HV Engineering (BEF45203)

‘Breakdown in Dielectrics’

Dr. rie
Breakdown Gases Dielectrics: The Content
• General information about dielectric materials
• Principle of breakdown in gases
• Process of ionizations
• Townsend breakdown principle
• Streamers breakdown principle
• Post-breakdown
• Recovery of Electric Field Strength in Dielectrics
• Panchen Law
What are you going to learn?
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this subject, the student should have the ability to
adopt the knowledge as follows:

1. Analyse the important elements of breakdown in dielectric

materials
2. Perform high voltage experiment setup or project to complete a
specific measurement
3. Show concern to safety regulations in high voltage measurement
and testing works
4. Formulate solutions to high voltage engineering problems

3
What is Dielectrics?
Dielectrics also called as electrical ‘insulating materials’,
are materials in which electrostatic fields can remain
almost indefinitely.
The materials thus offer a very high resistance to the
passage of direct current.
They can be as formed of gases, solid and liquid.

4
The Purpose of Dielectric
The purpose of dielectric is normally to control the flow of current
between two conductors, or between a conductor and its ill-defined
surroundings.

In the context of engineering applications, dielectrics can be found

everywhere, from power cables insulation to printed circuit board
substrates to radar domes.

The desired features of dielectric materials are often very similar,

however the ‘non-electrical properties required’ often dominates the choice
of materials (e.g. gases insulation inside a circuit breaker, liquid/oil
inside a power transformer, polymer composites for insulator core,
silicone rubber for insulator sheds and etc.)

5
Elements of Dielectrics
Dielectric plays an important roles in separating the electrical
potential object with the earthed object (indoor and outdoor
insulators). Use as a medium in insulating the electrodes (e.g.
papers insulating winding transformers, PVC in cable).

The lower thermal conductivity in dielectric is used in preventing

breakdown (e.g. oil for cooling).

High dielectric strength material is used as a medium inside the

circuit breakers (oil, Sulfur-Hexafluoride - SF6 gas)

6
Dielectrics Materials in Power Transformers

Oil immersed transformer

Papers insulating winding coils

7
Transformer oils
Dielectrics Materials Insulating Power Cables

Power cables

8
Dielectrics Materials In Switchgears

ABB’s 550kV Indoor SF 6 Gas Insulator Switchgear for Three Gorges Outdoor SF6 Circuit Breakers
Project in China
9
Dielectrics Materials In Insulators

Polymeric Insulators

Insulators Used on Power Lines 10

Characteristics and Examples
• Chemical Stability
Data logger cable insulation in oil well application (e.g. PTFE,
PEEK)
• Thermal Resilience
Power electronics (e.g. silica, ceramics)
• Low Density
Areal system (e.g. blown polyethylene)
• Thermal Conductivity
Transformers (e.g. oils to allowing convection, ceramics)
Plenum cables (e.g. compounded polymers with ATH)

11
Characteristics and Examples
• Mechanical Strength
HV insulators (e.g. composites, ceramics, glass)
• Processibility
Cables and housing (e.g. polymers, thermosets)
• Cost
Power cable insulation (e.g. PVC, LLDPE, minerals as fillers)
• Low Smoke Emission
Plenum cables (e.g. compounded polymers with ATH)

12
Problems with Dielectrics
For the purpose of discussing the flow of current, all substances may be
placed in one of two categories – insulator and conductor.

An insulator is a substance in which is practically impossible to cause

any current to flow. In this case, all negative charge (i.e. electrons) are
firmly attached to their corresponding positive charges. No net flow of
charges can takes place in insulators.

A conductor is a substance in which a certain number of electrons can

be easily made free from their associated positive charges, and made to
move under influence of electric potential difference.

13
Problems with Dielectrics
However, under certain conditions free electrons and positive charges
can also be made available in an insulating materials, which then starts
behaving like conductor. Such transition is known as the breakdown of
insulator.

The level of breakdown process of the materials may be influenced by

principles such as the chemistry / physic bonding of the materials itself,
electrical fields, stress, temperature, pressure etc.

Thus, there are no perfect insulator (also conductor). Each of the

material has its own electrical withstand / conduction strength and
weakness characteristic (i.e. permittivity (εr) and dissipation factor (tanδ)
etc.) due to its nature polarisation process.

14
Breakdown in Dielectrics
Can be categorised into three groups:

1. Breakdown / failure of gases

2. Breakdown of solid dielectrics
3. Breakdown of liquids

15
Failure of Gasses: Summary Process
• The gasses we met are generally excellent insulators. Air is also the
combination gasses and is used to separating the potential
electrodes. High arc resistance gas is used inside circuit breaker (e.g.
Sulfur-Hexafluoride - SF6).

• However, at high fields, the discharge and breakdown may also

takes place.

• Why? This is because high fields charge particle can gain energy in
their ‘mean free path’ and cause further ionisation (particle ionise)
by impact.

• This energy is taken from the field (i.e. electrical stress) and
increasing number of carriers (ions movements) are created.

16
Failure of Gasses: Summary Process
• In an earlier stage for ion movements, such a process must begin with a
first free charge particle.

