Applied Nanoscience

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-021-01982-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Characterization of pellets manufactured from plant waste and farm

waste residues blended with distillery sludge as a prospective
alternative fuel source
Charles David1 · Jerusha Ganduri1 · Venkataraghavan Ragunathan2 · Rajamohan Natarajan3 

Received: 3 June 2021 / Accepted: 19 July 2021

© King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology 2021

Abstract
The conversion of agro-residues to value added products is a potential opportunity for all agrarian countries. This study
involves the utilization of agro-waste sourced from farmlands, and plant foliage waste collected from university premises,
both blended with the distillery sludge in a ratio of 1:1 to prepare pellets. The pellet samples were tested with proximate
analysis and ultimate analysis. The gross calorific value of the coal sample was 8967.23 kcal/kg, whereas the plant waste
and sludge blend sample indicated a value of 7121.70 kcal/kg. The pellets produced from farm waste and sludge showed a
value of 8621.334 kcal/ kg which is close to the gross calorific value of coal. The burning rate of the pure coal was found
to be the highest with a value of 0.156 mg/min, followed by a mixture of farm waste and sludge with 0.129 mg/min and a
blend of plant waste and sludge with 0.00745 mg/min, respectively. This research highlights the possibility of converting
distillery sludge, plant waste, and farm waste into alternate fuel source.

Keywords  Farm waste · Biomass residue · Distillery sludge · Calorific value

Introduction
Global urbanization and industrialization is the major
cause for various environmental pollutions. Air pollution
deteriorates the air quality due to excess amounts of pol-
lutants, namely lead, carbon monoxide, particulate matter
­(PM2.5, ­PM10), sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and ozone
(Brunekreef and Holgate 2002). Many developing countries,
namely India and African countries, are worst affected by
poor air quality (Cohen et al. 2017). Great advancements
in the field of agriculture have resulted in increased yield
of various cash crops and adversely generate huge amounts
of farm waste.These wastes include paddy straw, sugarcane
* Rajamohan Natarajan
rnatarajan@su.edu.om
1 et al. 2018). This distillery spent wash possesses high chemi-
Department of Biotechnology, Centre of Excellence,
Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research,
Vadlamudi, Guntur 522213, Andhra Pradesh, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, A.C. Tech Campus,
Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, PC:311 Sohar,
Oman
tops, corncobs, stover, grain husks, and wood stubbles. Agri-
cultural stubble burning majorly contributes to the deple-
tion of ambient air quality (Venkataraman et  al. 2018).
Stubble burning emits various greenhouse gases which
affect the health of humans and the content of air (Feldstein
et al. 2012). It leads to severe health issues, namely asthma
and bronchitis and reduces lung functioning (Golshan and
Faghihi 2002). Clearing the farm wastes by field-burning
leads to a major loss of nutrients and severely damages the
fertility of the topsoil. The burning of farm wastes can sig-
nificantly affect the soil microbiome (Kumar et al. 2019).
In India, during harvest season, the field-burnings are
prominent. Due to the high demand for alcoholic products,
molasses-based distillery industries are known to generate
dark, thick, and high-strength wastewater leading to soil and
water pollution (David et al. 2020). The wastewater released
from these industries is close to 40 × ­1010 L (Chowdhary
cal oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand
(BOD) values (Chowdhary et  al. 2017). When treated,
the distillery wastewater generates sludge, which leads to
severe ecological imbalance and toxicity (Satyawali and
Balakrishnan 2008). The distillery sludge can be suitably
modified and used as an alternative source of fuel. Studies

