Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science and Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Effect of friction stir welding speed on the microstructure and mechanical

properties of a duplex stainless steel
T. Saeid, A. Abdollah-zadeh ∗ , H. Assadi, F. Malek Ghaini
Tarbiat Modares University, Department of Materials Engineering, P.O. Box 14115-143, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study focuses on the effect of the welding speed on the microstructure and mechanical
Received 11 April 2008 properties of the stir zone (SZ) in friction stir welding (FSW) of SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel. A single
Received in revised form 8 May 2008 tool, made of a WC-base material, was used to weld 2 mm-thick plates at a constant rotational speed
Accepted 9 May 2008
of 600 rpm. X-ray radiography revealed that sound welds were successfully obtained for the welding
speeds in the range of 50–200 mm/min, whereas a groove-like defect was formed at the higher speed
Keywords:
of 250 mm/min. Moreover, increasing the welding speed decreased the size of the ˛ and  grains in the
Friction stir welding
SZ, and hence, improved the mean hardness value and the tensile strength of the SZ. These results are
Duplex stainless steel
Microstructure interpreted with respect to interplay between the welding speed and the peak temperature in FSW.
Mechanical properties © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction suitable. As a solid-state process, friction stir welding has attracted

Duplex stainless steels (DSS) containing both ferrite (˛) and
austenite () phases are increasingly used as alternatives to
austenitic, ferritic stainless steels and nickel-base alloys. They rep-
resent an important and expanding class of steels with an attractive
combination of mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
This is related to the fact that the microstructure of duplex stain-
less steels allows a beneficial mixture of ˛ and  properties. High
strength and corrosion resistance come from the ferrite, whereas
the austenite phase influences ductility and resistance to uniform
corrosion [1–4].
In these materials, a good combination of properties is achieved
at an ˛/ ratio of approximately 1:1. However, due to melting and
rapid solidification in fusion welding processes, this desired ratio is
upset. Also, precipitation of brittle intermetallic phases may occur.
In general, the weld metal and the heat-affected zone of DSS exhibit
higher ferrite content, coarser grains and more extensive precip-
itation of intermetallic phases than the base metal. All of these
factors have the tendency to reduce both the corrosion resistance
and the mechanical properties (mainly, ductility and toughness) of
the weldment [1,5–7].
To avoid problems associated with the fusion welding processes
of DSS, solid-state joining technologies would appear to be more
considerable attention. It has been shown that, FSW can alleviate
most of the problems caused by the fusion welding processes in car-
bon steels having carbon contents up to 1.02 wt% [8–10], mild steels
[11], DH36 steel [12] and stainless steels [13–19]. Regarding to FSW
of duplex stainless steels, there have been few papers in the open
literature. For example, Okamoto and Hirano [18] conducted a fea-
sibility work and demonstrated that FSW offers a sound weld joint
in a 6-mm thick 329 duplex stainless steel. The authors reported
an increase in austenite percentage from 43% in the parent mate-
rial to 56% in the weld zone. Sato et al. [19] conducted a detailed
examination of the microstructure and the mechanical properties
in the friction stir welding of SAF 2507 super duplex stainless steel
using PCBN tool. They found that FSW significantly refined the fer-
rite and austenite phases through dynamic recrystallization. Based
on the obtained results, they concluded that the formation of fer-
rite and austenite fine grains increase hardness and strength in the
stir zone.
These cited studies have yielded some important knowledge on
the microstructure and mechanical properties in FS-welded DSS.
The present work explores the problem further, through a detailed
study of the effect of the welding parameters on the weld thermal
cycle, microstructure and mechanical properties of the stir zone.