• This normally be an electrons. Why?

• Have a look at in the physic of atoms map. Since electrons have a longer
mean free path than ions so thus can absorbs more energy before
collisions, and so more likely to create further ionisation process.

• An electrons might come from cosmic radiation, or from emission from

a cathode (charge).

17
Atoms stage

18
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process

19
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process
• Ionisation is a physical process of converting an atom or molecule
into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as
electrons or other ions.

• The process works slightly different depending on whether an ion

with a positive or negative charge is being produced.

• A positively-charged ion is produced when an electron bonded to

an atom (or molecule) absorbs enough energy to escape from the
electrical potential barrier that originally confined it, thus breaking
the bond and freeing to move.

20
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process

• A negatively-charged ions is produced when free electron

collides with an atom and its subsequently caught inside the
electric potential barrier, releasing any excess energy.

• It is necessary that the energy of the electron exceeds the

energy difference of the potential barrier (bond) it is trying
to pass.

21
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process

• The amount of energy required is called the ionisation energy Wi.

• Usually, it is customary to measure the Wi with the help of potential Vi,
through which an electron has been accelerated in an electric field in
order to acquire energy equal to the ionisation energy.
• Therefore, Wi generally expressed in electron volt (eV) and known as
ionisation potential.
• An inspection of periodic table shows that the ionisation potential (eV)
is a periodic function of the atomic weight.

1 eV = ε x 1V
where ε = charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
so 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

22
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process

• eV is low for the first element of the each period and increases to
the maximum for the last element of the period.

• So, if the outermost orbit of an atom of a gas has much less

number of electrons than permissible, the ionising energy is less,
as the atom will have a tendency to give away one or two electrons
from the outermost orbit and become stable.

• On the other hand, nobles gases (e.g. Helium (He), Neon (Ne),
Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr) etc.) have high ionising potential as the
outmost orbits of such gasses are completely filled and stable.

23
 Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses

24
Source: Wikipedia ‘http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ionization_energies.svg’
Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses

25
The ionisation progressions can be obtained
from three processes below:

• Ionisation by collision

• Photo-ionisation

• Ionisation on the surface of electrode

26
Ionisation by Collision
• The interchange of energy between the particles or gas mainly by
collision.

• The encounter between the molecules that involved with an elastic

collision generally provides a kinetic energy that equal the kinetic energy
before the encounter (e.g. interaction between gravity in space).

• In this process, no molecular structure remains unchanged and no

ionisation or excitation takes place (rarely in gas and liquid case).

• On the other hand, the encounter involving with an inelastic collision

involves an interchange of the kinetic energy of translation and the
internal energy of excitation or ionisation.

27
Ionisation by Collision cont.
• The ionisation process may took place when the encounter
kinetic energy is higher than the ionisation energy (Wi or eV) of
the atom molecule.

• For instance, during inelastic collision, if the moving electron

with a kinetic energy mv2/2, collides with a neutral atom or
molecule in gas, then the ionisation of the neutral particle may
occur if mv2/2 >Wi

• In the case of occurrence in air (next figure), the probability of the

ionisation process is zero for electron energies less than Wi, but
increases almost linearly at first then gradually with electron
energy up to 150 eV (approaching a maximum ionisation
occurrence probability).

28
Ionisation by Collision cont.
• Any further the electron energy decreases the probability.
• This happens (less energy at higher eV) due to the fact that at
higher electron speed the collision time decrease, and
therefore the probability transfer the kinetic energy of the
electron to internal energy of the colliding particle becomes
less.

Ionisation probability curve in air

29
“Step Ionisation”
• In some number of cases, the so called “step ionisation”
may takes place due to collision of a neutral atom or
molecule with electron having a energy less than the
ionisation energy.
• The following processes can bring about the step
ionisation.
(a) An electron having energy less than the ionising energy may
bring a neutral atom to an excited state by collision.
Immediately after this, the excited atom may collide with
another electron which supplies the rest of ionising energy.
(b) Collision of two excited atoms may result ionisation of one
atom with the help of energy released by other excited atom,
which return to its normal state.

30
 Photo-ionisation
• An atom in the ground state can be ionised by action of
short-wave radiation (e.g. the use of Ultraviolet (UV) light
sources)
• The photon having a frequency ‘f’ from the radiation can
cause ionisation by imparting its energy ‘hf’ to an uncharged
atom, provided hf > eVi
• The wavelength of radiation ‘λw’ (λw = c/f, where c is the
speed of light) should be less than ch/eVi
• The concept of photo-ionisation have been used in the
Townsend study of pre-breakdown current test (will be
discussed later)

31
Ionisation in the Surface of Electrodes

Electrons can appear in a gas by emission from the cathode.

Their liberation (releasing) from the metal surface requires
definite amount of energy called the ‘work function’ which
varies from metal to metal.

This energy can be imparted to metal by:

• Bombardment of the surface of the material by particle (by positive
ions)
• Irradiating the surface of metal by short wave radiation (by photo-
ionisation)
• Superposition of strong external electric field (field emission)
• Heating the cathode that causes an increase in the velocity and the
kinetic energy of ions.