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

have reported the use of farm wastes rich in lignocellulosic
material as eco-friendly coal. These lignocellulosic materi-
als possess a calorific value of 28.2 MJ/kg, fixed carbon con-
tent of 74.6%, the moisture content of 6.3%, and ash content
of 1.4% (Manyuchi et al. 2019). Recently, studies on briquet-
ting have been attracting keen attention. Different types of
biomass are blended at high pressure to impart more effec-
tiveness and mechanical strength to pellets (Sun et al. 2014).
Studies have reported the use of sewage sludge in cement
industries with a yielded energy of 8.7 MJ/kg that describes
the potential application (Werle et al. 2015). Sludge from
various industries, namely food, textile, and oil mills can
be blended in several proportions (Silva et al. 2014). Pel-
lets, unlike coal, are renewable, carbon-based, and possess
high-calorific energy that finds application in various indus-
tries (Mitchual et al. 2013). A recent study has reported the
use of fecal-char pellets for heating purposes (Ward et al.
2014). The characterization of manufactured pellets is to be
tested for calorific value, ash content, moisture content, fixed
carbon content, and Thermogravimetric analysis (Oliveira
et al. 2017). This technology not only promotes the energy
recovery from waste sludge disposed of out of an industry
but also compromises the demand for coal. This technol-
ogy is uncommon; however, the use of cow dung, starch,
and oil mill waste is most practiced (Rezania et al. 2016).
The novelty associated with this research is the feasibility
studies on blending the organic wastes with distillery sludge
and the comparison of calorific value. This research article
focuses on converting plant waste and farm waste blended
with distillery sludge to be used as a potential alternative
energy source. The aspects of sustainable energy could be
a promising replacement for conventional non-renewable
energy influence the study. Trials were made to blend the
organic wastes with the distillery sludge seeking to increase
the calorific value of the pellets. The proximate and ultimate
analysis, calorific experiments, and Thermogravimetric anal-
ysis (TGA) were performed for the pellets manufactured by
blending plant waste with distillery sludge and farm waste
with distillery sludge, respectively. The results were com-
pared with the properties of coal to evaluate the feasibility
of using the pellets as a potential alternative fuel source.
Experimental details
Sample collection
The raw materials are coal, distillery sludge, farm waste, and
plant waste. The coal sample was collected from Singareni
Coalfield, Telangana State, India. The distillery sludge sam-
ple was collected from a distillery industry near Vijayawada,
Andhra Pradesh, India. The plant waste used was sourced
from the dry foliage collected within the university campus.
13
Applied Nanoscience
The farm wastes were collected from the nearby farmlands
in Vadlamudi village. All sorts of plant residues that are
taken were dried, powdered, sieved, and used. All these sam-
ples were mixed in required ratios before processing.
Experimental design
The raw samples taken are Coal (C), Distillery Sludge (S),
the samples of plant waste mixed with distillery sludge
(P:S), and farm waste mixed with distillery sludge (F:S)
combined at a ratio of 50:50. This ratio was considered suit-
able based on the study mentioned (Kim et al. 2017). The
notation of the samples is given in Table 1.
Material characterization
The proximate characteristics were carried out by calcu-
lating the moisture content (M) (Aylmer and Rowe 1984),
ash content (A) (Aylmer and Rowe 1984), volatile matter
(V), and fixed carbon (F) (Warne 1991) using the standard
method IS 1350 part 1, 1984. For determination of moisture
content, a hot air oven (REMI, India) was used, wherein
the pre-weighed sample of about 2.5 g was taken in a Petri-
plate and kept at 120 °C for 24 h, following which it was
weighed again and the values noted. For the ash content
analysis ,2.5 g of the sample was kept in a crucible at room
temperature and the heat increased to 815 °C in a Muffle
Furnace (INDFURR Superheat Furnaces, India). The ash
remains were weighed and noted. The volatile matter of fuel
is defined as the carbon that is present in the fuel, which
on heating, converts into volatile matter. The fixed carbon
(F) of the sample is determined by subtracting the percent-
ages of moisture content, volatile matter, and ash content,
