12

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Guided Learning Activity Kit
Radio Pulses and Special Theory
of Relativity
Quarter 2- Week 4
Physical Science – Grade 12
Guided Learning Activity Kit
Radio Pulses and Special Theory of Relativity
Quarter 2- Week 4

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Guided Learning Activity Kit Development Team

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 Radio Pulses and
Special Theory of Relativity

Introduction

Do you think the universe is a very organized place? It seems that all the
forces and motions in it- all the interactions within it- are governed by the natural
laws. In the previous lessons, we were able to reconcile matter and energy, and waves
and particles. What we think perhaps is that among the multiplicities in this world,
there is somehow an underlying unity.

In this lesson, we will try to follow the same train of thoughts which led
Einstein to the Theory of Relativity. Moreover, we will also deal with an astounding
discovery of Hertz on radio pulses which he never realized to bring a great impact to
the world. After reading this Guided Learning Activity Kit, it is hoped that you will
have a fresh awareness of relativity and radio pulses which will grow into fullness as
you move on to further studies.

Learning Competencies

• Describe how Hertz produced radio pulses (S11/12PS-IVi-68); and

• Explain how special relativity resolved the conflict between Newtonian
mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (S11/12PS-IVi-j-69).

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 Objectives

At the end of this Guided Learning Activity Kit, you are expected to:

1. describe Hertz’s first transmission of radio waves;

2. relate Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory to
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity; and
3. state how Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity resolved the conflict
between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.

Review

Directions: Let us recall our previous GLAK Week 3 lessons by answering the
questions indicated in each picture.

1. 2. 3.
What property of light What property of light What property of light
does this picture does this picture does this picture
depict? Describe that depict? Describe that depict? Describe that
property. property. property.

4. 5. 6.
What light What light What light
phenomenon is shown phenomenon is shown phenomenon is shown
by the picture? by the picture? by the picture?
Describe it. Describe it. Describe it.

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 Discussion

LESSON 1: HERTZ’S DISCOVERY OF RADIO PULSES

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell published his theory about the
electromagnetic waves (EM waves). According to Maxwell’s theory, EM waves travel
at the speed of light, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, and are created by oscillating electric and
magnetic fields moving perpendicular to each other, in which a changing electric
field yields a changing magnetic field and vice versa.

In November 1886, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz became the first person to transmit
and receive controlled radio waves using induction coil, Leyden jar as a condenser
and a spark gap. However, considering the fact that his wireless transmissions
became so very essential, he had no practical purpose in mind about his radio or
Hertzian waves at the time he discovered it. His discovery was merely focused on
proving Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism.

Hertz's First Transmission of Radio Waves

While Heinrich Hertz had been demonstrating a piece of electrical apparatus

called Riess spirals to his students, the spirals produced electric sparks (called
magnetic induction). These sparks flew between spark-gaps (small gaps in circuits).
Hertz eventually became fascinated by the sparks and later he started generating
them using a piece of electrical equipment called an induction coil.

Image Source: Famousscientists.Org, 2020.

Figure 1. Riess Spirals

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 On the right side is a diagram of an induction coil connected to a spark-gap.

With the apparatus, Hertz connected a secondary spark-

gap to the existing spark-gap (Refer to Figure 2). In order to
generate high voltage ac electricity, he used the induction coil
which also produced a series of sparks at regular intervals at
the main spark-gap. Hertz learned that when sparks flew across
the main gap, sparks also usually flew across the secondary gap
(that is between points A and B in the figure), which he referred
to as side-sparks. The behavior of these side-sparks drove Hertz
to give these much attention. He changed the position of
connection point C on the side-circuit. He observed that the
only way to stop producing side-sparks was to arrange the Image Source:
apparatus, letting the length of wire CA was the same as CB. Famousscientists.Org,
2020.
Assuming the electricity was ac, this suggested to Hertz Figure 2. Hertz’s
spark testing circuit
that voltage waves were separately racing through the wire
along paths CA and CB. If the distances CA and CB were the same, then the same
voltage must reach points A and B at the same time. The electrical waves in CA and
CB were said to be in phase with one another, so sparks could not be produced (Refer
to Figure 3). Sparks could only be produced if a large voltage difference between
points A and B was present.