32
Sustainable ionisation processes
• Any or more of the mentioned ionising processes (collision,
photo-ionisation, on the surface of electrodes) may freed the
electrons available in an insulating gases medium.
• Sustainable ionisations process is require to cause the
breakdown in gap.
• For more self-sustainable ionising processes that will make
the insulating medium turn into conducting state (and may
cause a breakdown) involves principles as explained in the
Townsend and Streamers breakdown methods.

33
Self-Sustainable Ionising Process

34
Townsend Principle uses the principles:

1. Ionisation collision in the gas

2. Ionisation collision on the surface of the cathode
3. Photo-ionisation

35
Townsend’s principle

Basic:

• Anode: positive polarity (+ve)

• Cathode: negative polarity (-ve)
• Positively charge moves towards cathode
• Negatively charge moves toward anode

36
Townsend’s principle: Current Voltages Relationship In
Discharge Region

(a) Townsend test setup for study of (b) Current-voltage characteristic as

pre-breakdown currents observed from the Townsend test

37
 Townsend’s Test Method
• Figure (a) shows the Townsend’s original experiment that involved measurement of
the growth of current a the uniform field gap with static voltage applied.

• The test setup comprised with a parallel plate electrode system enclosed in a glass
chamber containing a gas at a low pressure.

• The used of parallel plate is to ensure a uniform field is applied to the electrodes
system.

• An Ultra-Violet (UV) light was used to irradiate the cathode surface to emits
photoelectrons in the gases medium.

• A variable source of potential was connected externally across the electrodes in

series with an electrometer to measure small leakage current.

• The measurement results were plotted as the current-voltage growth characteristic

such as shown in figure (b)

38
Townsend’s Process
• The illustrated steady develop process shown in (b) is called the
‘Townsend Process’.

• The curves obtained based on the tests shown in (a) in different gap
settings to determine the Townsend’s First Coefficient ‘α’ (alpha),
and the Townsend’s Second Coefficient ‘γ’ (gamma).

• ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by one electron per unit
drift in the direction of the field
• ‘γ’ is an average number of secondary electrons produced at the cathode
per ionising collision in the gap.

39
Townsend: Region I Summary
• Keyword: Photo-ionisation process

• From the Region I curves, it is shown that the current at first increased
proportionately with the applied voltage and then remained nearly constant at a
value i0 which corresponded to the background current (saturation current).

• Within this stage, electrons produced by UV light illuminated the cathode surface
(photo-ionisation) are conducting (photocurrent).

• More and more emitted photoelectrons reach the anode surface when voltage is
increase up to the level V1.

• The photocurrent increases by following the ‘I = εn’ principle, where ‘n’ is the
number of electrons by photo-ionisation reaching the anode surface per-second.

40
Townsend: Region II Summary
• Keyword: Saturated photo-ionisation process

• From the Region II curve, it is seen that the photocurrent through the gap is
maintain at saturation level I0 up to the voltage V2

• Within this stage, it is assumed that all the photoelectrons emitted per-second
from the cathode reach anode surface.

• This gives the saturation current ‘i0 = εN0’

• N0 is the number of photoelectrons liberated per-second where ε is the charge

of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 coulomb or Const 32 in the calculator)

• No charged particle is yet produce by ionisation in the gap (currents remain

constant)

41
Townsend: Region III Summary
• Keyword: Ionisation by collisions

• Afterward beyond V2, the current grows exponentially as increases the gap
voltage.

• Within this region, Townsend ascribed the currents growth exponentially due
to the ionisation process by electron collisions in gas.

• As the gap voltage V increases in the gap d, the electric field stress E (E=V/d
usually defined in V/cm) increases. Hence an electron leaving the cathode
experience more force (εE) and acceleration.

• This result in a higher kinetic energy of the electron as its travel to anode.
The probability of the ionisation process increases due to the collision of
electron with uncharged particle.

• The rapid increases of ionisation processes in the gap region are known as the
‘avalanche’ process (electron multiplication).

42
Townsend: Region IV Summary
• Keyword: Sustainable ionisation process

• As the voltage reaches V4 and beyond, the anode current increases

very sharply (uncontrolled).

• Theoretically, the current magnitude could reaching infinity and the

value is limited only by the external resistance.

• Even at this stage, the current behaviour would not change even if
the UV light source is removed. The process is independence now
(sustainable).

• The conductive level within the gap is very high creating virtual
short circuit condition. The gas is now said to be broken down (in
breakdown state).

43
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche

• Figures below show schematic representation of electron multiplication so

called the ‘electron avalanche’

• The analysis is based on the phenomena as occurred in the ‘Region- III’ of

the Townsend current-voltage curve

44
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• To analyse the current growth quantitatively in the Region-III,
Townsend introduced a quantity ‘α’ (alpha), or known as Townsend’s
first ionisation coefficient.

• ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by one electron per cm

drift in the direction of electric field E

• Based on the relationship between the ‘α’ with the gap distance (d), the
number of photoelectrons liberated per second from cathode (N0) and the
number of electrons reaching the anode per-second (NA), the current level
in anode (IA) can be determined as:

NA = N0 eαd (1.1)

Multiplying (1.1) by ε;
IA = anode current = εNA = εNAeαd = I0 eαd (1.2)

45
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• The term eαd is called the ‘electron avalanche’ and eαd -1 represent the
number of electrons produced by one electron while travelling from
cathode to anode.

• The electron multiplication is shown in figure (b)

• The electrons in avalanche move towards the anode while the positive
ions move towards the cathode.

• As if N0 = 0, IA = 0. Thus it is clear that the current cannot be

sustained without the present of the UV light source.

46
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche: Analysis for Region IV

Current-voltage characteristic as observed from the Townsend test 47

Analysis for Region IV

The current-voltage characteristic occurred in the

Region-IV of the Townsend curve postulated (suggested
idea of) three secondary principle processes that
affecting the current in addition to the primary
discussed ‘α’ process that occurred in the Region-III.

48
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche

The following three secondary processes may answer the

case that the current will maintain increases in Region IV
as the voltage increases even when the UV light source is
removed from the test.

1. The positive ions liberated in an avalanche may cause ionisation

by collision while moving towards the cathode.
2. These positive ions may liberate electrons from the cathode
surface when they impinge on it.
3. The excited atoms or molecules in the avalanche may emit
photons when these atoms return to normal state and these
photons then may cause photo-ionisation (self-made process).

49
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• Out of the mentioned secondary processes, the bombardment of
cathode by positive ions plays the significant role in Townsend’s
principle.
• The Townsend’s second coefficient conditions that satisfied the
breakdown or self-sustained discharge in gas (Region-IV) involved
with additional elements N+ and ‘γ’ (gamma) together with the
primary ‘α’, No and N elements.
• N+ is a number of electrons released from cathode surface per-second
by positive ion bombardment.
• γ is a number of electrons emitted from cathode by the bombardment
of one positive ion.
• Relationship of these elements results the number of electrons
reaching the anode per-second N, in steady state condition as:

N 0ed
N

1   ed  1  (1.3)

50
 Townsend’s Electron Avalanche

• The steady-state current is given by:

N 0ed ed
I  N    I0
d
1   e 1 
1   ed  1   (1.4)

• α and γ both depend on the electric field stress. Thus if reach such value so
that the denominator becomes zero (0), the current becomes independent of
N0 and indeterminate (infinity).

• Thus we therefore get the Townsend criterion for the breakdown of gases as:

• Normally eαd  ed

1  1 (1.5)
is very large, henceequation (1.5)
reduces to:

d 1
e  (1.6)

51
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• For voltages above V3 and less than V4 as seen in the curve; leads 1 < y(eαd
-1). At this condition, the breakdown process is not satisfied enough.

• At V4, 1 = y(eαd -1) leads the denominator of equation (1.5) tends to be zero.
At this stage, the steady state electron flow ceases.

• V4 is denoted as the breakdown voltage of the gap and the corresponding

field stress is known as the breakdown field stress.

• For the voltage more than V4, the circuit current is determined by the
external resistance only (without that the current goes indeterminate
(infinity) and the situation is similar to the short circuit state).

52
 Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• When the condition given in equation (1.5) is satisfied, the gases gap is
filled with a large number of electrons and positive ion called plasma.
• This will offer a very high conducting path to the flow of current
through the gap and possibly cause the breakdown.
• Rearranging the equation (1.5), the Townsend’s breakdown criterion
relationship between an average number ionising collision made by one
electron per cm drift in the direction of electric field (α) and the
distance d may be expressed as:

1 
d  ln  1 (1.7)
 

53
 PLASMA: Just some knowledge to share….

Plasma lamp, illustrating some of the

more complex phenomena of a plasma,
including filamentation.

The colours are a result of relaxation of

electrons in excited states to lower energy
states after they have recombined with
ions. These processes emit light in a
spectrum characteristic of the gas being
excited.

In physics and chemistry, plasma is a state of matter similar to gas in which a

certain portion of the particles are ionised. Heating a gas may ionise its
molecules or atoms (reduce or increase the number of electrons in them), thus
turning it into a plasma, which contains charged particles: positive ions and
negative electrons or ions.

The presence of a non-negligible number of charge carriers makes the plasma

electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields.

54
Sources: Wikipedia
Townsend’s Principle: Tutorial 1

Estimate the static breakdown voltage of an ‘air gap’ at 100

mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates that ensure a
uniform field. /p as a function of E/p is shown in next
figure. Assume  = 10-3 electron/incident positive ion. The
gap distance is 1 cm. Estimate the static breakdown
voltages for N2, H2, A and Ne gases as well. Neglect
recombination and attachment.