from100. The elemental composition analysis method was
carried out in the CHNS Elemental analyzer (2400 Series II
CHNS, Perkin Elmer, USA) as per guidelines mentioned in
IS 1350 part 4, 1999 (Fadeeva et al. 2008). The amount of
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), and Sulphur (S)
was determined where the sample was burnt in the presence
of an excess amount of oxygen and various catalytic traps
were used to collect the combustible products. The trapped
products are finally weighed, which gives the composition
of the samples that are combusted (Yang et al. 2013). The
Table 1  The proportion of samples taken and their notation
Sample name Notation Proportion (%)
Coal C 100
Plant waste mixed with P:S 50:50
distillery sludge
Farm waste mixed with F:S 50:50
distillery sludge
Applied Nanoscience
gross calorific value at constant volume on a dry basis was
determined. To estimate the calorific value, the samples
weighing 0.7–0.9 g are made into pellets and are placed in
a Bomb Calorimeter (IKA C5000, Germany) at controlled
pressure and room temperature according to IS 1350 part 2,
1975. The average of the three trials was used (Telmo et al.
2010). Thermogravimetric analysis was carried out in TGA
Analyzer (TGA 4000, Perkin Elmer, USA) as a final step
that determines the change in mass of the sample with tem-
perature. 5 mg samples were collected in vials and placed
in the sample holder, for temperature measurement.. Highly
pure nitrogen was used to run the tests with a flow rate of
120 mL/min. Inert conditions are needed to be maintained,
before the actual heating starts (a heating rate of 30 K/min
up to 383 K with a holding time of 30 min). The following
thermal decomposition was carried out at a slow heating rate
(5 K/min to a final temperature of 773 K) to keep possible
heat/mass-transfer intrusions at a minimum (Magdziarz and
Werle 2014).
Results and discussion
Proximate and ultimate analysis
The result of the proximate analysis of coal and the other two
sludge mixed samples are graphically represented in Fig. 1.
The Moisture content of coal has a magnitude of 5.60%,
while that of the dried and powdered forms of P:S and F:S
samples is 8.5% and 10.20%, respectively. Considering the
ash content, the moisture content of coal (58.23%) is com-
paratively high with that of the other two samples (36–42%)
(Magdziarz and Werle 2014). The other parameters of fuel
viz., volatile matter and fixed carbon for coal samples are
25.12% and 11.037%, respectively. For P:S, they are 32.35%
and 22.52%, and for F:S, the values are 21.75% and 26.60%,
respectively (Otero et al. 2002). The results of the ultimate
Fig. 1  Proximate analysis of samples
analysis are given in Fig. 2. The main combustible ele-
ment here is found out to be carbon in all the three samples,
within the percentage range of 33–37%. However, the next
major combustible element is hydrogen within the range of
3–3.7%. The gases , nitrogen and sulphur, are combusted
in a range not more than 1.1% (Magdziarz and Wilk 2013).
The least amount of sulphur combustion is in the sample of
coal with 0.56%.
Gross calorific value
The calorific value gives the energy content of the raw mate-
rial that is fired in the bomb calorimeter. The main param-
eters that affect the calorific value are the moisture content
and the ash content of the samples taken (Gunn 1958). The
calorific value of coal, when compared with that of the
other two samples, shows not much drastic change in the
amount of energy released. The value of coal was recorded
as 8967.231 kcal/kg, whereas the sample of P:S indicated
a value of 7121.696 kcal/kg. The sample of F:S showed a
value of 8621.334 kcal/ kg. Studies have reported that the
values of coal have the same properties as that of G-17 coal
(Gunn 1958). Hence, we can take the chance of using our
samples as an alternative source of fuel. The graph that gives
details about the calorific values is given in Fig. 3.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
TGA was performed to study and compare the combus-
tion properties of the synthesized pellets. This major ana-
lytical technique provides the quantitative measurement of
the change in weight as a function of temperature or time
because of pyrolysis and oxidation of the analyte. The tem-
perature rises at the rate of 20 °C per minute, lasting up to
43.5 min to achieve 900 °C under the nitrogen atmosphere.
The analysis was performed for the coal sample (C) with
100% composition, plant waste mixed with distillery sludge
Fig. 2  Ultimate analysis of samples
13