2. Experimental procedure

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 88005040; fax: +98 21 88005040. Bead-on-plate welding of a commercial SAF 2205 duplex stain-
E-mail address: zadeh@modares.ac.ir (A. Abdollah-zadeh). less steel was performed in the present study. The chemical

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.msea.2008.05.025
 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268 263

Table 1 and mechanically ground with water abrasive paper and polished in
Chemical composition (in wt%) and mechanical properties of the base metal
a standard metallography procedure. Then, provided samples were
Cr 22.31 electrolytically etched in a solution of 56 g KOH in 100 mL water at
Ni 5.48 3 V for 30 s.
Mo 3.34
In order to identify the present phases, X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Mn 1.42
C 0.03
analysis was carried out using a PHILIPS® diffractometer, model
P 0.023 X’Pert, with step size of 0.04 and time per step of 0.8 s. It was used
S 0.005 with Cu K␣ radiation at 40 kV and 40 mA.
Tensile strength (MPa) 834 ± 3.6 The Vickers hardness profile of the weld was measured on the
Hardness (HV ) 266 ± 2
cross-section perpendicular to the welding direction at the cen-
ter of the thickness with a 4.9 N load for 10 s. Longitudinal tensile
composition and mechanical properties of the base material is specimens were extracted from welded samples and prepared in
listed in Table 1. This material was cut in to specimens with dimen- accordance with ASTM E8. Tensile tests were carried out at room
sions of 300 mm × 100 mm × 2 mm. temperature at a crosshead speed of 0.05 mm/s.
The provided samples were friction stir welded along the rolling
3. Results and discussion
direction using a vertical milling machine. FSW tool, which was
made of a WC-based material, had a shoulder diameter of 16 mm,
3.1. Inspection of FSW joint
pin diameter of 5 mm and 1.5 mm pin length. The tool was tilted
3◦ from the plate normal direction. Since the machine and tool
The X-ray radiographies of the welds with various welding
were exposed to high temperatures during FSW, a liquid cooled tool
speeds are shown in Fig. 1. It is clearly seen that sound joints are
holder was used. In order to avoid the surface oxidation, Ar shield-
obtained up to the welding speed of 200 mm/min. However, at a
ing gas was introduced around the tool at a flow rate of 18 L/min.
higher speed of 250 mm/min, a groove-like defect is observed in
Five welds were made with the same rotational speed, 600 rpm,
the joint advancing side (Fig. 1e). This defect can seriously degrade
but different welding speeds of 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mm/min.
the mechanical properties of the weld metal [21]. Previous stud-
The length of each weld was 270 mm. In addition to the mentioned
ies [22,23] revealed that groove-like defects are primarily formed
welding parameters, the axial pressure or the insertion depth of pin
when the heat input during FSW is insufficient. In this situation,
into the workpiece is important for producing sound welds and has
the material could not easily flow to fill up the gap generated by
to be properly chosen initially [20–22]. The insertion depth of pin
the tool pin.
into workpiece was held constant at 1.7 mm during welding trials.
As will be described in subsequent section, one of the key param-
This depth was corresponding to initial Z-axis force of about 14 kN.
eters that have an essential influence on the heat input is the
Plate temperature was measured on the bottom surfaces of the
welding speed. With increasing the welding speed, the heat input
plates at the centerline using a K-type thermocouple. Thermocou-
would be decreased gradually up to a limit that the generated fric-
ple was set in the 1.5-mm diameter hole in a carbon steel backing
tional heat is insufficient to allow viscoplastic material flow and
plate and fastened by the copper paste so as not to come out during
therefore, the groove-like defect is more likely to occur.
FSW.
Following FSW, visual and X-ray radiography inspections of 3.2. The weld thermal history
the FSW joints were performed to reveal the weld defects on the
surfaces and in the inner zones of the welded joint. Microstruc- Fig. 2 presents a typical temperature profile and recorded peak
tural observations were performed by optical microscopy (OM) temperatures of the sound welds fabricated at different welding
and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with an speeds. It can be seen that the peak temperature decreases with
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis system. Metal- increasing welding speeds at a constant tool rotational speed. Sim-
lographic samples were cut perpendicular to the welding direction ilar results have been reported for carbon steels [8] and 304L