55
Townsend’s Principle: Tutorial

56
Solution:
Here, pd = gap pressure multiply gap distance = 100 mm.Hg/cm. At this pd value the
Townsend’s principle holds good. The Townsend’s criterion is:
 1
d  ln 1  
 
 1 
d  ln 1  3   6.908ion. pairs
 10 
6.908ion. pairs
  6.908ion. pairs / cm
1.0cm
 6.908ion. pairs / cm
  0.06908ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p 100mm.Hg

 0.069ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p
Refer from the graph, for Air:

Eb
 54V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb  54  pressure  54 / cm.mm.Hg 100mm.Hg  5400V / cm  5.4kV / cm
Vb  Eb  d  5.4kV / cm 1.0cm  5.4kV
57
Townsend’s Principle: Tutorial 1

For other gases, the breakdown voltages are calculated likewise

and tabulated in table below:

Gas N2 H2 A Ne
E/p (V/cm.mm.Hg) 60 29 19.5 12
Eb (V/cm) 6000 2900 1950 1200
Vb (V) 6000 2900 1950 1200

58
Townsend’s Principle: Tutorial 2

Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air

gap’ at 75 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates that
ensure a uniform field. /p as a function of E/p is shown
in next figure. Assume  = 10-3 electron/incident positive
ion. The gap distance is 3.5 cm. Estimate the static
breakdown voltages for N2, H2, A and Ne gases as well.
Neglect recombination and attachment.

59
Townsend’s Principle: Tutorial

60
Tutorial 2: Solution
 1
d  ln 1  
 
 1 
d  ln 1  3   6.908ion. pairs
 10 
6.908ion. pairs
  1.974ion. pairs / cm
3.5cm
 1.974ion. pairs / cm
  0.0263ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p 75mm.Hg

 0.026ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p

Refer from the graph, for Air:

Eb _ Air
 43V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb _ Air  43V / cm.mm.Hg  pressure  43V / cm.mm.Hg  75mm.Hg  3225V / cm  3.23kV / cm
Vb _ Air  Eb  d  3.23kV / cm  3.5cm  11.31kV

61
Tutorial 2: Solution cont.
For N2:

Eb
 45V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb  45V / cm.mm.Hg  pressure  45V / cm.mm.Hg  75mm.Hg  3375V / cm  3.38kV / cm
Vb  Eb  d  3.38kV / cm  3.5cm  11.81kV

For A:
Eb
 14V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb  14V / cm.mm.Hg  pressure
14V / cm.mm.Hg  75mm.Hg  1050V / cm  1.05kV / cm
Vb  Eb  d  1.05kV / cm  3.5cm  3.675kV  3.68kV

For Ne and H2 are out of range.

62
Townsend’s Principle: Bring Home Quiz 1

Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘Ne’

and ‘A’ gases at 9 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel
plates that ensure a uniform field. /p as a function of
E/p is shown in next figure. Assume  = 10-3
electron/incident positive ion. The gap distance is 4.5 cm.
Neglect recombination and attachment.

63
Townsend’s Principle: Bring Home Quiz 2

Calculate the static breakdown voltage Vb in kV of ‘H2’ and

‘Air’ gases at 62 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates
that ensure a uniform field.  /p as a function of E/p can
be determined from the coefficient for field-intensified
ionisation by electrons graph.

Assume  = 10-5 electron/incident positive ion. The gap

distance d is 16.5 mm. Neglect recombination and
attachment.

64
Time Lag for Breakdown
• Based on the Townsend’s principle, from the instant of the breakdown voltage
(i.e. V4), the breakdown takes place in the gap requires sufficient time
breakdown process.

tb  t s  t f
• This is called as the ‘total time for breakdown’ or tb , whereas ts is the statistical
time lag and tf is the formative time lag.

• The concept is based on the fact that the gaseous cannot breakdown at the
instant once the gap field stress exceed its breakdown value.

• Firstly, an initiating electron has to appear in the gap. For this requires some
average time, which is the ts

• Secondly, the positive charges created in the gap by the initiating electron have to
cross the gap and impinge on the cathode to produce at least one more electron.
This will require an additional time lag, which is the tf

65
Time Lag for Breakdown: Problem with
Townsend’s principle
• Townsend’s principle stated the time lag for breakdown occurrence will be
in order of 10-5 seconds (t + 10us).

• However, experimental result from other researches had found that that
the breakdown may occur at very short time of the order of 10-8 seconds
or t + 0.01us (much faster than that indicated by Townsend)

• A very fast short time lags of breakdown may occur when the gap is
subjected to short duration (transient) impulse voltage

• The transient impulse voltage (e.g. lightning) is a unidirectional voltage,

which rises to peak value very rapidly (of the order of 1us) and decay to
zero at slower rate. The transient voltage study will be covered later in
other subject.

66
Time Lag for Breakdown: Problem with
Townsend’s principle

• The impulse breakdown phenomena under transient voltages

(especially breakdown in long air gap) cannot be explained by the
Townsend’s principle

• As a result, around 1940, Rather, Meek and Lab independently

proposed the streamer theory to explain this phenomena

67
Streamer’s Breakdown Principles
Streamer breakdown theories consider three formation
principles which are:

a)Formation of an avalanche by initiating electron by

Townsend’s α process (primary process)

b)Large local enhancement of the electric field by the ion

space at the head of the avalanche

c)Large amount of photo-ionisation of gas molecules in the

space at the head of avalanche (secondary process)

68
Streamer’s Breakdown Principles

• Involved with:

Fig.3 Secondary
avalanches formation by
Fig.2 Distortion of electric photo electrons
field by space charge

69
Streamer’s Breakdown Principle: Process I

• An initiation of electron placed in the gap will be

accelerated towards the anode and during its flight
will cause ionisation of gaseous molecules by
collisions.