Fig. 3  The gross calorific value of samples
(P:S), and farm waste mixed with distillery sludge (F:S) each
in the ratio of 50:50.
From Fig. 4, a reduction in the weight of the analyte (C)
was observed with an increase in time and temperature. The
weight of coal is reduced with an increase in temperature
from 30 to 900 °C (Table 2). There is 56% reduction in
weight after heating up to 900ºC. The process can be further
subdivided into three steps viz., step 1 (30–105 °C) which
corresponds to the loss of moisture and free water from the
analyte. There was only a 1.57% decrease in the weight,
which denoted that there is no significant reduction in the
weight ensuring the presence of higher moisture content in
coal, which delayed the rate of heat flow across the sample.
The second step corresponds to the temperatures between
250 and 685 °C. There is a significant rapid reduction during
this transition in the loss of weight from 98 to 67%, which is
the maximum loss of weight. This thermal decomposition is
attributed to the loss of volatile organic matter in the sample.
The last step corresponds to the reduction in the weight to
56%, i.e., from the initial weight of 15.5 mg to 8.68 mg after
900 °C. The entire analysis at the tail end after 43.5 min
resulted in the cumulative burning rate of 0.156 mg/min
where the entire coal was burnt and converted into residual
ash. The burning rate was found to increase rapidly with
an increase in the temperature, which could be due to the
combustion of volatile organic matter.
The TGA pattern of plant waste and distillery sludge
(P:S) in the ratio of 50%:50% (Fig.  5) was observed in
many steps viz., the first step corresponds to the loss of
moisture and free water from the sample which is similar to
that observed in the combustion of C and F:S respectively
from 30 to ~ 110 °C (Fig. 6). The next step corresponds to
the thermal decomposition of carbon-rich compounds such
as lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses in the temperature
range 160–385 °C with a weight loss of 12.80% where this
step corresponds to the highest weight loss in the entire anal-
ysis (Table 3). A similar pattern in weight loss was observed
while using orange peel waste (Constantino et al. 2019).
13
Applied Nanoscience
The third step relates to the lignin and xylan degradation
and complete combustion to ash will occur (Braga et al.
2014) where a weight loss of 12.50% was observed during
the temperature rise from 585 to 785 °C (Cheng et al. 2012).
At the end of the analysis, the weight of the biomass was
reduced to 56% at 900 °C. The cumulative burning rate of
0.0745 mg/min was attained after the complete combustion
after 43.5 min.
A reduction in the weight of the analyte (F:S) with an
increase in temperature and time was observed, as shown
in Fig. 6. Table 4 denotes the steps involved in TGA. The
mass of the analyte has decreased to less than 50% of its
original weight at the tail end of the analysis. Initially, the
moisture content of the analyte was evaporated at around
120 °C reducing up to 10.83% of its initial weight which
was achieved within 5 min with a burning rate of 0.0789 g/
min (Ouazzane et al. 2017). This step is followed by the
second stage (180–420 °C) where the hydrolysis of cel-
lulose, hemicelluloses, and lignocelluloses present in the
farm waste and formation of volatile organic compounds
and an evolving mixture of gases such as methane, car-
bon dioxide, and carbon monoxide, and a rapid decline in
the weight could be observed (85–67%) (Blázquez et al.
2014). The loss of weight was found to be rapid during
this stage. The final step involves a decrease in the weight
from 66 to 47% observed during the increase in the tem-
perature above 450 °C due to the thermal decomposition of
lignin and extractives. A rapid fall in the weight of the ana-
lyte with an increase in time was observed and shown in
Fig. 6. The (F: S) pellet had an extremely high cumulative
burning rate of 0.129 mg/min. The high rate of burning is
attributed to the low moisture levels, facilitating a faster
rate of flow of heat across any given pellet (Lubwama et al.
2020). Moreover, according to Kim et al. (2016), it also
corresponds to low ash content and high volatile organic
compounds facilitating a high ignition rate. They observed
a similar pattern of TGA using distillery sludge for the
production of pellets that reported the occurrence of car-
bohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other high molecular
weight polymers that were pyrolyzed at 200–500 °C. Pos-
sibly, this could be the reason for a decline in the weight of
the analyte used in the present study (Oliveira et al. 2017;
Long et al. 2015). The complete pyrolysis of biomass at
high temperatures from the sludge and lignocellulosic
materials with the emission of carbon dioxide and water
was also observed (Long et al. 2015). This was interpreted
in their study due to the presence of high sludge concentra-
tion (Kpalo et al. 2020). From the analysis, the TGA has
elucidated the important properties such as combustion,
composition, and burning rate of pellets that are essential
to be considered as a fuel. The combination of biomass
from farm waste and distillery sludge thus had an exceed-
ingly high burning rate due to low moisture content, good
Applied Nanoscience

