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Atoms
Mark F. Sayas, RMT, MSMLS (c.u)
Professor, Department of Medical Laboratory Science
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Classification of Matter
Compound: A pure substance that is made up of two or more
elements in a fixed ratio by mass.
Formula of a compound: tells us the ratios of its constituent elements
and identifies each element by its atomic symbol.
▪ NaCl: the ratio of sodium atoms to chlorine atoms in sodium chloride is 1:1
▪ H2O: the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in water is 2:1
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A Water Molecule
• Figure 2-2 Four representations of a water molecule.
Classification of Matter
Classification of Matter
Element: A substance (for example, carbon, hydrogen, and iron) that
consists of identical atoms.
▪ There are 118 known elements.
▪ Of these, 98 occur in nature; the others have been made by chemists and
physicists.
▪ Their symbols consist of one or two letters.
▪ Names are derived from a variety of sources: the English name of the element,
people important in atomic science, geographic locations, planets,
mythological sources, etc.
Classification of Matter
Mixture: A combination of two or more pure substances.
▪ The substances may be present in any mass ratio.
▪ Each substance has a different set of physical properties.
▪ Mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
▪ If we know the physical properties of the individual components of the
mixture, we can use appropriate. physical means to separate the mixture into
its component parts.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory Evidence for Dalton’s Theory

▪ John Dalton (1766-1844) Law of Conservation of Mass

▪ All matter is composed of very tiny particles, which Dalton called ▪ Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
atoms. ▪ As Dalton explained, if matter is made up of indestructible atoms, then any
chemical reaction just changes the attachments among atoms, but does not
▪ All atoms of the same element have the same chemical properties. destroy the atoms themselves.
Atoms of different elements have different chemical properties.
▪ Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more
of the same or different kinds of atoms.
▪ Molecules are a tightly bound combination of two or more atoms that
acts as a single unit.

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Evidence for Dalton’s Theory Subatomic Particles

Law of Conservation of Mass

Monatomic elements consist of single atoms; for example, helium
(He) and neon (Ne).
Diatomic elements: There are seven elements that occur as diatomic
molecules:
▪ H2, N 2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I 2
Polyatomic elements: Some elements have three or more atoms per
molecule:
▪ O3, P4, S8
▪ The unit of mass is given in atomic mass units (amu).
▪ Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded together to form one gigantic
cluster. ▪ One amu is defined as the mass of an atom of carbon with 6
protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus.
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g

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A Typical Atom Mass and Atomic Number

Figure 2-6 Relative
sizes of the atomic
nucleus and an atom.
Mass number: The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
▪ The mass of the electrons in an atom is so small compared to that of its
protons and neutrons that electrons are not counted in determining mass
number.
Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as carbon-12.

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Isotopes Atomic Weight

Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a different Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in amu) of the
number of neutrons. naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
▪ Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons ▪ Example: Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 and 24.23% chlorine-37
▪ Carbon-13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons
▪ Carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons
Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes.
▪ Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and 24.23% chlorine-37 (20
neutrons).

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Mass and Size of an Atom Periodic Table

Consider an atom of lead-208. Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)

▪ A lead-208 atom has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 208 - 82 = 126 neutrons.
▪ The mass of a lead-208 atom is 3.5 x 10-22 g.
▪ It requires 1.3 x 1024 atoms of lead-208 to make 1 lb.
▪ The diameter of a lead-208 atom is 3.1 x 10-10 m.
▪ Virtually all of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, because the
nucleus contains its protons and neutrons.
▪ The diameter of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 10-14 m.
▪ The density of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 1014 g/cm3.
▪ Arranged the known elements in order of increasing atomic weight beginning
with hydrogen.
▪ He observed that when elements are arranged in this manner, certain sets of
properties recur periodically.
▪ He then arranged elements with recurring sets of properties in the same
column (vertical row); Li, Na, and K, for example, fall in the same column and
start new periods (horizontal rows).

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Classification of the Elements

Figure 2.8 The four halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are gases,
bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.

