Volume 8, Part 4, November 1994
THE USES OF 'GASTEROMYCETES'
THOMAS LJESS0E & BRIAN SPOONER
Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew TW9 3AE
This paper complements an earlier one on the
folklore of gasteromycetes (Spooner & Lessee,
1994).
Culinary Uses
Puffballs, especially the Giant Puffball (Calvatia
gigantea) , have long had culinary value, despite
the comment by Gerard (1597) that 'Fusse-balls
are no way eaten'. They were, for example,
evidently well known to the Greeks and Romans
(Buller, 1915), and unsuccessful attempts at
cultivation were carried out in Denmark more
than 150 years ago (Ramsbottom, 1953). Most
species are edible in their young stages before the
spores develop, and their use in this condition
remains widespread. Fries (1986), for example,
recommends Lycoperdon gemmatum (= perlatum,
Fig 1), amongst others, for drying and serving
with oil, salt and pepper. Indeed, the Giant
Puffball came 7th in a recent poll of 'Your Top
Twenty Fungi' (Legg, 1990). However such use is
not universal. The North American Iroquois, for
example, according to one source, referred to
puffballs as 'Devil's bread' (Burk, 1983). Accord-
ing to Smith (1951), some species of Calvatia and
Lycoperdon have been implicated in 'violent
gastrointestinal upsets', though this may result
from eating specimens which are nearing
maturity.
In Central Africa, at least in Zambia and
Malawi, puffballs are recognised and have
received folk names but they have no particular
significance (Piearce, 1981; Morris, 1984). How-
ever, various species of Calvatia, Langermannia,
Lycoperdon and Vascellum are used as food items
in some areas (Rammeloo & Walleyn, 1993). In
North America, puffballs were apparently an
important food commodity amongst Indian tribes.
For example, the Zuni used large quantities of
puffballs, both fresh and also dried for use during
the winter months (Burk, 1983). They were also
generally popular used in soups. In Mexico, a
species of Lycoperdon is eaten by the Tepetuan of
Durango (Gonzalez, 1991).
•
Earthballs (Scleroderma spp.) have been used
as adulteration for truffles and as a condiment
but, nevertheless, are known to contain toxins
(Lincoff & Mitchell, 1977). They should never be
consumed in more than the tiniest quantities.
Stinkhorns and their allies have little culinary
value. However, the unexpanded eggs and the
spongy stipes of some species of Phallus are edible
and have been used in salads. In places, the eggs
are pickled, and in Germany they are incorpor-
ated into sausages and are also sold as a kind of
truffle (Dickinson & Lucas, 1979). Similarly, in
North America several species are regarded as
edible in the egg stage (McIlvaine, 1990). In
China, Lysurus mokusin is eaten (Berkeley,
1857), and is said to be a great delicacy (Dickinson
& Lucas, 1979). Perhaps the most important
species in this respect is P. indusiatus. This is
considered an excellent edible fungus by the
Chinese (Liu, 1984b; Boa, 1988), and is cultivated
for this purpose, both indoors and outdoors, in
parts of China. Dictyophora rubrovolvata is also
considered an excellent edible fungus in China
(Liu, 1984b).
In New Zealand, the gelatinous volva of species
of Ileodictyon is eaten (Berkeley, 1857), the
fungus being called by the Maoris 'Thunder dirt'
(Steele, 1888). Clathrus ruber (Fig 2) is also said
to be edible in the egg stage (Marchand, 1976),
although an early account by Barla (1858) de-
scribes a case of poisoning by this species. Cooke
(1862) also gives an alarming report of the
development of violent convulsions and loss of
speech in a young girl after eating this fungus. It
reportedly took 'some months' before she was fully
recovered. Several species of phalloid, including
P. rubicundus and Dictyophora multicolor, are
also regarded as poisonous (Liu, 1984a, b). It is
also reported by Oso (1976) that the Nigerian
people in general regard stinkhorns as poisonous.
Medical Uses
Uses for puffballs and stinkhorns, and other
gasteroid fungi, in medicine are many and wide-