Fig. 4  Thermogravimetric analysis of coal

combustion properties, low ash content, and high volatile

organic compounds in the pellet, thus enabling it to be
Table 2  Steps involved in the thermogravimetric analysis of coal used as a fuel (Long et al. 2015). On comparing the burn-
S. No Step Temperature (°C) Weight loss (%) ing rates of three different pellets synthesized, namely C,
P:S, and F:S, the pure coal was found to have the highest
1 I 30–105 1.57
burning rate with 0.156 mg/min followed by farm waste
2 II 250–685 29.94
and sludge with 0.129 mg/min and 0.00745 mg/min for
3 III > 685 11.3
plant waste and sludge. The burning rate of F:S in the

13
 Applied Nanoscience

Fig. 5  Thermogravimetric analysis of plant waste and sludge

present study is comparable with that of the conventional Conclusion

coal which confirms the economic potential of the materi-
als synthesized as alternate fuels. The patterns observed in
the first, second, and third stages of P:S and F:S were quite
similar because of the use of sludge and lignin–cellulose-
based biomass in both the pellets.
The present study elucidates the potential use of farm
waste and plant waste biomass residues as an alternative
fuel source. This study promotes and manifests the use

13
Applied Nanoscience

Fig. 6  Thermogravimetric analysis of farm waste and sludge

Table 3  Steps involved in the thermogravimetric analysis of P:S

S. No Step Temperature (°C) Weight loss (%)
Table 4  Steps involved in the thermogravimetric analysis of F:S
1 I 30–110 2.09 S. No Step Temperature (°C) Weight loss%
2 II 160–385 12.80
3 III 585–785 12.50 1 I 30–120 10.83
4 IV > 785 6.5 2 II 180–420 18.75
3 III > 420 19