Fig. 1. X-ray radiographs of FSW joints in various welding speeds: (a)  = 50 mm/min, (b)  = 100 mm/min, (c)  = 150 mm/min, (d)  = 200 mm/min, and (e)  = 250 mm/min.
264 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268
Fig. 2. (a) Thermal profile measured at the welding speed of 50 mm/min and (b)
recorded peak temperatures as a function of welding speeds.
stainless steel [13]. In FSW, both tool rotational speed (ω) and weld-
ing speed () exert a significant effect on the peak temperature. It
was demonstrated that for several aluminum alloys, the maximum
temperature (Tp ) can be expressed as a function of the pseudo heat
index (ω2 /) as follows [24,25]:
 ␣
Tp ω2
=K (1)
Tm  × 104
where K and the exponent ˛ are constants and Tm (◦ C) is the melt-
ing point of the alloy. From Eq. (1) and based on the experimental
results of the present study, at constant ω, a simplified relationship
between  and Tp is obtained as given below:
 1 0.419
Tp = 4569.8 (2)
v
The formation of defect free welds is taken as criterion to estab-
lish this relationship. From Eq. (2), it can be inferred that the peak
temperature is inversely proportional to the welding speed. Higher
peak temperature is achieved at lower welding speed and vise-
versa. This behavior is directly related to the amount of heat input
generated by friction between tool and the base metal. Frigaard et
al. [26] suggested the following equation describing the heat input
during the FSW:
4 2 PωR3
Q =  (3)
3 
where Q is the heat input per unit weld length,  the heat input
efficiency,  the friction coefficient, P the pressure due to the tool
plunge downforce, and R is the radius of the shoulder. According to
this equation, as  is decreased, Q increases and therefore, higher
peak temperature at lower welding speed is resulted. On the other
Table 2
Calculated amounts of net heat input at various friction stir welding speeds
 (mm/min) Tp (◦ C) CR (◦ C/s)a t8/5 (s) Q (J/mm)
50 849 86.96 3.45 94.8
100 724 – – 47.4
150 562 – – 31.6
200 474 – – 23.7
a
CR is the cooling rate from 800 to 500 ◦ C.
hand, the net heat input at welding speed of 50 mm/min can be
derived from the following equation [3]:
1/2
Q/d = k × (t8/5 ) (4)
where Q is the net heat input same as Eq. (3) (J/mm), d the material
thickness (mm), and k is the thermal coefficient (J/mm2 s1/2 ) = 25.52
for SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel, and t8/5 is the cooling time
from 800 to 500 ◦ C in the weld thermal cycle. Since the peak tem-
peratures for welding speeds of 100, 150, and 200 mm/min were in
the range of 474–724 ◦ C, the direct calculation of Q from Eq. (4) is
not possible. However, if , , ω, P, and R in Eq. (3) are assumed to
be constant, then Q can be estimated for these welding conditions.
Table 2 lists the calculated heat inputs.
3.3. Macro- and microstructure
Fig. 3 shows a typical macro- and microstructures of the cross-
section at different regions of FS weld. In the cross-section, the left
and right sides of the weld center are related to the retreating and
advancing sides of the rotating tool, respectively. The microstruc-
ture of the weldment can be classified into three distinct regions
including the stir zone (SZ), the thermo-mechanically affected zone
(TMAZ), and the base metal (BM). The heat-affected zone (HAZ) was
not clearly observed.
Fig. 3b is a micrograph of the BM obtained from the traverse
cross-section of the plate. It displays that white austenite () islands
are embedded in a gray matrix of ferrite (˛). Both ˛ and  have
elongated shapes with volume fractions of 0.51 and 0.49, respec-
tively, measured by quantitative metallography. The EDS analysis
technique was used to identify the partitioning of the alloying ele-
ments in the phases. The results are summarized in Table 3. It is
observed that the ferrite is richer in Cr and Mo, while the austenite
is richer in Ni and Mn.
The SZ consists of fine equiaxed grains and in the TMAZ, a dis-
torted structure due to the heat effect and mechanical deformation
is observed (Fig. 3c). It should be noted that the TMAZ/SZ bound-
ary on the advancing side of the tool is sharper than that on the
retreating side. This indicates the asymmetry of friction stir weld-
ing [19,27,28]. In addition, the TMAZ in adjacent to the boundary
between the SZ and the TMAZ regions shows the severe deforma-
tion of grains, which are re-orientated perpendicular to the weld
traverse direction of the base plate due to the stirring action of the
rotating tool.
According to the previously proposed models of FSW and exper-
imental evidences [28–31], one of the main flow fields around the
tool, which is driven by threads on the pin, is ring vortex deforma-
tion path of material. This flow field encircling the tool and bringing
metal up on the outside, in at the shoulder, down on the inside, and
out again on the lower regions of the pin. Therefore, it seems that
the ring vortex flow current caused the vertical displacement (re-
orientation) of the pancake-shaped grains in vicinity of the tool
(Fig. 3c). It should be noted that, no threaded pin was used in
this investigation, which shows the possibility of vertical mixing
without a need to threaded pin.
 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268 265

