International Social Work 48(2): 136–147

Sage Publications: London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi

*
i s w
DOI: 10.1177/0020872805050206

Women and children in the global sex trade

Toward more effective policy

* Jini L. Roby

An estimated 1.2 million women and girls enter the global commer-
cial sex market every year (UNDP, 2000) through human traffick-
ing, of whom 35 percent are estimated to be under 18 (Hughes,
2000; Human Rights Watch, 1995a; Kanics, 1998). Ranked as the
third most serious illegal trade after drugs and weapons, and con-
sidered a modern form of slavery (Bales, 1999; Hughes, 2000),
human trafficking is the illegal moving and selling of human beings
across countries and continents in exchange for financial or other
compensation (Toepfer and Wells, 1994). Trafficking often involves
coercion, deception, and even abduction.
Because trafficking is underground, data are difficult to obtain.
Although international attention thus far has been focused mostly
in Asia, trafficking patterns are being shaped globally by legislation,
enforcement, and the pattern of supply and demand (World Con-
gress, 1996a). Known trafficking routes include from the villages
of Nepal to cities in India and Thailand, from urban slums in Rio
or Recife to mining camps in remote frontiers of Brazil; from
Mozambique to South Africa, Russia and Poland to western
Europe; and from Romania to Italy, Turkey and Cyprus. They
also run from Africa to Europe, and Asia to Australia, New Zealand
and Europe (Bales, 1999; Demir, 2003; International Organization
for Migration, 1997).
Trafficking is also on the increase in Europe and North America.
The UK-based Committee on Child Abuse Networks has called

Jini L. Roby is Assistant Professor at the School of Social Work, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT 84602, USA. [email: jini_roby@byu.edu]
 Roby: Global sex trade 137

commercial sexual exploitation a major threat to Europe’s children

(World Congress, 1996b). Eastern Europe is particularly vulnerable
after the recent wars and the break-up of the former communist-
period protections, as at least 100,000 children are trying to survive
on the streets and more than 40 cases of trafficking came out of
Bosnia-Herzegovina in 2000 involving 180 women and children
(Reuters, 2000). In Bucharest and Romania, children are frequently
sold for as little as a few dollars (World Congress, 1996b). Recently,
a group of girls as young as 14 were smuggled into the USA from
Mexico, then forcefully exploited, being required to perform sexual
acts and beaten if they refused or spoke to each other. Their earnings
were sent to the trafficker, who lived in another state (Anti-Slavery
International, 2002). This trafficker was among the first to be
convicted under the US Trafficking Victims Protection Act (US
Code, 2004), passed in 2000. Another group of Asian women were
illegally brought into the USA via Canada and forced to work in
New York and Chicago as sex slaves for the $30,000 each owed to
the smuggling operator (Gribbin, 1999).
Trafficking can be on a small scale and carried out by relatives or
acquaintances, or on a large scale carried out by organized crime
syndicates routinely utilizing bribery, abduction, falsified documents,
violence and coercion (Hughes, 2000). For example, in Russia many
organized crime members are former KGB agents who now provide
the intelligence and false documentation involved in the sex trade for
a handsome fee (Jordan, 1997).

Contributing factors
Sound policy formulation requires an understanding of the contri-
buting factors leading to the victims’ eventual fall into the sex
market. These factors can be divided into two major levels: first,
the macro-level, constituting the international, national and local
demographic, social, economic, ethnic and cultural environments
in which trafficking occurs; and second, the micro-level of individual
and familial risk factors.

Macro-level factors
Economic injustice and poverty are among the major macro-level
risk factors for sex trafficking. Many developing countries must
deal with profound poverty, wars and other national crises whose
impact can be exacerbated by the payment of national debts and
the accompanying structural adjustment efforts, generally trimming
138 International Social Work volume 48(2)