Image Source: Famousscientists.Org, 2020.

Figure 3. Distances CA and CB are equal.
Voltage waves reach the spark-gap in
phase with one-another. There is no
voltage difference between A and B, so no
sparks jump over the gap.

Moreover, Hertz performed more experiments to reveal that the sparking at

the main gap could produce regular electrical waves. He figured out that waves of
electric charge move back and forth, forming a standing wave within the wire. He
believed that the circuit was vibrating like a tuning fork at its natural, resonant
frequency. He thought of a circuit in resonance. Although in Hertz’s circuit, the
vibrations were not of sound, but rather vibrations of electric charge.

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 Below shows the actual apparatus of Hertz used in his experiment.

Image Source: Famousscientists.Org, 2020.

Figure 4. Hertz’s spark-gap transmitter

Hertz used a length of rectangular copper wire (with a dimension of 120 cm x

80 cm) with its own spark-gap for his receiver. He applied high voltage ac electricity
across the central spark-gap of the transmitter to generate sparks. The sparks then
created violent pulses of electric current within the copper wires leading out to the
zinc spheres.

In the experiment, Hertz actually detected radio waves with his copper wire
receiver (sparks jumped across its spark gap), even it was about 1.5 meters away
from the transmitter. These sparks were due to the arrival of electromagnetic waves
from the transmitter generating violent electrical vibrations in the receiver.

The experiment was an experimental victory. However, Hertz did not

appreciate the practical significance of his discovery, which soon changed the world.
In fact, Guglielmo Marconi had been granted a patent for wireless communications
in 1896, and he had made a wireless transmission across the Atlantic Ocean from
Britain to Canada in 1901.

Lesson 2: Special Theory of Relativity

Galilean-Newtonian Relativity and Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory
The special theory of relativity deals with events that are observed and
measured from so-called inertial reference frames, which are reference frames
wherein the Newton’s first law of motion is valid. It is easiest to analyze events when
they are observed and measured from inertial frames, and the Earth, though not
quite an inertial frame (it rotates), is close enough that for most purposes we can
consider it an inertial frame. Rotating or otherwise accelerating frames of reference
are non-inertial frames, and Einstein dealt with such complicated frames or
reference in his general theory of relativity.

A reference frame that moves with constant velocity with respect to an inertial
frame is itself an inertial frame, since Newton’s law likewise holds in it. When we say
we observe or make measurements from a certain reference frame, it means that we
are at rest in that reference frame.

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 Newton and Galileo were aware of what we now call the relativity principle
applied to mechanics: that the basic laws of physics are the same in all inertial
reference frames. The validity of this principle may have been recognized in everyday
life. For example, objects move in the same way in a smoothly moving (constant-
velocity) train or airplane as they do on Earth. (This assumes no vibrations or
rocking-for they would make the reference frame non-inertial.) When you walk, drink
a cup of water, play badminton, or drop a coin on the floor while traveling in a train,
airplane, or ship moving at constant velocity, the bodies move just as they do when
you are at rest on Earth.

On the other hand, Galilean-Newtonian relativity comprises certain

unprovable assumptions, giving sense from everyday experience. It is assumed that
the lengths of objects are the same in one reference frame as in another, and that
time passes at the same rate in different reference frames. In classical mechanics,
space and time are considered to be absolute: their measurement does not change
from one reference frame to another. The mass of an object, the same true with all
forces, are assumed to be unchanged by a change in inertial reference frame.

The position of an object is really different when specified in different reference

frames, and so is velocity. For example, a person may walk inside a bus toward the
front with a speed of 5 km/h. But if the bus moves 40 km/h with respect to the
Earth, the person is then moving with a speed of 45 km/h with respect to the earth.
The acceleration of a body, however, is the same in any inertial reference frame
according to classical mechanics. This is because the change in velocity, and the
time interval, will be the same.