Fig. 3. Macro- and microstructures of FS weld showing various microstructural zones in SAF 2205 (600 rpm and 200 mm/min): (a) FS weld macrograph, (b) BM and (c)
SZ/TMAZ.

Table 3 The micrographs of the stir zones under the various FS welding
Chemical compositions of ˛ and  in 2205 duplex stainless steel (wt%)
speed are shown in Fig. 4. It is evident that fine-grained ˛ and 
Phases Cr Mo Ni Mn structure (microduplex structure) is formed in each condition.
Ferrite (˛) 24.30 2.98 5.07 0.85
In the case of duplex stainless steels, a refinement of matrix
Austenite () 20.78 1.75 7.78 1.67 phase and a uniform distribution of second phase are important to
improve mechanical properties, and especially to induce superplas-
ticity. In such alloys, a microduplex structure is usually obtained by
the proper thermo-mechanical processing (TMP). The typical TMP

Fig. 4. Optical microscope images showing the grain size in the stir zone at different welding speeds of (a) 50 mm/min, (b) 100 mm/min, (c) 150 mm/min, and (d) 200 mm/min.
266 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268
Fig. 5. (a) Pseudobinary diagram showing the 70% isoplethal section of the Fe–Cr–Ni phase diagram [34] and (b) the thermo-mechanical processing to obtain fine two-phase
structure in duplex stainless steel.
in the duplex stainless steel is to solution-treat the specimen at
higher temperatures in ˛ single-phase region (Fig. 5), following by
water-quenching (WQ) to obtain a supersaturated ˛ at room tem-
perature. The solution-treated specimen is then heavily cold-rolled
(CR : 70–90%) and finally aged at temperatures around 1000 ◦ C in ˛
and  region. With this treatment, very fine  particles are uni-
formly precipitated [32].
The obtained SZ microstructures reveal that FSW produces
microduplex structure in a relatively simple and single-step process
and potentially can be considered as an alternative to the time-
consuming and complicated TMP. Also, the results are motive to
use FSW in joining of microduplex stainless steels, without the risk
of grain growth, since weld zone grain growth is a very serious prob-
lem during fusion welding of usual duplex and microduplex grades
[1,33].
It is well accepted that generation of fine and equiaxed grains in
the SZ is a result of dynamic recrystallization [14–19,24,29]. Accord-
ing to the general principles for recrystallization [35], dynamic
recrystallization may occur discontinuously (nucleation of new
grains and growth by motion of high angle grain boundaries)
or continuously (increasing misorientation of existing subgrain
boundaries due to absorption of dislocations). The operative mech-
anism depends on the strain and strain rate histories, as well as
the stacking fault energy (SFE) of the material. For a given material,
higher stresses (or strains) and strain rates tend to promote discon-
tinuous recrystallization. Moreover, materials with low SFE (such
as austenitic stainless steels), generally undergo discontinuous
dynamic recrystallization since the dislocations tend to dissoci-