• This will create avalanche of electrons and positive

ions such as shown in Fig. 1

• As the avalanche developed in the gap, the

electrons being much lighter will have higher
mobility in comparing with the positive ions.

• Therefore, the head of avalanche will be filled with

the fast moving electrons , and the positive ions
will occupy the tail.

70
Streamer’s Breakdown Principles: Process II
• The space charge created by the ionisation
processes we have described will distort the
uniform field initially applied across the gaseous
insulator.

• This can be simplified as the two spherical

volumes having a concentration of negative charge
at the head and of positive charge at the tail of
avalanche, such as shown in Fig. 2.

• In this case, a space charge Er will be created and

the field behind and ahead of avalanche is increase
by the space charge.

• This will cause the field between the electron and

the ion cloud is reduced.

Fig.2 Distortion of electric field

by space charge
71
 Streamer’s Breakdown Principles: Process II cont.

• The field distortion will be increased with the

increase in αd. When the αd is attain a critical
value (e.g. 18 to 20), the space charge field is
comparable to E 0

• The condition will create an intense ionisation

and excitation of the gas particles in front of the
avalanche head.

• Then the excited atoms return to normal state

immediately.

• The process will releasing of photons (elementary

particles for electromagnetic interaction) in the gas
ahead of the avalanche head, which in turn
generate secondary electrons by the photo-
ionisation process.

Fig.2 Distortion of electric field

by space charge
72
Streamer’s Breakdown Principles: Process III
• The generated secondary electrons from the
photo-ionisation then will generate further
auxiliary avalanches.

• The process is as shown in Fig. 3.

• Since photons travel with the speed of light, the

process leads to rapid development of conduction
channel across the gap and develop as self-
propagating streamer.

• The streamer proceeds across the gap and to form

a conducting filament of high-ionised gas between
electrodes.

• The gap therefore, breakdown!!!!

Fig.3 Secondary avalanches
formation by photo electrons

73
Positive & Negative Streamer Growth Models
Fig.4 Model of streamer growth near a rode electrode

i. Positive streamers development from ii. Negative streamers development from

free electron a, avalanche b, streamer free electron a, avalanche b, streamer
initiation c, further avalanche d to initiation c, further avalanche d to
further streamer growth e space stem e

74
 Potential Distributions During Streamer

a. Potential distribution before streamer b. Potential distribution during

initiation from an electrode development of positive streamer
from an electrode (streamer has
progressed about 23mm in 54ns
75
Townsend v.s Streamer’s Principles
• The Townsend’s principle is based upon successive generation of
avalanche initiated from the cathode surface, aid by primary α
process and the secondary γ process.

• The streamer’s principle is based upon the formation of auxiliary

avalanche in the gap, helped by the primary α process and the
secondary photo-ionisation process

• The breakdown process in steamer’s principle is said to be much

faster than the Townsend’s principle.

• The streamer theories can used to explain the principle involving

with the impulse breakdown phenomena under transient voltages
(e.g. lightning and switching).

76
Formation of Streamer Space Charge in Sphere
• The Townsend’s principle is based upon successive generation of
avalanche initiated from the cathode surface, aid by primary α
process and the secondary γ process.

• The streamer’s principle is based upon the formation of auxiliary

avalanche in the gap, helped by the primary α process and the
secondary photo-ionisation process

• The breakdown process in steamer’s principle is said to be much

faster than the Townsend’s principle.

• The streamer theories can used to explain the principle involving

with the impulse breakdown phenomena under transient voltages
(e.g. lightning and switching).

77
Streamer Space Charge in Sphere
If the space charge in an avalanche is assumed to be in a sphere of radius rd, the electric field of
this charged sphere at its surface is:

q e d
Er   (Equation 1.8)
4 0 rd 4 0 rd
2 2

Where
q = charge in this sphere =  x (no. of charged particles in sphere) = ed
 = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb (charge of an electron)
0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Farad/m (absolute permittivity of free space) or CONST 32 in calculator

Favourable condition for the formation of streamer is when:

Er ≈ external applied field ≈ E0

(Equation 1.9)

78
Streamers Principle: Tutorial 1

A uniform static field was created in Methane at 102 mm.Hg

pressure by a parallel plate electrode system with a gap distance
of 3 cm. With an externally applied electric field E0 of 3.9
kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by an
avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius rd = 0.08 cm.