spread. Use of the fruitbodies themselves has a
long history, but drugs and other active com-
ponents have comparatively recently been iso-
lated from some species.
Folk-medicine: puffballs, earthstars and
bird's-nests
The most frequent use of puffballs is probably as a
wound dressing. The giant puffball has been used
to form a surgical dressing (Rolfe & Rolfe, 1925),
and the powdery spore mass of many species is a
useful and effective styptic. Such use was wide-
spread in Europe and North America but also
found in India (Rai et al ., 1993). According to
Swanton (1917), larger puffballs were at one time
commonly kept in farmhouses and cottages in
West Sussex, and the custom still lingered on in
the season of 1916. The dried and powdered young
fruitbodies were used in a similar way by some
North American Indians (Burk, 1983). It should
also be noted that the inhalation of thes spores of
puffballs can cause a lung disease known as
lycoperdonosis (Henriksen, 1976).
In China , many puffballs and related fungi,
including species of Battarraea, Tulostoma,
Bovista, Bovistella, Calvatia, Lycoperdon , Myce-
nastrum, Astraeus, Geastrum, Pisolithus, Sclero-
derma, and Cyathus are considered as medically
important (Liu, 1984a, b; Ying et al., 1987). These
are mostly used as a styptic, many also being
commonly considered to reduce swelling and to
detoxify. Some species are used for throat ail-
ments, and others to reduce fever and coughing, as
a painkiller or for stomach ache. Some are
believed effective against cancer in mice; indeed,
a 100% success rate has been demonstrated for
Lycoperdon pyriforme against two forms of cancer
in white mice (Ying et al., 1987). In Nigeria,
Calvatia cyathiformis is used by the Yoruba
people as a cure for leucorrhoea or 'pneumaturia'
[sic]. Fruitbodies are ground up with other
ingredients, either herbs or fungi, or 'African
black soap', and applied orally or as a wash (Oso,
1977).
The use of Tulostoma in North America by the
Ramah Navaho to cure leg bone fractures in
sheep, by application either as a poultice or as an
infusion, was given by Burk (1983). Species of
Tulostoma are also employed in China to control
swellings and bleeding, and to allay fever (Ying
Volume 8, Part 4, November 1994
et al ., 1987). The use by the North American
Paiute of Battarraea and other puffballs to treat
swellings and sores is also given by Burk (1983).
In China, Battarraea species are used in a similar
way, and also to 'relieve internal heat or fever'
(Ying et al., 1987). In Namibia, the spores of a
species of Battarraea are used by the Topnaar
people (Van den Eynden et al., 1992). These are
rubbed on the skin to treat burns, and are mixed
with oils to form a protective skin ointment and a
cosmetic.
Other uses to which giant puffballs have been
put include treatment of diarrhoea in calves in
Finland (Dickinson & Lucas, 1979) and Germany
(Brendegaard, 1987), and a similar and current
use for Bovista graveolens in southern Bohemia
was reported by Kotlaba (1955). In North
America, the Potawatomi Indians use Morganella
subincarnata as a cure for headaches and refer to
it as the 'headache berry' (Smith, 1933; Burk ,
1983). Some puffballs , including several Mexican
species of Lycoperdon and Va scellum, have also
been reported to have hallucinogenic properties.
Heim (1978) discusses two species of Lycoperdon
which have ritual use in the Tlaxiaco region, and
are also considered to have therapeutic properties.
However , despite being used for such purposes ,
these fungi appear to have no active principles
(Ott et al., 1975 ).
Puffballs and earthstars were used by some
North American Indians to prevent infection after
severing of the umbilical cord. Another strange
use of the spores of earthstars noted by Burk
(1983) was to cure discharges from the ear, and
puffball spores were similarly used as a remedy
for ear ache. Another use of puffballs, as a cure for
sprains, was evidently practised in Himalayan
areas such as eastern Nepal by the Lepchas
(Hooker, 1854). Smouldering fruitbodies were
applied directly to the skin. The Lapps have a
similar use for Fomes [omentarius, the burnt flesh
then being covered with a piece of dried puffball
(Lysebraate, 1993).
Some tribes from Madhya Pradesh, India, use
species of Cyathus (Fig 3) to soothe sore eyes (Rai
et al., 1993), but there appear to be no other known
medical uses for bird 's-nest fungi. These tribes
also employ Astraeus to treat burns, mixing the
spore mass with mustard seed oil to form an
ointment (Rai et al., 1993). A similar use for this
fungus is found in China (Ying et al ., 1987).
III
 Volume 8, Part 4, November 1994