ate making recovery more difficult. Materials with high SFE (such
as ferritic stainless steels), however, tend to undergo continuous
dynamic recrystallization.
In friction stir welding of DSS, recently, Sato et al. [19] claimed
that when two phases exist in the structure, discontinuous dynamic
recrystallization of austenite and continuous dynamic recrystalliza-
tion of ferrite simultaneously occur in the SZ.
Temperature measurements indicate the bottom surface under
the highest and lowest heat input conditions reached to the peak
temperatures of 849 and 474 ◦ C, respectively. On the other hand,
Fig. 5 suggests that the microstructure of duplex stainless steel does
not change to the fully ferritic structure when the steel is exposed
to temperatures below 1300 ◦ C approximately. Therefore, under all
conditions of FSW encountered in this work, the SAF 2205 steel
plates were welded in the two-phase field of ˛ + . As such, it is
likely that both continuous and discontinuous dynamic recrystal-
lization mechanisms resulted in generation of fine grains in the SZ
through the scenario described by Sato et al. [19].
In addition, Fig. 4 demonstrates that, an increase in welding
speed decreases the recrystallized grain size. It was found that the
approximate grain sizes at the center of the SZ welded under the
highest and lowest heat input conditions were 5 and 1 ␮m, respec-
tively, which were much smaller than that of the base metal.
The influences of FSW parameters on the microstructure
of aluminum alloys were studied by a number of investiga-
tors [36–40]. It was noted that the recrystallized grain size
can be reduced by decreasing the ratio of tool rotational
speed/welding speed or increasing the welding speed [38,39].
For example, Ma et al. [38] reported that decreasing the ratio
of rotational speed/traverse speed from 400 rpm/102 mm/min to
350 rpm/152 mm/min resulted in a decrease in the recrystallized
grain size from 7.5 to 3.8 ␮m in 7075Al-T651. More recently, Cava-
liere et al. [39] observed a strong variation in the SZ mean grain size
of 6082Al by increasing the welding speed from 40 to 165 mm/min.
 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268 267

Fig. 7. Microhardness profile of friction stir-welded 2205 duplex stainless steels

(600 rpm and 50 mm/min).

and austenite. It seems that sigma ( ) was not formed in the SZ or

at least its amounts was lower than 5%, which is known to be the
average limit of detection by XRD [41]. It should be noted that was
not also observed in metallography examinations using electrolytic
KOH etchant.
Sigma phase usually forms after long holding times at tem-
peratures between 650 and 950 ◦ C and after cooling from high
temperatures during welding. The weld thermal cycle has a deci-
sive influence on -phase precipitation [1,33]. Previous studies have
shown that cooling rates higher than 0.25 K s−1 prevent formation
of sigma phase [2,6]. Since the cooling rate at the highest heat input
was about 87 K s−1 (Table 2), the hypothesis that sigma phase was
not precipitated is strengthen.