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Classification of the Elements Classification of the Elements

Metals
• Are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is a liquid), shiny,
conduct electricity, and are ductile and malleable.
• Form alloys (solutions of one metal dissolved in another); brass, for example,
is an alloy of copper and zinc.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to give up electrons.
Nonmetals
• Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the Periodic Table.
• Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons.
Metalloids
▪ They have some of the properties of metals and some of nonmetals; for
example, they are shiny like metals but, unlike metals, do not conduct
electricity.
▪ Six elements are classified as metalloids: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium. B Si Ge As Sb Te
▪ One of the metalloids, silicon, is a semiconductor; it does not conduct
electricity under certain applied voltages, but becomes a conductor at higher
applied voltages.

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Examples of Periodicity Examples of Periodicity

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Examples of Periodicity Electron Configuration

Electron configuration: The arrangement of electrons in the

extranuclear space.
▪ The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized, which means that an
electron in an atom can have only certain allowed energies.
Ground-state electron configuration: The electron configuration of
the lowest energy state of an atom.

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

Rule 1: Obitals fill in the order of increasing energy from lowest to Figure 2-13 Energy levels for orbitals through the third shell.
highest. For elements in the first three periods; the order is
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d (Figure 2-13).
Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with spins paired.
▪ With four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and are written 1s2 2s2.
▪ With an additional six electrons, the three 2p orbitals are filled and are
written either 2px2 2py2 2pz2, or they may be written 2p6.

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

Figure 2-14 The pairing of electron spins.
Figure 3-12 The 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals. Orbitals have definite shapes
and orientations in space

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy, each orbital Orbital box diagrams
becomes half filled before any of them becomes completely filled. ▪ A box represents an orbital.
▪ Example: After the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled, a 5th electron is put into the ▪ An arrow represents an electron.
2px, a 6th into the 2py, and a 7th into the 2pz. Only after each 2p orbital has one ▪ A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions represents a pair of
electron is a second added to any 2p orbital. electrons with paired spins.
Example: carbon (atomic numberElectron
6) configuration
Expanded: 1s2 2s2 2p x1 2py 1
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Condensed: 1s2 2s2 2p 2

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

Noble gas notation Valence shell: The outermost incomplete shell.

▪ The symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the particular atom Valence electron: An electron in the valence shell.
indicates the electron configuration of all filled shells
Lewis dot structure:
Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
▪ The symbol of the element represents the nucleus and filled shells.
Electron
Configuration Noble Gas
Orbital box diagram (condensed) Notation
1s2 2s 2 2p2 [He]2s2 2p2

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Electron Configuration Electron Configuration

▪ Figure 2-15 Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.

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Periodic Property Atomic Size

▪ As we have seen, the Periodic Table was constructed on the basis of The size (radius) of an atom is determined by the radius of its
trends (periodicity) in chemical properties. outermost occupied orbitals.
▪ With an understanding of electron configuration, chemists realized ▪ Example: The radius of a chlorine atom (99 pm) is determined by the
that the periodicity of chemical properties could be understood in size of its three 3p orbitals, the radius of a carbon atom (77 pm) is
terms of periodicity in electron configuration. determined by the size of its three 2p orbitals.
▪ The Periodic Table worked because elements in the same column
(group) have the same configuration in their outer shells.
▪ We look at two periodic properties: Atomic size and ionization
energy.

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Atomic Size Ionization Energy

Figure 2-16 Atomic radii of the
main-group elements (in Ionization energy: The energy required to remove the most loosely
picometers). held electron from an atom in the gaseous state.
▪ Example: When lithium loses one electron, it becomes a lithium ion; it still
has three protons in its nucleus, but now only two electrons outside the
nucleus, and therefore has a positive charge.

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Ionization Energy Ionization Energy

Figure 2-17 Ionization energy versus atomic energy for elements 1 Ionization energy is a periodic property:
through 37.

▪ In general, it increases across a row; valence electrons are in the same shell and
subject to increasing attraction as the number of protons in the nucleus
increases.
▪ It increases going up a column; the valence electrons are in lower principle
energy levels, which are closer to the nucleus and feel the nuclear charge more
strongly.