13

of biomass waste and distillery sludge as an alternative
fuel source. Pellets made of Coal, P:S, and F:S were pre-
pared and their properties studied. The proximate analysis
of pellets reported moisture content of coal to be 5.60%,
while that of the dried and powdered forms of P:S and
F:S samples was 8.5% and 10.20% respectively. The vola-
tile matter and fixed carbon for coal samples were 25.12%
and 11.037% respectively. For P:S, they are 32.35% and
22.52%; for F:S, the values are 21.75% and 26.60% respec-
tively. The major combustible element is carbon within
the range of 33–37%. The next major combustible ele-
ment is hydrogen within the range of 3–3.7%. Nitrogen
and sulphur are combusted in a negligible amount. The
gross calorific value of pure coal was 8967.231 kcal/kg,
whereas P:S sample indicated a value of 7121.696 kcal/
kg. The pellets produced from F:S showed a value of
8621.334 kcal/kg which is nearer to the gross calorific
value of coal. TGA studies of these samples showed that
the burning rate of F:S pellets (0.129 mg/min) is compa-
rable with conventional coal with 0.156 mg/min at the
tail end of the analysis at 900 °C. Hence, non-renewable
energy sources can be replaced with renewable plant-based
biomass, which possesses high combustion properties and
burning rates, which will significantly contribute to meet
the global demands for sustainable alternative fuels.
Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank the Centre of
Excellence in Bio-resource utilization and management, Vignan’s
Foundation for Science, Technology, and Research, Vadlamudi, Gun-
tur, Andhra Pradesh, India, for the support in sample analysis.
Declarations  49:204–211
Conflict of interest  Authors confirm that this manuscript has no con-
flict of interest.
References
Aylmer DM, Rowe MW (1984) A new method for the simultaneous
determination of pyrite content and proximate analysis in coal.
Thermochim Acta 78:81–92
Blázquez GG, Mónica CH, Carmen MG, María TCP, Alicia RG,
María ÁML (2014) Characterization and modeling of pyrolysis
of the two-phase olive mill solid waste. Fuel Process Technol
126:104–111
Braga RM, Melo DMA, Aquino FM, Freitas JCO, Melo MAF, Barros
JMF, Fontes MSB (2014) Characterization and comparative study
of pyrolysis kinetics of the rice husk and the elephant grass. J
Therm Anal Calorim 115:1915–1920
Brunekreef B, Stephen TH (2002) Air pollution and health. The Lancet
360(9341):1233–1242
Chandra V, Brauer M, Tibrewal K, Sadavarte P, Ma Q, Cohen A, Chali-
yakunnel S, Frostad J, Klimont Z, Martin RV, Millet DB, Philip
S, Walker K, Wang S (2018) Source influence on emission path-
ways and ambient ­PM2.5 pollution over India (2015–2050). Atmos
Chem Phys 18:8017–8039
13
Applied Nanoscience
Cheng K, William TW, Arthur JS (2012) A modulated-TGA approach
to the kinetics of lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis/combustion.
Polym Degrad and Stab 97(9):1606–1615
Chowdhary P, Ashutosh Y, Gaurav K, Ram NB (2017) Distillery waste-
water: a major source of environmental pollution and its biologi-
cal treatment for environmental safety. Green technologies and
environmental sustainability. Springer International Publishing,
Berlin, pp 409–435
Chowdhary P, Abhay R, Ram NB (2018) Chemosphere environmental
pollution and health hazards from distillery wastewater and treat-
ment approaches to combat the environmental threats: a review.
Chemosphere 194:229–246
Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, Anderson HR, Frostad J, Estep
K (2017) Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden
of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of
data from the global burden of diseases study 2015. The Lancet
6736(17):1–12
Constantino GS, Andersen SLF, Costa RL, Moreira RFPM, Jose HJ
(2019) Bioenergetic potential of ponkan peel waste (citrus reticu-
lata) pyrolysis by kinetic modelling and product characterization.
Biomass Bioenerg 131:105401
David C, Arivazhagan M, Mishrra A (2020) Treatment of spent wash
effluent using kaolin immobilised nano ZnO photocatalyst and
material characterisation. Indian Chem Eng 62(2):138–149
Fadeeva VP, Tikhova VD, Nikulicheva ON (2008) Elemental analysis
of organic compounds with the use of automated CHNS analyzers.
J Anal Chem 63(11):1094–1106
Feldstein M, Duckworth S, Wohlers SC, Linsky B (2012) The contribu-
tion of the open burning of land clearing debris to air pollution. J
Air Pollut Control Assoc 13(11):542–564
Golshan M, Faghihi M, Zamir TR, Marandi MM, Esteki B, Dadvand P,
Far HF, Rahmati S, Islami F (2002) Early effects of burning rice
farm residues on respiratory symptoms of villagers in suburbs of
Isfahan. Iran Int J Environ Health Res 12(2):125–131