3.4. Mechanical properties

Fig. 7 indicates the typical hardness profile of the SAF 2205

Fig. 6. X-ray diffractograms of samples in different welding speeds. duplex stainless steel after FSW. Basically the hardness within the
SZ is higher than in the base metal. Given the fact that the ˛/ ratio
is nearly uniform in all over the profile, the increase of hardness may
Friction stir welding at higher rotational speed or lower welding
be related to the small grain sizes of ferrite and austenite phases
speed results in an increase in both degree of deformation and peak
in the SZ. Fig. 8 also explains that grain size is a dominant factor
temperature of thermal cycle [24,40]. The increase in the degree
governing mechanical properties. In this figure, the mean hardness
of deformation results in a reduction in the recrystallized grain
value and the tensile strength of the SZ are presented as a func-
size. On the other hand, the increase in peak temperature of ther-
tion of welding speed. All SZs exhibit higher strength and hardness
mal cycle leads to generation of coarse recrystallized grains, and
than the BM and among the SZs, these two mechanical properties
also results in remarkable grain growth [1,24,33,35]. Therefore, the
increase with increasing welding speed. As described above, the
variation of recrystallized grain size with welding speed in FSW
higher welding speed leads to smaller ˛ and  grain sizes in the
depends on which factor is dominant. The present investigation on
SZ. This is the reason why the strength and hardness monotoni-
SAF 2205 steel and previous studies about carbon steels [8] and
aluminum alloys [36–39] appear to indicate that the peak temper-
ature of thermal cycle is the dominant factor in determining the
recrystallized grain size.
Additionally, the results of phase quantification using quantita-
tive metallography showed that, in all conditions, the ratio of ˛/
in the SZ was roughly the same as the BM. This further confirms
that the peak temperatures were lower than  to ˛ transformation
temperature. Because if duplex stainless steel is heated up to tem-
peratures higher than the  to ˛ transformation temperature, its
microstructure will change to the fully ferritic structure and during
the rapid cooling cycle of the weld, extra ferrite will remain in the
final microstructure of weld. Extra ferrite formation is an unfavor-
able event happening in most conventional fusion welding of DSS
[1,33]. Fortunately, due to lower heat input of FSW, ˛/ ratios at
different welding speeds remained constant.
Fig. 6 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of different samples Fig. 8. Effect of FS welding speed on mean hardness value and the tensile strength
of the present study. The diffraction peaks correspond to the ferrite of the SZ in SAF 2205.
268 T. Saeid et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 496 (2008) 262–268
cally increase with increasing welding speed. The overall effect of
welding speed to the SZ tensile strength and hardness can be
expressed empirically as follows:
UTS = 14.56 + 880
H = 13.2 + 284.7
where  is the welding speed, UTS the tensile strength (MPa), and
H is the Vickers hardness (HV ). It should be noted that in Fig. 8,
the formation of defect free welds is taken to consideration. When
the welding speed is further increased to 250 mm/min, the groove-
like defect is formed. This may lead to degradation of mechanical
properties.
4. Conclusion
The effect of the welding speed on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of friction stir-welded SAF 2205 duplex
stainless steel was investigated. Sound joints were produced at
welding speeds of 50, 100, 150, and 200 mm/min and a groove-
like defect caused by insufficient heat input obtained at the speed
of 250 mm/min. The microstructures of the stir zones consisted
of fine equiaxed grains of ˛ and  phases and their grain sizes
decreased with increasing welding speed. This behavior has been
attributed to the lower heat input at higher welding speed. Since
the peak temperatures of weld thermal cycles were lower than 
to ˛ transformation temperature, the desired ratio of ˛/ in the
SZ were achieved in all conditions. On the other hand, probably
due to relatively high cooling rate experienced by SZs, sigma phase