Since neither F, m, nor a changes from one inertial frame to another, then
Newton’s second law, F=ma, does not change. Thus, Newton’s second law satisfies
the relativity principle. It is easily shown that the other laws of mechanics also satisfy
the relativity principle.

The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial reference frames implies
that no one inertial frame is special in any sense. We express this important
conclusion by saying that all inertial reference frames are equivalent for the
description of mechanical phenomena. No one inertial reference frame is any better
than another. A reference frame fixed to a car or an aircraft traveling at constant
velocity is as good as one fixed on the Earth. When you travel smoothly at constant
velocity in a car or airplane, it is just as valid to say you are at rest and the earth is
moving as it is to say the reverse. There is no experiment you can do to tell which
frame is “really’ at rest and which is moving. Therefore, there is no way to single out
one particular reference frame as being at absolute rest.

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 In the last half of the nineteenth century, however, a complication arose when
Maxwell presented his comprehensive theory of electromagnetism, showing that light
can be considered an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell’s equations predicted that the
velocity of light c would be 3.00 𝑥𝑥 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠; and this is just what is measured, within
experimental error. The question then arose: in what reference frame does light have
precisely the value predicted by Maxwell’s theory? It was then assumed that light
would have a different speed in different frames of reference. Yet, Maxwell’s
equations have no provision for relative velocity. It was predicted that the speed of
light would be 𝑐𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥𝑥 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠. This seemed to imply there must be some special
reference frame where c would have this value.

Nonetheless, nineteenth-century physicists viewed the material world in

terms of the laws of mechanics, so it was natural for them to assume that light must
also travel in some medium. They called this transparent medium the ether and
assumed it permeated all space. It was therefore assumed that the velocity of light
given by Maxwell’s equations must be with respect to the ether.

However, it appeared that Maxwell’s equations did not satisfy the relativity
principle. They were not the same in all inertial reference frames. They were simplest
in the frame where 𝑐𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥𝑥 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠; that is, in a reference frame at rest in the ether.
In any other reference frame, extra terms would have to be added to take into account
the relative velocity. Thus, although most of the laws of physics obeyed the relativity
principle, the laws of electricity and magnetism apparently did not. Instead, they
seemed to single out one reference frame that was better than any other – a reference
frame that could be considered absolutely at rest.

Postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity

The problems that existed at the turn of the century with regard to
electromagnetic theory and Newtonian mechanics were beautifully resolved by the
introduction of Einstein the theory of relativity in 1905. What motivated Einstein
were certain questions regarding electromagnetic theory and light waves. For
example, he asked himself: “What would I see if I rode a light beam?” The answer
was that instead of a traveling electromagnetic wave, he would see alternating
electric and magnetic fields at rest whose magnitude changed in space, but did not
change in time. Such fields, he realized, had never been detected and indeed were
not consistent with Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. He argued, therefore, that it
was unreasonable to think that the speed of light relative to any observer could be
reduced to zero, or in fact reduced at all. This idea became the second postulate of
his theory of relativity.

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 Einstein concluded that the inconsistencies he found in electromagnetic
theory were due to the assumption that an absolute space exists. In his well-known
1905 paper, he proposed doing away completely with the idea of the ether and the
accompanying assumption of an absolute reference frame at rest. This proposal was
embodied in two postulates. The first postulate was an extension of the Newtonian
relativity principle to include not only the laws of mechanics but also those of the
rest of physics, including electricity and magnetism:

First postulate (the relativity principle): The laws of physics have the
same form in all inertial reference frames.

The second postulate is consistent with the first:

Second postulate (constancy of the speed of light): Light propagates

through empty space with a definite speed c independent of the speed of the
source or observer.

These two postulates form the foundation of Einstein’s special theory of

relativity. It is called “special” to distinguish it from his later “general theory of
relativity,” which deals with non-inertial (accelerating) reference frames.