Gunn SR (1958) Rocking bomb calorimeter for measuring heats of
solution. Rev Sci Instrum 377(1958):1–5
Kim M, Lee Y, Park J, Ryu C, Ohm TI (2016) Partial oxidation of
sewage sludge briquettes in a updraft fixed bed. Waste Manag
Kim D, Park S, Park KY (2017) Upgrading the fuel properties of sludge
and low rank coal mixed fuel through hydrothermal carbonization.
Energy 141:598–602
Kpalo SY, Zainuddin MF, Manaf LA, Rosian AM (2020) Production
and characterization of hybrid briquettes from corncobs and oil
palm trunk bark under a low pressure densification technique.
Sustainability 12(6):2468
Kumar A, Kushwaha KK, Singh S, Shivay YS, Meena MC, Nain L
(2019) Effect of paddy straw burning on soil microbial dynam-
ics in sandy loam soil of Indo-Gangetic plains. Environ Technol
Innov 16:100469
Long Y, Ruan L, Lv X, Lv Y, Su J, Wen Y (2015) TG-FTIR analysis of
pyrolusite reduction by major biomass components. Chin J Chem
Eng 23(10):1691–1697
Lubwama M, Yiga VA, Muhairwe F, Kihedu J (2020) Physical and
combustion properties of agricultural residue bio-char bio-com-
posite briquettes as sustainable domestic energy sources. Renew
Energy 148:1002–1015
Magdziarz A, Werle S (2014) Analysis of the combustion and pyrol-
ysis of dried sewage sludge by TGA and MS. Waste Manag
34(1):174–179
Magdziarz A, Wilk M (2013) Thermogravimetric study of biomass,
sewage sludge and coal combustion. Energy Convers Manag
75(2013):425–430
Manyuchi MM, Mbohwa C, Muzenda E (2019) Evaluating the usabil-
ity of bio coal from sugar cane bagasse as a solid fuel. Procedia
Manuf 33:516–521
Applied Nanoscience
Mitchual SJ, Mensah KF, Darkwa NA, Akowuah JO (2013) Briquettes
from maize cobs and ceiba pentandra at room temperature and
low compacting pressure without a binder. Int J Energy Environ
Eng 38:1–7
Oliveira RSD, Palácio SM, Silva EA, Mariani FQ, Reinehr TO (2017)
Briquettes production for use as power source for combustion
using charcoal thin waste and sanitary sewage sludge. Environ
Sci Pollut Res Int 24(11):10778–10785
Otero M, Diez C, Calvo LF, Garcia AI, Moran A (2002) Analysis of
the co-combustion of sewage sludge and coal by TG-MS. Biomass
Bioenerg 22(4):319–329
Ouazzane H, Laajine F, Yamani ME, Hilaly E, Rharrabti Y, Ama-
rouch MY, Mazouzi D (2017) Olive mill solid waste characteriza-
tion and recycling opportunities: a review. J Mater Environ Sci
8(8):2632–2650
Phonphuak N, Thiansem S (2012) Using charcoal to increase proper-
ties and durability of fired test briquettes. Constr Build Mater
29:612–618
Regueira LN, Anon JAR, Proupin P, Mourino B, Diaz RA (2005)
Energetic study of residual forest biomass using calorimetry and
thermal analysis. J Therm Anal Calorim 80:457–464
Rezania S, Fadhil M, Kamaruddin SF, Taib SM, Singh L, Yong EL,
Dahalan FA (2016) Evaluation of water hyacinth (Eichhornia cras-
sipes) as a potential raw material source for briquette production.
Energy 111:768–773
Satyawali Y, Balakrishnan M (2008) Wastewater treatment in molasses-
based alcohol distilleries for COD and color removal: a review. J
Environ Manag 86(3):481–497
Silva SM, Sampaio KA, Ceriani R, Verhe R, Stevens C, Greyt
WD, Meirelles AJA (2014) Effect of type of bleaching earth
on the final color of refined palm oil. LWT-Food Sci Technol
59(2):1258–1264
Sun B, Yu J, Tahmasebi A, Han Y (2014) An experimental study on
binderless briquetting of chinese lignite: effects of briquetting
conditions. Fuel Process Technol 124:243–248
Telmo C, Lousada J, Moreira N (2010) Proximate analysis, backwards
stepwise regression between gross calorific value, ultimate and
chemical analysis of wood. Biores Technol 101(11):3808–3815
Venkataraman C, Brauer M, Tibrewal K, Sadavarte P, Ma Q, Cohen
A, Chaliyakunnel S, Frostad J, Klimont Z, Martin RV, Millet DB,
Philip S, Walker K, Wang S (2018) Source influence on emission
pathways and ambient PM2.5 pollution over India (2015–2050).
Atmos Chem Phys 18(11):8017–8039
Ward BJ, Yacob TW, Montoya LD (2014) Evaluation of solid
fuel char briquettes from human waste. Environ Sci Technol
48(16):9852–9858
Warne SSJ (1991) Proximate analysis of coal, oil shale, low-quality
fossil fuels and related materials by thermogravimetry. Trends
Analyt Chem 10(6):195–199
Werle S (2015) Sewage sludge-to-energy management in Eastern
Europe: a Polish perspective sewage sludge production in Poland.
Ecol Chem Eng S 22(3):459–469
Yang X, Robles JA, Wang X, Chen LWA, Watson JG, Chow JC (2013)
CHNS analysis of aerosols on a modified thermal/optical carbon
analyzer: system setup and calibration protocol. In: air and waste
management association’s 106th annual conference and exhibi-
tion, p 1–9
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
13