Estimate the value of d for favourable condition for the

formation of streamers in the methane gap.
q e d
Er   (Equation 1.8)
4 0 rd 4 0 rd
2 2

E r  Eo (Equation 1.9)

79
Tutorial Streamers Principle: Answer
q e d 1.6 10 19 ed 1
Er     V /m
4 0 rd
2
4 0 rd
2
 
4  8.8542 12 0.08 10  2 2
1.6 10 19 ed 1
Er  10
 V /m
1.1127 10 6.4 10 7
Er  1.438 10 9 ed 1.5625 106 V / m
Er  2.2469 10 3 edV / m
2.2469 10 3 ed
Er  V / cm
110 2
Er  2.2469 10 5 edV / cm

Sreamers _ favorable _ condition :

E0  E r
3.9 103V / cm  2.2469 10 5 edV / cm
d 3.9 103V / cm
e 
2.2469 10 5V / cm
e d  173.57 106
d  ln(173.57 106 )
d  18.97ion _ pairs
18.97ion _ pairs
  6.32ion _ pairs / cm
3cm
80
Streamers Principle: Bring Home Quiz 3

A uniform static field was created in Methane at 115 mm.Hg

pressure by a parallel plate electrode system with a gap
distance of 4 cm. With an externally applied electric field E0
of 2.5 kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by
an avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius rd = 0.55cm.

Estimate the value of d for favourable condition for the

formation of streamers in the methane gap. The constant
absolute permittivity ε0 of the test area is 8.854x10-12 and the
charge of electron ε is 1.6x10-19

81
Streamers Principle: Bring Home Quiz 4

A uniform static field was created in Methane at 100 mm.Hg

pressure by a parallel plate electrode system with a gap
distance of 55 mm. With an externally applied electric field E0
of 3 kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by an
avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius rd = 0.35cm.

82
 Post-Breakdown Current-Voltage Characteristic

• Fig. 6 shows the voltage and current variations

with the time during development of a discharge
through a gap.

• Vb (shown as Vs in the graph) is the breakdown

voltage. Before the beginning of breakdown
process, the gas insulates well at a potential at only
few volt less than Vb

• When the applied voltage V exceed the Vb , the

insulation (i.e. gas) breaks down, a flash occur, and
large current flow (limit is depending on source
impedance)

• In the initial phase of the breakdown, the

potential across the gap (Vgap) is high (~ Vb ) but
falls as the current produce a glow with Vgap = Vg

Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-

time relationships of a discharge

83
Post-Breakdown Current-Voltage Characteristic Cont.
• In extend to the glow process, the potential can falls
further to the arc value (= Va).

• Once the breakdown current begins to rise rapidly to

significant magnitude, it will be cleared that the
potential across the electrodes must depend on the
characteristics of the external circuit.

• The static volt-ampere characteristic of the gap in the

post-breakdown period can be determined by decreasing
the current limiting resistance at constant applied
voltage.

• For instance, a discharge current of 1mA to 100mA in

the glow region drop between the electrodes could
remain substantially constant in the region of 100 to
300V when R between 1k – 500kohm.

Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-

time relationships of a discharge

84
 Post-Breakdown Current-Voltage Characteristic Cont.

• The properties of the glow discharge have

extensive applications like voltage regulation (VR)
tubes, amplifiers, relaxation oscillator etc.

• If the discharge current is increased to more than

one ampere, it would cause sudden drops of
potential voltage to a very low value of the order of
tens of volts.

• The discharge then become very luminous (intense

arc produced) and noisy.

• The study of arc discharge is extremely important

in the design of circuit breaker and other
switching devices.

Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-

time relationships of a discharge

85
Recovery of Electric Field Strength of Gas Dielectric
• Usually the current through an arc will be interrupted (isolated) by
switching of the voltage via circuit breaker or other switching
devices.

• Immediately after this process, the gas remains ionised and is at high
temperature.

• However, with time increases (a few tens of millisecond) the gas de-
ionised due to recombination of electrons and positive ions and
diffusion of charge particles from the gaseous gap (process settle
down)

• In the absent of the charged particles, the gas regains its normal
insulation strength.

86
Recovery of Electric Field Strength of Dielectrics

• The ability to recover their insulating property has made gasses

attractive to insulator designers.

• Solid cannot recover their insulating characteristic and liquids

recover only after necessary purification.

• So after breakdown, a solid material need to be replace by a new one.

However some new type solid materials such as silicone rubber may
regain back its insulation strength property after having some
relaxation period (e.g. 2 – 3 days).

• Liquid insulator progressively deteriorates after each breakdown as

far its dielectric strength is concerned.

87
Paschen’s Law
• In the breakdown principle in a gap, the breakdown voltage level Vb is also
depending upon the pressure p and temperature T conditions.

• Paschen’s Law states that the breakdown voltage Vb is a function of the

product of pressure p (as T is relates to the pressure), and electrode
separation d

Vb  f ( pd ) (1.10)
• A feature of the curve is shown in the Fig. 7 as the solid line, is that is passes
through a minimum.

• The dotted line in Fig. 7, which shows the breakdown fields divided by
pressure, shows that at the constant pressure the breakdown field is reduced
as the gap increases.

88
 Paschen’s Law

Fig. 7: Paschen’s Curve

89
 Paschen’s Law

(b) (c)

(a)

90
 Paschen’s Law: Explanation
• The minimum of the Paschen curve is explained by
considering the efficiency of ionisation of the electrons
travelling across the gap. This happen at normal
atmospheric condition. The withstand strength of gas
dielectric is at minimum (easy to breakdown). Condition
shown in (a).