the budgets related to basic education, medical resources and social

services. Even when those services are not terminated, user fees have
been imposed, and research has shown that the increase in Africa of
commercial sex has been linked to the decrease in government
benefits (Rich, 1994). Poverty also contributes indirectly to sexual
exploitation, such as children who do not attend school in order
to work under slave-like conditions, or on the streets where survival
may require sexual services to other street dwellers for protection
from gangs (Peratis et al., 1999).
The globalization of the consumer market has triggered an influx
of money and goods, further aggravating disparities and promoting
new levels of consumerism (Bales, 1999; World Congress, 1996a).
Indigenous people are being targeted for consumer goods and to
the view of individuals as commodities. Some families are lured by
the income made available to them in exchange for their children,
whether with knowledge or through deception.
A tradition of low respect for females and the belief that they can
be treated as properties belonging to their male relatives are huge
factors in the objectification of women and girls. In some societies
where it is believed that sex with a virgin has restorative or healing
powers, there is a demand for young girls. In many countries the
laws are weak and vague and even criminalize the victims of com-
mercial sexual exploitation. For example, in one country, if a child
has been labeled a prostitute, it can be used as a defense against a
pimp’s criminal violations (Human Rights Watch, 1995b). There is
rampant corruption in many countries in the ranks of the border
patrols, police and government officials, who are often the parties
benefiting from the exploitation due to the opportunities to take
bribes, use the ‘services’ at will and even become partners in the
‘business’ (Raghu, 1997).
Another macro-level risk factor is the large numbers of un-
attached men in construction operations and military installations
in developing countries, attracting those who want to exploit
women and children for big profits. Often the men are from devel-
oped countries and have a lack of regard for the indigenous
women and children. In this setting, as in others, the AIDS threat
continues to be influential in the increasing demand for younger
girls (Bales, 1999).
A related factor, increasing at an alarming rate, is global sex
tourism. International tourists totaled 567 million in 1995, a seven-
fold increase since 1960, of whom a significant portion are sex
tourists (World Congress, 1996c). These travelers bring money into
 Roby: Global sex trade 139

struggling economies that rely on tourism as their primary industry

exploiting local women and children. Bar and brothel owners, taxi
and rickshaw drivers, guides and even parents readily offer children
to tourists for sex (World Congress, 1996a; Bales, 1999).

Individual and family risk factors

The second set of factors includes family breakdown, poor family
relationships, abuse and neglect in the home, mental illness and sub-
stance abuse of the parents, children leaving home, and children
living on the streets (World Congress, 1996d). Many women and
children leave home due to physical or sexual abuse in the home.
For example, in Latin America, researchers link the growth of
street child prostitution not only to poverty and urbanization but
also to widespread violence against women and girls suffering con-
tinued male incest at home. Indeed, 60 percent of children involved
in prostitution in England were sexually abused before they began
working in the sex trade (World Congress, 1996a).
Most victims and their families lack information about the sex
trade. They may believe that they will be employed as dancers,
waitresses, au-pairs, domestic servants, sales clerks or participants
in study-abroad programs. For example, only 25 percent of the
trafficked women counseled by the Dutch foundation STV in 1996
were aware that they would be working in prostitution, and even
those women were misled about the terms and conditions of their
work (Jordan, 1997). There is also a greater risk of commercial
sexual exploitation when another member of the family is or has
been involved. Many families repeat the pattern with more than
one child (Hughes, 2000).

Impact on victims
A case study may be illustrative of the suffering of a young girl in the
sex trade. Siri (not her real name), a 15-year-old girl, was sold into
the sex trade by her parents at age 14. She is forced to have sex
with 10–15 men a night in a brothel. She lives in fear of AIDS and
pregnancy, but may be beaten if she insists that the men use con-
doms. At first she ran away from the brothel but she was quickly
brought back, beaten and raped, until her will was broken. Now
she lives with resignation, convinced that she is a bad person and
seeing herself as ‘just a whore’ (Bales, 1999: 34–7).
140 International Social Work volume 48(2)

The Declaration and Agenda for Action of the World Congress

against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, commonly
referred to as the ‘Stockholm Agenda’, states:

The commercial sexual exploitation of children can result in serious, lifelong, even
life threatening consequences for the physical, psychological, spiritual, moral and
social development of the children, including the threat of early pregnancy, mater-
nal mortality, injury, retarded development, physical disabilities and sexually
transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. Their right to enjoy childhood and
to lead a productive, rewarding and dignified life is seriously compromised.
(World Congress, 1996e: para. 9)

Malnutrition, substance abuse, low academic attainment are

common, as are psychological and emotional consequences includ-
ing low self-esteem, self-hate, feeling like an outcast, unworthy,
unloved, unlovable and degraded, leading victims to enter into a
series of other exploitative relationships. They may experience feel-
ings of hopelessness and helplessness regarding their future and may
not be able to trust anyone sufficiently to heal from the experiences
(World Congress, 1996d). The women and children are frequently
labeled by much of society and officialdom as ‘common prostitutes’,
degenerates (Paret et al., 1999).
Even when the victims manage to escape from the pimps and
brothels, they may face arrest and imprisonment for their illegal
status and activities in a foreign country where they do not speak
the language. Even if they are ‘freed’ from the sex business, they
often lack the education and skills to continue supporting them-
selves. Having been betrayed by their own family or loved ones,
these women and children often feel they have no place to go and
may even form attachments to the very people who exploit them
and return to prostitution as their sole means of support (Inter-
national Organization for Migration, 1997).