part of a preparation to treat leprosy (Oso, 1976).

Some other phalloids are considered to have
medical significance in various parts of the world.
In China, Lysurus mokusin is reputed to be a cure
for gangrenous ulcers (Maclvlillan, 1861; Dickin-
son & Lucas, 1979) and, according to Ying et al.
(1987), it has anticancer properties. Also in
China, Simblum gracile is used for oesophageal
cancer and gastritis (Ying et al., 1987). In France,
clathrus ruber has, quite without foundation, been
suspected of causing cancer, skin lesions, sick-
ness, convulsions and delirium (Dring, 1980;
Dickinson & Lucas, 1979). It is referred to in
France as 'Cancrou' or Cancer (Badham, 1863).

Modern studies
The anti-tumour drug 'Calvacin' has been
extracted from the giant puffball (Beneke, 1963)
and other species, notably Bovistella radicata, B.
Fig 1 Lycoperdon perlatum. A common puffball,
long recognised as a good edible fungus when young. sinensis, Pisolithus tinctorius and Scleroderma
From Fries, Sveriges titliga och giftiga svampar, cepa (Ying et al., 1987). This compound is present
1861: pI. 73. only in young fruitbodies and in very tiny quanti-
ties, but higher yields are reported from cultures.
Folk-medicine: stinkhorns
Stinkhorns appear to have had little medical
significance in Britain, although in 1865 they
figured prominently in discussions in 'The Times'
newspaper as a possible cause ofcholera and other
epidemics (Brendegaard, 1983). However, else-
where in Europe, and in India and China, stink-
horns have been used in a variety of ways. In the
Middle Ages, especially, they were used to treat
epilepsy, rabies, kidney problems, gout, rheuma-
tism and bleedings. The effectiveness of Phallus
impudicus is also noted by Ying et al. (1987).
Phallus rubicundus is reported by Rai et al.,
(1993) to be used in Central India against typhoid,
and also to ease labour pains. This species is also
used in China, but as a treatment for 'sores,
subcutaneous ulcers, scabies, carbuncle and fis-
tula' (Ying et al., 1987), and to promote healing
(Liu, 1984a). The dried and powdered gleba is
mixed with oil and applied as an ointment.
Species of the closely-related genus Dictyophora
are used in China as a treatment for dysentery,
and dried fruitbodies of D. multicolor, immersed
in 70% alcohol and applied externally, are
employed as a treatment for athlete's foot. In
Fig 2 Clathrus ruber - a striking species once
Nigeria, Phallus aurantiacus and other stink- wrongly reported as toxic and a causer of cancer.
horns are used by traditional Yoruba doctors as