The second postulate may seem hard to accept, for it violates commonsense
notions. First of all, we have to think of light traveling through empty space. Giving
up the ether is not too hard, however, for after all, it had never been detected. But
the second postulate also tells us that the speed of light in vacuum is always the
same, 3.00 𝑥𝑥 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠, no matter what the speed of the observer or the source. Thus,
a person traveling toward or away from a source of light will measure the same speed
for that light as someone at rest with respect to the source. This conflicts with our
everyday notions, for we would expect to have to add in the velocity of the observer.
Part of the problem is that in our everyday experience, we do not measure velocities
anywhere near as large as the speed of light. Thus, we cannot expect our everyday
experience to be helpful when dealing with such a high velocity.

Einstein’s proposal has a certain beauty. For by doing away with the idea of
an absolute reference frame, it was possible to reconcile classical mechanics with
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. The speed of light predicted by Maxwell’s
equations is the speed of light in vacuum in any reference frame.

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 Activities

Guided Practice 1
Directions: Write T if the statement is correct. If otherwise, copy the word(s) that
make(s) the statement FALSE and write the correct word(s).

1. Heinrich Hertz is considered as the first person who transmitted and received
radio pulses.

2. Electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillating electric and magnetic fields

moving parallel to each other.

3. Side-sparks are the sparks that flew across the main gap in Hertz’s apparatus.

4. Guglielmo Marconi made a wireless transmission across the Atlantic Ocean from
Britain to Canada in 1901.

5. Hertz detected radio waves with a copper wire receiver even if it had a distance of
1.5 centimeters away from the transmitter.

6. A reference frame that moves with constant velocity with respect to an inertial
frame is itself an inertial frame.

7. The laws of electricity and magnetism satisfy the relativity principle as the other
laws of physics do.

8. According to Einstein, the speed of light predicted by Maxwell’s equations is the

speed of light in vacuum in any reference frame.

9. The relativity principle states that the laws of physics have different form in all
inertial reference frames.

10. James Clerk Maxwell is known for his theory on electromagnetic waves.

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Guided Practice 2
Directions: Analyze the questions. Then, answer each question briefly but concisely.

1. How did Einstein explain Maxwell’s equations which predicted the speed of light?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Will a rotating platform be considered an inertial frame? Why or why not?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. How do you describe the motion of a coin dropped by a person in a moving car
under the following conditions:

a. in a reference frame of the car;

b. in a reference frame fixed on the Earth?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. You are in a windowless car in an exceptionally smooth train. Is there any physical
experiment you can do in the train car to determine whether you are moving? Explain

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. A worker stands on top of a moving railroad car, and throws a heavy ball straight
up (from his point of view). Ignoring air resistance, will the ball land on the car or
behind it? Explain

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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Independent Practice

Think Like Einstein!

Directions: Each box consists of additional information about Einstein’s Special

Theory of Relativity. Answer the question provided in each box.

A. The speed of light is actually constant and space

and time are relative.

Question: What do you think would happen if you

were able to travel at the speed of light? How would the
universe be perceived by your senses?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Special Theory of
Relativity

B. Time goes more slowly for objects moving close

to the speed of light than for you.

Question: If you could travel close to the speed of light,

what would your age be as compared when you
remained on Earth?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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 Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. EM waves travel at the speed of ____________.
a. sound b. energy c. light d. wind

2. According to Maxwell’s theory, a changing electric field produces a ____________.

a. changing magnetic field c. constant electric field
b. changing electric field d. constant magnetic field

3. What event in Hertz’s experiment made him think that EM waves are being
transmitted?
a. production of spark c. production of light
b. production of sound d. production of wave

4. In order for EM waves to be generated, how should changing electric and magnetic
fields be oriented to each other?
a. parallel c. at any angle
b. perpendicular d. in any direction

5. What do you call a piece of electrical apparatus demonstrated by Heinrich Hertz

to his students which produced electric sparks?
a. spark testing circuit c. Riess spirals
c. spark-gap transmitter d. None of the above

6. Which of the following is/are TRUE about electrical waves produced by the sparks
at the main gap?
I. Waves of electric charge move back and forth.
II. Circuits’ vibrations are vibrations of electric charge.
a. I only b. II only c. Both I and II d. Neither I nor II

7. ______________ had been granted a patent for wireless communications in 1896.

a. James Clerk Maxwell c. Heinrich Hertz
b. Isaac Newton d. Guglielmo Marconi

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8. What did Hertz discover while he was working on his experiment using induction
coil connected to a spark-gap?
a. As sparks flew across the main gap, sparks also flew across the secondary
gap.
b. Sparks generated at the main gap could produce regular electrical waves.
c. Voltage waves were separately racing through the wire along given paths.
d. Nothing happened.