Current responses
Responses include efforts on the international, regional, national
and non-governmental fronts, and are aimed at prevention, legisla-
tion, protection and rehabilitation.

International conventions
UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the
Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others has been in effect since
1949 (UN, 1949). This convention calls for the punishment of those
 Roby: Global sex trade 141

who procure or entice victims (article 1) and those who own, manage
or finance brothels for the purpose of prostitution (article 2); pro-
vides the same protection to aliens in a foreign country being sub-
jected to these crimes (article 3), and makes them extraditable
offences (article 8). It also requires member nations to provide
measures for the prevention and rehabilitation for the victims of
prostitution (article 16), as well as requiring measures to monitor
the trafficking of people for prostitution (article 17).

UN Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave

Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (UN, 1957)
supplements the Slavery Convention of 1926, and obliges members
to pass legislation prohibiting parents and guardians from giving
their children or wards to those who would exploit their labor.

UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women (CEDAW) (UN, 1981) directs all states parties to
‘take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress
all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of
women’ (article 6).

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989), ratified by 191

nations, requires members to protect children from sexual abuse or
exploitation (article 19). Nations must prohibit the use of children
for work that is likely to be hazardous or harmful to the child’s
health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development
(article 32). They are also to prohibit the abduction or sale of or
traffic in children (article 35), and to take measures to promote
physical and psychological recovery and the social reintegration of
a child victim of exploitation (article 39).

International Labor Organization (ILO, 1999) has recently stepped

up its fight against the worst forms of child labor, including the
sale and trafficking of children and child prostitution, particularly of
girls (Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention, No. 182, article 7).

Regional treaties
There are a number of regional treaties among nations generally
sharing a common geographic area.

African (Banjul) Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (OAU,

1981) prohibits ‘all forms of exploitation and degradation’, includ-
142 International Social Work volume 48(2)

ing in particular slavery and the slave trade (article 5) and discrimi-
nation against women children (article 18.2).

American Convention on Human Rights (OAS, 1969) explicitly states

that ‘[no one] is to be subjected to slavery or to involuntary servi-
tude, which are prohibited in all their forms, as are the slave trade
and traffic in women’ (article 6).

Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors (OAS,

1997) prohibits the abduction, removal or retention of minors for
unlawful purposes, including sexual exploitation.

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Funda-

mental Freedoms (Council of Europe, 1950) declares that ‘[no one]
shall be held in slavery or servitude . . . or required to perform
forced or compulsory labour’ (article 4).

Nongovernmental organizations
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been very instru-
mental in identifying commercial sexual exploitation as a problem
and advocating its elimination. They have established a number of
programs addressing several inter-related aspects of the problem,
ranging from preventative to rehabilitative services and lobbying
for legislation and sponsoring conferences. For example, with fund-
ing from End Child Prostitution and Trafficking (ECPAT), several
NGOs together established a prevention program in northern Thai-
land offering young girls alternatives to the commercial sex industry.
Its activities include school sponsorship, informal education, voca-
tional training and income-generation assistance for their families
where appropriate. Started in 1998, the program now covers all the
northern part of the country, where the economic crisis of 1997 hit
the hardest.

Policy implications

While laws, policies, and programs exist to counter the commercial sexual exploi-
tation of children, greater political will, more effective implementation measures,
and adequate allocation of resources are needed to give effect to the spirit and
letter of these laws, policies, and programs. (World Congress, 1996e: para. 10)

This statement from the Declaration and Agenda for Action reflects
the international concern over the effectiveness of the current
 Roby: Global sex trade 143

measures intended to combat sexual exploitation. Because inter-

national conventions must be ratified and implemented by member
nations before they can have any effect, their impact is difficult to
gauge. Even national laws and policies are difficult to quantify in
terms of their effectiveness. Research is needed to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of programs. In general, the international community has
called for more effective implementation measures and adequate
allocation of resources.

Legislation
Although international conventions abound, member nations must
step up national legislative efforts. Laws must provide clear defini-
tions and target those who are directly and indirectly profiting
from it while providing legal and social protection for the victims.
Legislation also must address the demand side by providing extra-
territorial clauses so that nationals overseas violating their own
laws can be arrested and extradited back to their countries of origin
and/or convicted under the laws of the country where the offense
occurs. For example, Australia’s Crimes (Child Sex Tourism)
Amendment Act of 1994 specifies in section 50BA that ‘A person
must not, while outside Australia, engage in sexual intercourse with
a person who is under 16’. Extraterritorial jurisdiction laws have
been passed in Japan (2000), Belgium (1995), France (1994) and
Germany (1993), and have also been in existence in the Scandinavian
countries for some time. Although differences in language, legal
systems, procedural requirements and the expense of bringing wit-
nesses from abroad are problematic, innovative approaches (World
Congress, 1996f ) can help overcome many procedural problems.