..
(Photo: Thomas Leessee)
 Volume 8, Part 4, November 1994

More recently, calvatic acid, another active factor mare of our dreams in which we lie stretched upon
with antibiotic and anti-tumour properties, has the funeral bier, sensible to the weeping of
been isolated from another species, Calvatia friends, aware of the last screw being fixed in the
craniiformis (Umezawa et al., 1975). Another drug coffin, and the last clod clapped down upon us in
complex, cyathin, has been extracted from the the churchyard, and are yet unable to move a
bird's nest fungus Cyathus striatus (Fig 3) and hand or a lip for our own deliverance'! Use of the
others. This complex includes seven different smouldering fruitbodies in Germany to smoke
compounds (Brodie, 1975) and is antibiotic and chests used for storage of grain is also reported by
bacteriostatic. Brendegaard (1987).
The North American Indians had a variety of
Other Uses other uses for puffballs, summarised by Burk
Puffballs have been put to a variety of practical (1983). These include use as a dusting powder or
uses other than the medical and culinary aspects baby talc (Smith, 1923; 1933), as a rattle by
discussed above. It was suggested by Watling medicine men, as necklaces, 'prized because of the
(1975) and by Watling & Seaward (1976) that the delicate odor they gave off, and for children's
presence of Bovista nigrescens in prehistoric games. The flesh of some species was used as a pin
dwellings in Orkney, Scotland and other sites in cushion in parts of Denmark (Brendegaard, 1987).
England could indicate their use as insulation
against draughts in buildings. The latter authors
also speculated on the use of puffballs in early
times as kindling for fires. This use as tinder was
given by Cooke (1962) for Calvatia gigantea, and,
indeed, for puffballs generally according to
Gerard & Johnson (1633). Their fruitbodies were
also useful for transferring fire from place to
place, for which use they were known as 'Lucer-
narum Fungi' (Gerard, 1597; Gerard & Johnson,
1633). Addition of saltpetre to dried fruitbodies of
Handkea utriformis (Fig 4) to produce Amadou is
also reported by Cooke (1862). Amadou, tradi-
tionally prepared from the flesh of Fornes {omen-
tarius, is used either as tinder, or in medicine as
a haemostatic or for packing under nail margins. Fig 3 Cyathus striatus - one of several bird's-nest fungi which
One of the main uses for puffballs, especially C. yield the drug-complex cyathin. (Photo: Gordon Dickson)
gigantea, was in beekeeping. Fumes, from the
smouldering fruitbody placed beneath the hive,
calm the bees to facilitate access. Puffballs have
been so used in Europe, including the British Isles
(Swanton, 1917; Dickinson & Lucas, 1979), and
throughout North America (Burk, 1983), and it is
a long established practice. The tranquillising
properties of the fumes are actually due to an
excess of carbon dioxide rather than to any special
anaesthetic properties. However, puffballs were
at one time employed more generally as an
anaesthetic, being successfully used in operations
according to Berkeley (1860). MacMillan (1861)
states in prosaic fashion that they deprive 'the
patient of speech, motion and sensibility to pain,
while he is still conscious of everything that
.
Fig 4 Handkea (Caluatia) utriformis - an edible puffball, also
happens around him; thus realising that night- once used to produce amadou. (Photo: Gordon Dickson)

1&
 Volume 8, Part 4, November 1994
Finally, the hygroscopic nature of Astraeus hygro-
metricus led to the practical use of this species as a
hygrometer according to Rolfe & Rolfe (1925).
Pisolithus tinctorius is popularly known as 'Dye
Ball' due to the abundant yellow and purple dyes
which it contains (Stevens & Kidd, 1953). In
Europe, and elsewhere, this species is used for
dyeing of cotton and wool, and in the Canary
Islands and parts of Italy for dyeing silk (Rolfe &
Rolfe, 1925).
There are few practical uses to which stink-
horns have been put. However, in China, the
boiled liquid from species of Phallus and Dietyo-
phora is used as short-term food preservative
(Ying et al., 1987). It is also interesting to note
that, although they are not luminescent, accord-
ing to Ramsbottom (1953), stinkhorns as well as
Clathrus ruber are reported to emit sufficient
radiation to affect photographic film even through
cardboard!
Acknowledgements
We thank Yi-J ian Yao for assistance in transla-
tion of Chinese text, Alick Henrici for critically
reading the manuscript, and Gordon Dickson for
permission to reproduce colour transparencies.
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