Zealand’s head of State is the Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II. The Governor-General is the
Queen’s representative in New Zealand.

Constitutional arrangements

New Zealand has no single written constitution or any form of law that is higher than laws passed in
Parliament. The rules about how our system of government works are contained in a number of Acts
of Parliament, documents issued under the authority of the Queen, relevant English and United
Kingdom Acts of Parliament, decisions of the court, and unwritten constitutional conventions.

Parliament

- consists of the Sovereign and the House of Representatives

➢ the Sovereign’s role in Parliament includes opening and dissolving Parliament, and
giving the Royal assent to bills passed in the House of Representatives
- is unicameral – it only has one chamber (the House of Representatives) and there is no upper
house such as senate
- usual number of members of Parliament – 120, there are electoral circumstances when this
could vary

Responsible Government

- is the term used to describe a system where the Government is formed by appointing
Ministers who must first be elected members of Parliament
➢ it means that in New Zealand the Government can stay in power only while it has the
support (‘confidence’) of majority of House of Representatives
➢ this support can be tested in a confidence vote, such as passing the Budget
- Ministers are responsible to Parliament, both collectively for the overall performance of the
Government, and individually for the performance in their portfolios

Proportional representation electoral system

- House of Representatives is elected using the mixed member proportional representation

(MPP) voting system
- each elector has two votes:
➢ one for a local member of Parliament
➢ one for a preferred political party
- political parties are represented in Parliament in proportion to the share of votes each party
won in the party vote in the general election

Economy
• is a highly developed free-market economy
• it is the 52nd largest national economy in the world when measured by GPD
• manufacturing is the main employment – twice as many as agriculture
• financial, insurance and business services are a big part of the economy
• the country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international
trade
• trade partners: China, Australia, the US, Japan, South Korea, …
• natural resources: coal, silver, iron ore, limestone, gold
• exports: concentrated milk; sheep and goat meat; butter; rough wood; frozen bovine meat;
fish; beverages, spirits, vinegar; machinery including computers; optical, technical, medical
apparatus; modified starches, glues, enzymes
• agriculture: dairy farming, sheep farming, beef farming, pig farming, fruit, vegetables, seeds
and flowers, cereals
Culture
The culture of New Zealand is a Western culture influenced by the unique environment and
geographic location of the islands, the cultural input of the indigenous Māori people and the various
waves of migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand.

Attractions
1. Fiordland National Park and Milford Sound, South Island – park protects some of the most
spectacular scenery in the country; glaciers sculpted this dramatic landscape, carving the
famous fjords of Milford, Dusky and Doubtful Sounds; gushing cascades, offshore islands,
virgin rainforests, vast lakes, and craggy mountain peaks
2. Bay of Islands, North Island – more than 144 islands dot the glittering bay, making it heaven
for sailing and yachting; popular sport-fishing spot
3. Queenstown, South Island – adrenaline-fueled activities (bungee jumping, jet boating,
downhill skiing, …); stunning alpine scenery, sightseeing trips to Central Otago region (gold-
mining towns and the Middle Earth scenery from Lord of the Rings movie)
4. Lake Taupo and Tongariro National Park, North Island – spectacular volcanic peaks of
Tongariro, Ngauruhoe and part of Ruapehu; one of the oldest national parks in the world;
Tongariro is a land of dramatic beauty, with towering volcanoes, turquoise lakes, arid
plateaus, alpine meadows, and hot springs
5. Rotorua, North Island – one of the most active geothermal regions in the world; boiling mud
pools, hissing geysers, volcanic craters, and steaming thermal springs betray the forces that
birthed much of New Zealand's dramatic topography
6. Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers, South Island - both rivers of ice flow from some of the highest
peaks in the Southern Alps to near sea level, where the gentle coastal climate makes it easy
for visitors to explore them on foot
7. Abel Tasman National Park & the Abel Tasman Coast Track, South Island – one of New
Zealand’s Great Walks; this scenic 51-kilometer hike lies in one of the sunniest regions of the
South Island
8. Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, South Island – more than 40% of the park is covered in
glaciers; top destination for mountaineering; Edmund Hillary trained here for his legendary
Mount Everest ascent
9. Napier, Hawke’s Bay, North Island – famous for gourmet food and Art Deco architecture;
one of the most photographed tourist attractions in the country, a statue on Marine Parade
called Pania of the Reef
10. Auckland, North Island – most populous city; multi-cultural hub of food, music, arts and
culture; sprawls over volcanic hills and around twin harbours