Enforcement
Laws are only as effective as their enforcement. Unfortunately, there
seems to be generally a lag between legislation and their effective
enforcement because of attitudes of disrespect for women and
girls, insufficient funding and even police conspiracy in the profit-
taking. Low respect for the law and for law enforcement officers
and the national agenda of sex tourism makes the enforcement of
sexual exploitation laws a low priority. There is a need to increase
funding, and provide training and special incentives as support for
better enforcement. Governments are also encouraged to co-
ordinate their efforts through Interpol, the intergovernmental police
agency that maintains a database of criminals including those
144 International Social Work volume 48(2)

involved in this traffic and sexual exploitation. Bilateral contacts

between police forces and customs authorities, particularly those
of known origins and destinations, are highly encouraged.

Victims’ rights and victim-friendly procedures

Victims must be seen as victims first, then as credible witnesses and
protected during the criminal process. Recommendations include
the utilization of a victim witness coordinator and a guardian ad
litem, admitting into evidence the videotape of a child’s statement
to authorities, pre-trial depositions when the original witness is no
longer available and closed-circuit testimony.

Education and prevention

Education must target both the supply and demand sides. On the
supply side, families and communities must be provided with infor-
mation about the harmful effects of the sex trade, including the
threat of AIDS and other associated dangers. They must be pro-
vided with options when faced with financial crises other than selling
themselves or their children to the sex trade, such as the availability
of micro-enterprise loans and vocational training. Deeply held atti-
tudes towards women and girls must be changed through education
and public campaigns. The media should contribute to this educa-
tion by providing socially responsible programming targeting this
change. Extra efforts should be made by schools and communities
to keep all children in school. On the demand side, in addition to
legislation and the enforcement of laws, governments and businesses
should campaign against sex tourism. The tourism industry should
step up its efforts to self-regulate against sex tourism.

Protection and rehabilitation

Efforts must be within a comprehensive framework which includes
customs surveillance, telephone help-lines, outreach, emergency
shelters, halfway houses, and return home or independent living pro-
grams with medical, educational, therapeutic, and skills and job
training components. This overall framework should be in place
and filled as resources become available.

Partnership between multi-disciplinary organizations

In order to achieve the maximum utilization of resources, minimize
duplicate efforts and achieve credibility, partnerships must be formed
between local and national governments and NGOs, and between
 Roby: Global sex trade 145

the professions and the economic community. For example, the

Philippines’ Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking is composed
of members representing various segments of government and
NGOs working with issues of social welfare, tourism, labor and
employment, education, justice and law enforcement, the role of
women, human rights, immigration and women’s rights groups
(Philippines Government, 2000).
Participatory models involving the women, children and their
families and community leaders as key players are helpful. The
installation of an ombudsman office in each country to oversee
governmental progress in applying international conventions would
be a step forward.

Conclusion: the role of social workers

Sexual trafficking illustrates some of the worst aspects of globaliza-
tion, economic injustice and the undervalued status of women and
girl children. The social work profession has the obligation and
opportunity to be involved in policy-making, education, prevention
and direct services addressing its many facets. Social workers in the
demand countries can advocate for laws requiring mandatory extra-
dition of their citizens who commit crimes of commercial sexual
exploitation outside of their country. They should advocate for pro-
grams providing trafficked victims legal status while awaiting resolu-
tion of their cases, possibly helping to create a special category of
legal residency. They should also advocate for legal, medical, finan-
cial, occupational and counseling services for the victims.
In supply areas, social workers can be involved in advocacy and
practice ranging from economic capacity-building, community
development and education, to challenging abusive social mores
and cultural traditions and providing follow-up care on a victim’s
return to the community, with multidisciplinary teams with mutual
goals. Advocacy can also include prosecution of the offenders,
victim-friendly judicial procedures, education of the law enforcers,
networking among earlier victims and participation by them in
public policy-making.
In academia, social work students should be educated regarding
the issue and seek internship opportunities with governmental and
NGOs dealing with sex trafficking. Faculty can conduct research
and outreach, and collaborate with the local and national govern-
ments and private sectors to influence policy and practice.
146 International Social Work volume 48(2)

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