was not formed. The tensile strength and hardness of the SAF 2205
duplex stainless steel joints increased with the increasing weld-
ing speed (decreasing the heat input), due to grain refinement of
microstructure.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
from the Pars Oil and Gas Company. The experimental assistance
of Mr. F. Kargar and Mr. M. Jafarzadegan is greatly appreci-
ated.
References
[1] N.G. Robert, Duplex Stainless Steels Microstructure, Properties and Applica-
tions, Abington Publishing, Cambridge, 1997.
(5) [2] T.H. Chen, J.R. Yang, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 338 (2002) 166–181.
[3] H.Y. Liou, R.I. Hsieh, W.T. Tsai, Corros. Sci. 44 (2002) 2841–2856.
(6) [4] M.A. Miranda, J.M. Sasaki, S.S. Tavares, Mater. Character. 54 (2005) 387–393.
[5] H. Sieurin, R. Sandstrom, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 418 (2006) 250–256.
[6] H. Sieurin, R. Sandstrom, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 444 (2007) 271–276.
[7] J. Michalska, M. Sozańska, Mater. Character. 56 (2006) 355–362.
[8] H. Fujii, L. Cui, N. Tsuji, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 429 (2006) 50–57.
[9] L. Cui, H. Fujii, N. Tsuji, Scripta Mater. 56 (2007) 637–640.
[10] Y.S. Sato, H. Yamanoi, H. Kokawa, Scripta Mater. 57 (2007) 557–560.
[11] T.J. Lienert, W.L. Stellwag Jr., B.B. Grimmett, Weld. J. 82 (2003) 1s–9s.
[12] A.P. Reynolds, W. Tang, M. Posada, Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 8 (2003) 455–460.
[13] A.P. Reynolds, W. Tang, T.G. Herold, Scripta Mater. 48 (2003) 1289–1294.
[14] S.H.C. Park, Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, Scripta Mater. 49 (2003) 1175–1180.
[15] S.H.C. Park, Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, Scripta Mater. 51 (2004) 101–105.
[16] S.H.C. Park, Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 10 (2005) 550–556.
[17] Y.S. Sato, T.W. Nelson, C.J. Sterling, Acta Mater. 53 (2005) 637–645.
[18] K. Okamoto, S. Hirano, Proceedings of the 4th International FSW Symposium,
Park City, UT, USA, 2003.
[19] Y.S. Sato, T.W. Nelson, C.J. Sterling, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 397 (2005) 376–384.
[20] Z. Zhang, H.W. Zhang, Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 12 (2007) 226–248.
[21] H.B. Chen, K. Yan, T. Lin, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 433 (2006) 64–69.
[22] Y.G. Kim, H. Fujii, T. Tsumura, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 415 (2006) 250–254.
[23] H. Okamura, K. Aota, H. Takai, M. Esumi, Weld. Technol. (2003) 60–69.
[24] R.S. Mishra, Z.Y. Ma, Mater. Sci. Eng. R 50 (2005) 1–78.
[25] S.R. Ren, Z.Y. Ma, L.Q. Chen, Scripta Mater. 56 (2007) 69–72.
[26] O. Frigaard, O. Grong, O.T. Midling, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 32 (2001) 1189–1200.
[27] A. Abdollah-zadeh, T. Saeid, B. Sazgari, Proceedings of the International IIW
Congress, Bankok, Thailand, 2006.
[28] J.A. Schneider, A.C. Nunes Jr., Metall. Mater. Trans. B 35 (2004) 777–783.
[29] D.P. Field, T.W. Nelson, Y. Hovanski, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 32 (2001) 2869–2877.
[30] A. Abdollah-Zadeh, T. Saeid, B. Sazgari, J. Alloys Compd. 460 (2008) 535–538.
[31] M. Guerra, C. Schmidt, J.C. McClure, Mater. Character. 49 (2003) 95101.
[32] T. Maki, T. Furuhara, K. Tsuzaki, ISIJ Int. 41 (2001) 571–579.
[33] J.C. Lippold, D.J. Kotecki, Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels,
John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
[34] Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, Elsevier Science Ltd., 2001,
p. 8802.
[35] F.J. Humphreys, M. Hatherly, Recrystallization and Related Annealing Phenom-
ena, second ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 1995.
[36] Y.S. Sato, M. Urata, H. Kokawa, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 33 (2002) 625–635.
[37] Y.J. Kwon, I. Shigematsu, N. Saito, Scripta Mater. 49 (2003) 785–789.
[38] Z.Y. Ma, R.S. Mishra, M.W. Mahoney, Acta Mater. 50 (2002) 4419–4430.
[39] P. Cavaliere, A. Squillace, F. Panella, J. Mater. Process Technol. 200 (2008)
364–372.
[40] Z. Zhang, H.W. Zhang, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 35 (2007) 86–100.
[41] B.D. Cullity, Elements of X-ray Diffraction, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publish-
ing Company, 1978.