9. The principle of relativity states that the laws of physics are

a. different in different reference frames.
b. the same form in all inertial reference frames.
c. varying except when the systems are in uniform relative motion.
d. none of the above.

10. Which of the following is considered to be absolute and assumed to be unchanged

by a change in inertial reference frame in classical mechanics?
a. length and volume c. time and space
b. mass and force d. both b and c

11. Which of the following hold(s) TRUE with the statement, “The laws of mechanics
are the same in all inertial reference frames”?
I. All inertial reference frames are equivalent for the description of mechanical
phenomena.
II. No one inertial reference frame is any better than another.
a. I only b. II only c. I and II d. Neither I nor II

12. The principle of the constancy of the speed of light states that
a. the speed of light in empty space has the same value in all inertial reference
frames.
b. the speed of light in empty space is indefinite and dependent on the speed
of the source.
c. the speed of light varies depending on the source or observer.
d. All of the above.

13. The special theory of relativity deals with events that are observed and measured
from so-called ________________.
a. velocity of the object c. accelerated moving body
c. speed of light d. inertial reference frames

14. The speed of light is

a. 3.0 x 102 m/s c. 3.2 x 108 m/s
b. 3.0 x 108 m/s d. varying

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15. What do you call the rotating or accelerating frames of reference?
a. inertial frames c. accelerated frames
b. noninertial frames d. time machine

Reflection

Concepts to be Remembered:

1. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz is considered as the first person who transmitted and
received radio waves with the use of induction coil, Leyden jar as a condenser and a
spark gap.

2. Hertz became fascinated by the sparks produced by the Riess spirals and jumped
over spark-gaps. Later, he started generating sparks using an induction coil.

3. An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s law of inertia holds. Inertial
reference frames can move at constant velocity relative to one another; accelerating
reference frames are non-inertial.

4. Maxwell’s equations predicted that the velocity of light c would be 3.00 x 108 m/s;
and this is just what is measured, within experimental error.

5. The special theory of relativity is based on two principles: the relativity principle,
which states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames,
and the principle of the constancy of the speed of light, which states that the speed
of light in empty space has the same value in all inertial reference frames.

6. Keeping away with the idea of an absolute reference frame, the classical mechanics
and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory may possibly be reconciled. According to
Einstein, the speed of light predicted by Maxwell’s equations is the speed of light in
vacuum in any reference frame.

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 References

Giancoli, Douglas. Physics: Principles with Applications. 5th ed. Reprint, Singapore:
Pearson Education, Asia Pte Ltd, 1999.

Moncada, Maria Noemi, Roly Bayo-Ang, Maria Lourdes Coronacion, Annamae Jorda,
and Anna Jamille Restubog. Physical Science for Senior High School. Reprint,
Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation, 2016.

Portugal, Hideliza, Alicia Padua, Emma Fondevilla, Ricardo Crisostomo, and Henry
Ramos. Science and Technology for Fourth Year. Reprint, Metro Manila: Vibal
Publishing House, Inc., 1997.

Scientists, Top, List Scientists, The Doc, Brian kai, Evans Otundo, Amy Douglas-
McVay, Samiran Dam, Charles Robinson, and The Doc. "How Heinrich Hertz
Discovered Radio Waves". Famousscientists.Org, 2020.
https://www.famousscientists.org/how-hertz-discovered-radio-
waves/#:~:text=Hertz%20applied%20high%20voltage%20a.c.,of%20the%20
transmitter%2C%20creating%20sparks.&text=As%20Maxwell%20had%20p
redicted%2C%20the,the%20air%20around%20the%20wire.