• On the left hand side of the minimum (condition (b),

electrons can cross the gap without so many collisions,
and so ionisation is less efficient, as breakdown tends
towards the vacuum condition. The withstand strength
is improved to certain voltage level. (b) (c)

• On the right hand side of the minimum, electrons

makes more collision than they do at the minimum of
the curve, but energy attained between the collision is
less due to high pressure impact. Hence the probability
of ionisation is less unless the voltage is increased to very
high value. The breakdown voltage increases (a)
approximately linearly with the product Pd. Condition
(c).

91
Paschen’s Law: Formula

• Paschen Law states that the relationship between breakdown

voltage, Vb (kV) with the pressure, p (mm.Hg.) and the
temperature, T (Kelvin) at electrode gap, d (cm) is given by:

293 p  293 p 
Vb  24.22 d  6.08  d (1.11)
760T  760T 

• So for long gaps the breakdown field value tends to be

around 24 kV/cm.

92
Paschen’ Law: Tutorial 1

Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb in kV during the

breakdown process using the Paschen’s Law equation shown
below. The test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at
p = 1.5 bar filled with normal air. The tests temperature area is
120C. The electrodes gap is 3.5cm. Use 1 bar = 750.06
mm.Hg.

293 p  293 p 
Vb _ kV  24.22 d  6.08  d (1.11)
760T  760T 

93
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Answer
293 p  293 p 
Vb _ kV  24.22 d  6.08  d
760T  760T 
293750.06 1.5  293750.06 1.5 
Vb _ kV  24.22 3.5  6.08  3.5 
760(120  273)  760(120  273) 
2931125.09  2931125.09 
Vb _ kV  24.22 3.5  6.08  3.5 
760(393)  760(393) 
Vb _ kV  24.223.8629  6.08 3.8629
Vb _ kV  24.223.8629  11.9498
Vb _ kV  93.559  11.9498
Vb _ kV  105.51kV
Vb _ kV  106kV

94
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Tutorial 2
The test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at p1 = 1.5bar
and p2 = 2.5bars filled with normal air. Both tests temperature area
are 80C. The electrodes with a gap of 0.015m.

i. Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb1 and Vb2 in (in
kV) during the breakdown process using the Paschen’s Law
equation shown below. Use 1 bar = 750.06 mm.Hg.
ii. Comment by comparing both results in terms of percentage
increment / decrement.
iii. Also sketch the output graph of . Vb(kV).vs. p(bar)

95
 Paschen’ Law: Tutorial 2 Answer
For P1 = 1.5bar For P2= 2.5bar
293 p  293 p 
293 p  293 p  Vb _ kV  24.22 d  6.08  d
Vb1_ kV  24.22 d  6.08  d 760T  760T 
760T  760T 
293750.06  2.5  293750.06  2.5 
293750.06 1.5  293750.06 1.5  Vb _ kV  24.22 1.5  6.08  1.5 
Vb1_ kV  24.22 1.5  6.08  1.5  760(80  273)  760(80  273) 
760(80  273)  760(80  273) 
2931125.09   2931125.09  2931875.15  2931875.15 
Vb1_ kV  24.22 1.5  6.08  1.5  Vb 2 _ kV  24.22 1.5  6.08  1.5 
760(353)  760(353) 
760(353)  760(353) 
Vb1_ kV  24.221.843  6.08 1.843 Vb 2 _ kV  24.223.072  6.08 3.072
Vb1_ kV  24.221.843  8.254 Vb 2 _ kV  24.223.072  10.656
Vb1_ kV  44.641  8.254 Vb 2 _ kV  74.4  10.656
Vb1_ kV  52.9kV Vb 2 _ kV  85.06kV
Vb1_ kV  53kV Vb 2 _ kV  85kV

Per-unit & % increment

per  unit _ increase 
85kV
 1.6038 p.u  1.6 p.u Comment
53kV
The breakdown voltage level is shown to increase
% _ increase  1.6038 p.u  1 p.u 100%  60.38% up to 60.38% from 53kV when the pressure is
(85kV  53kV )
increased from 1.5bar to 2.5bar at the temperature
% _ increase  100%  60.38% 80°C.
53kV
96
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Answer

97
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Bring Home Quiz 5
The test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at p1 = 1.4bar and
p2 = 3.5bars filled with normal air. Both tests temperature area are
95C. The electrodes with a gap of 0.065m.

i. Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb1 and Vb2 in (in kV)
during the breakdown process using the Paschen’s Law equation
shown below. Use 1 bar = 750.06 mm.Hg.
ii. Comment by comparing both results in terms of per-unit
increment / decrement.
iii. Also sketch the output graph of Vb(kV) vs. p(bar).

98
Note References
• Subir Ray, An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering, Prentice Hall India,
2004

• Haddad & Warne, Advance in High Voltage Engineering, IET Power and Energy
Series, 2004

• S.M.Rowland, Breakdown in Gaseous, Solid and Liquid Dielectrics, MSc. Lecture

Note, The University of Manchester, 2006

99