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Review Guide Practice 2
1. Interference. When the waves reflected from Suggested Answers
the inner and outer surface combine, they will 1. According to Einstein, the speed of light c
interfere with each other, causing some parts predicted by Maxwell’s equations is the speed
of white light to be removed or reinforced by of light c in vacuum in any reference frame.
destructive or constructive interference; The speed of light c is an absolute speed limit
hence, colors are also formed. in the universe.
2. Dispersion. This is a process by which light 2. No. An object at rest starts moving outward
is separated into its color components due to even though nobody exerts a force on it.
differences in degrees of refraction. 3. (a.) In a reference frame of the car, the coin
3. Diffraction. This takes place when a light falls straight down. (b) In a reference frame
wave passes by a corner or through an fixed on the Earth, the coin follows a curved
opening or slit which is physically the (parabolic) path.
approximate size of, or even smaller than that 4. None. When you travel smoothly at
light's wavelength. constant velocity in a train car, it is just as
4. Halo. This phenomenon occurs due to the valid to say you are at rest and the earth is
refraction of light passing through the moving as it is to say the reverse. There is no
crystals, or the reflection of light from crystal experiment you can do to tell which frame is
faces, or a combination of both. “really” at rest and which is moving.
5. (Red) Sunset. During sunset, the light that 5. Behind the car. The heavy ball will be
reaches the eyes has already traveled a long dropped within the Earth’s frame of reference.
path through the atmosphere, and the blue Thus, it follows a parabolic path.
light has been mostly removed, making red
and yellow light remain in the atmosphere. Independent Practice
6. (Grayish, Dark) Rainclouds. The water A. Answer may vary. Please be guided with
vapor clumps together into raindrops, leaving this concept, “According to Einstein, we will
larger spaces between drops of water. The never know what it is like to travel at the speed
reflected light is also less. of light because we will never be able to go that
fast.”
B. If you could travel close to the speed of
Guide Practice 1 light, you would age more slowly than if you
1. T remained on Earth.
2. parallel- perpendicular
3. main gap- secondary gap Assessment
4. T 1. c
5. centimeters- meters 2. a
6. T 3. a
7. satisfy- do not satisfy 4. b
8. T 5. c
9. different- the same 6. c
10. T 7. d
8. a
9. b
10. d
11. c
12. a
13. d
14. b
15. b
Key to Corrections
 Acknowledgment

The Schools Division of Zambales would like to express its heartfelt gratitude
to the following, who in one way or the other, have contributed to the successful
preparation, development, quality assurance, printing, and distribution of the
Quarter 2 Guided Learning Activity Kits (GLAKs) in all learning areas across grade
levels as a response to providing the learners with developmentally-appropriate,
contextualized and simplified learning resources with most essential learning
competencies (MELCs)-based activities anchored on the principles of guided learning
and explicit instruction:

First, the Learning Resources (LR) Development Team composed of the writers
and graphic artists for devoting much of their time and exhausting their best efforts
to produce these indispensable learning kits used for the implementation of learning
delivery modalities.

Second, the content editors, language reviewers, and layout evaluators

making up the Division Quality Assurance Team (DQAT) for having carefully
evaluated all GLAKs to ensure quality and compliance to DepEd standards;

Third, the Provincial Government of Zambales, for unceasingly extending its

financial assistance to augment the funds for the printing of these learning resources
for use by learners and parents at home;

Fourth, the teacher-advisers and subject teachers, in close coordination with

the school heads, for their weekly distribution and retrieval of the GLAKs and for
their frequent monitoring of the learners’ progress through various means; and

Finally, the parents and other home learning facilitators for giving the learners
the needed guidance and support for them to possibly accomplish the tasks and for
gradually helping them become independent learners.

To deliver learning continuity in this challenging circumstance would not be

possible without your collective effort and strong commitment to serving our
Zambaleño learners.

Again, our sincerest thanks!

The Management Team

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