LINEAR

MEASUREMENTS
1. Types of Linear Measurements

▪ Measurement of horizontal distance is required in chain

surveying, traverse surveying, etc.

▪ Based on precision required, they can be classified as:

i. Direct measurements
ii. Optical methods
iii. Electro magnetic methods
2. Methods of Linear Measurements

1. Pacing:
Mostly confined to the preliminary surveys, where a rough
survey is needed quickly. This method consists of counting
number of paces between two points of a line. Distance of the
line is obtained by multiplying number of paces with average
length of the step.
2. Passometer:

It is a mechanical device which records the number of steps.

Device is operated based on motion, avoiding strain of
counting. Distance of the line is obtained by multiplying
number of paces with average length of the step.
3. Pedometer:

This device is similar to passometer but it directly registers

the distance travelled not the number of steps. It is adjusted
to the length of the pace of the individual.
4. Measuring wheel:
This device consists of a wheel mounted on the lower end of the
rod, upper end of the rod is being held in hand. Wheel is
traversed along the ground and distance travelled is recorded.
5. Odometer:
This is a simple device which is attached to the wheel of a
bicycle or vehicle. It records the number of revolutions made by
the wheel. The distance travelled is calculated by multiplying
number of revolutions with circumference of wheel.
6. Speedometer:
This devices uses the principle of odometer but measures
instant speed/ distance travelled by a vehicle.
7. Chaining:
Chaining is a term used to denote measuring with chains or
tapes. It is the most accurate method of linear measurement.
3. Instruments for Chaining

▪ Chains
▪ Tapes
▪ Arrows
▪ Pegs
▪ Ranging rods
▪ Offset rods
▪ Laths and whites
▪ Pegs
▪ Plumb bob
▪ Line ranger
1. Chain :
• Chains are made of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent
into rings at the ends that are joined by three small circular rings.
• These loops are for the flexibility of the chain.
• The ends are provided with brass handle at each end with a swivel
joint, for easy turning of the chain without twisting.
Various types of chains:
a. Metric Chain:
▪ This chain is available in 5m,10,20m and 30m.
▪ IS:1492-1970covers the requirements of metric surveying
chain.
▪ Groove is cut on the outside of handle to facilitate holding of arrows
in position with the handle.
▪ Tallies are fixed at every m length for 5m & 10m chains and every
5m length for 20m & 30m for easy readings of the chain.
▪ 20m & 30m chains have small brass rings at every m length.
b. Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain:
▪ Gunter’s chain is 66 feet long and consists of 100 links.
Each link being 0.6 feet long.
▪ 80 Gunter chains = 1 mile
▪ 10 Gunter chains = 1 furlong
▪ (10 Gunter chains)2 = 1 acre
c. Engineer’s Chain :
▪ This chain is 100 feet long and consists of 100 links,
each link equal to 1 feet long.
▪ At every 10 feet , brass tag of a particular type is fixed.
▪ Number of notches on the tag indicate number of 10
segment links
▪ This chain is used to measure distances in feet and
decimals.
d. Revenue Chain:
▪ This chain is 33 feet long and consists of 16 links.
33 1
▪ Each link is feet long or 2 feet long.
16 16
▪ These chains are mainly used for measuring fields in
cadastral survey.
▪ The chain is used for measurement of small areas.
e. Steel band or Band chain:

▪ This chain consists of long narrow strip of blue steel of uniform

width of 12-16mm and thickness of the strip ranges from 0.3mm
to 0.6mm .

▪ Metric steel bands are available commercially in lengths of 20m

and 30m.

▪These chains are lighter and easier to handle.

▪The disadvantage of these chains are that they are easily broken
and difficult to repair in the field.
Testing and Adjusting of Chains:

▪ Due to excessive use, length of chain can get altered.

▪ If chain is too long, it can be adjusted by:
o closing of joints
o reshaping of rings
o removing smaller rings
o replacing worn out rings
o adjusting links at ends

▪ If chain is too short, it can be adjusted by:

o straightening links
o flattening circular rings
o replacing smaller rings with bigger rings
o inserting additional circular rings
o adjusting links at the end
2. Tapes:
▪ Tapes are used for measuring more accurate
measurements.

▪ Based on the materials of the tape, it can be further

divided into:
i. Cloth or linen tape
ii. Metallic tape
iii. Steel tape
iv. Invar tape
a. Cloth or Linen Tape:
▪ These tapes are made of closely woven linen 12-15mm
wide long strips varnished and wounded on a flat circular
disc.
▪ They are light, flexible and may be used for rough
measurements such as for offsets.
▪ They are available in 10m,20m,25m& 30m.
▪ Cloth tapes are rarely used because they are easily
affected by moisture or dampness and hence it shrinks.
▪ They are easily stretchable and can twist and tangle
easily
b. Metallic Tape:
▪ These tapes are made of varnished strip of water proof
fabric or glass fibre inside which metal wires are
interwoven.
▪ Metallic wires prevents stretching of tape.
▪ They are available in lengths of 2m,5m,10m,20m,30m
& 50m.
▪ They are light, flexible and cannot be easily broken.
▪ The disadvantage of these tapes are they are prone to
temperature variations and extreme dampness.
 c. Steel tapes:
▪ Steel tapes are more accurate than linen and metallic tapes.
▪ They consists of steel or stainless steel strips of 6-13mm
width and is accurately graduated.
▪ To resist corrosion , it is kept in a well sewn leather case or
corrosion resisting metal case.
▪ Steel tapes measure with an accuracy of 1 in 2000.
▪ These tapes are delicate instruments and are very light.
 d. Invar tapes:
▪ Invar tapes are used for survey works of high precision
measurements and accuracy.
▪ Invar is an alloy of Steel (64%) and Nickel (36%) and has a
very low co.efficient of thermal expansion.
▪ These tapes are generally 6mm wide and are commercially
found in lengths of 20m , 30m & 60m.
▪ Invar alloy is very soft and thus it must be handled carefully
to avoid kinks and bends.
3. Arrows:

▪ Arrows are used to mark the position of the end of the chain
on the ground.
▪ Arrows or marking pins are made of hard tempered steel
wires of 4mm in diameter and are black enameled.
▪ Length of an arrow varies from 250mm – 500mm.
▪ Generally, 10 arrows are provided with a chain.
4. Pegs:
▪ Pegs are used to mark survey stations and end points of
survey lines on ground.
▪ They are also used to mark intersection of lines.
▪ They are generally made of hard timber with square section
of 2.5cm or 3cm and are 15cm long, and are tapered at one
end.
5. Ranging rods:
▪ Ranging rods are also called as flag poles or lining rods.
▪ They usually have a length of 2m or 3m, with 2m being more
common.
▪ Ranging is a process of locating a number of points on a long
survey line. Hence, for this ranging rods are used to locate
intermediate points such that they lie on a straight line.
▪ These rods are also used as signals to indicate location of
points or direction of lines.
▪ On these rods, alternate bands of either red and white or
black and white of length 200mm are painted, so that they
can be used as rough measurements for short lengths.
Ranging Poles:

• Similar to ranging rods except that they are longer and of

greater diameter and used for very long lines.
• They comprise of a large flag.
• Length of the pole varies from 4-8m and diameter of the
pole varies from 6-10cm.
6. Offset rods:

▪ Offset rods are similar to ranging rods except that at the top a
stout open ring or hook is provided. Hook facilitates the
pushing and pulling of the chain through fences or
obstructions.
▪ These are mainly used to align offset lines and measure
short offsets.
▪ The rod also has two short narrow vertical slots are right
angles at eye level for aligning of offset line.
▪ They generally are of 3m length and are
round wooden rods,
pointed iron shoe at one end.
7. Plumb bob:
▪ Plumb bob is made of bronze, brass or steel in the shape of
an inverted cone.
▪ Freely suspended plumb bob always aligns itself in the
direction of gravity and points towards the centre of the earth.
▪ It also indicates if the line is vertical or not.
▪ In surveying, it is used mainly for centering instruments like
magnetic compass, plane table, etc.
▪ It is also used to transfer a point on tape to ground.
8. Plaster’s Laths:
▪ In open level ground, intermediate points are also lined with
laths of 0.5m to 1m long, which are made of soft wood.
▪ Laths are light in colour and weight and can easily be carried.
▪ They are used in ranging a line when crossing a depression
from which rod is invisible or when rod is hidden by obstacle
like hedges, etc.
 9. Cross Staff:
▪ It is a simple instrument used for setting out offsets to the
chain line from the given point and for setting out right
angles.
▪ It consists of two pairs of vertical slits providing two lines of
sight at right angles.
▪ A modified version of the cross staff is, French cross staff.
This has one advantage over the original one that even 45º
lines can be set out from the chain lines.
▪ Latest modified cross staff is Adjustable cross staff. It can be
set to any angle.
4. Terminologies in Chain Surveying

▪ Main Survey Station: These are prominent points that are

connected by survey lines to form triangles. Alternatively,
these stations are points at the start and end of survey lines.

▪ Main Survey Lines: Main survey lines are lines joining main
survey stations. The biggest main survey line is called as
Base Line.

▪ Subsidiary Survey Station: Stations which are on the main

survey lines or any other survey lines which are taken to run
subsidiary lines for dividing area into triangles, for checking
accuracy of triangles and for locating interior details.

▪ Tie Stations: These stations are also a part of subsidiary

stations.
D C

A B
▪ Base Line: The longest survey line which runs through the
area to be surveyed. The framework of triangles is built on
the base line.

▪ Check Lines: Check lines also known as proof lines are run
to check the accuracy of the traverse consisting of the frame
work of triangles. Check lines are measured in the field
during surveying of land. These lines must agree with its
length on the plan. It also helps to locate interior detail.

▪ Offsets: Offsets are lateral distances measured from survey

lines in order to locate details. There are two types of offsets:
a. Perpendicular offsets: These lines are normal or
perpendicular to survey line.
b. Oblique offsets: These lines are inclined to the survey lines.
D C

A B
Check lines:
▪ Plus measurements: These measurements of the building
are taken along its walls. Plus measurements are helpful in
plotting the complete plan.

▪ Range ties: Oblique offsets taken along the wall of the

building.

▪ Tie Lines: Lines that are run to take interior details which are
far from main lines and to avoid long offsets. They also serve
as check lines.

▪ Chaining: The distance of prominent point from the start

point.
5. Selection of survey stations

The following considerations must be kept in accordance to

marking a survey station:

▪ A survey station must be visible from atleast two or more stations.

▪ As far as possible main lines should run on a level ground.
▪ All triangles must be well conditioned.
▪ Main network should have as dew lines as possible
▪ Each main triangle should have atleast one check line.
▪ Obstacles to ranging and chaining should be avoided.
▪ Sides of larger triangle should pass as close as possible to
boundary lines.
▪ Trespassing and frequent crossings of roads should be avoided.
6. Operations in Chain Surveying

▪ Chaining
▪ Ranging
▪ Offsetting
7. Ranging of Survey Line

▪ While measuring the length of a survey line or a chain line, if

the length of the line is less than the length of chain, there
will be no difficulty.
▪ However if length of line exceeds length of chain,
intermediate points have to be set up in line with the two
terminal points which were established at the start of the
process.
▪ This process of fixing or establishing such intermediate
points is known as ranging.
▪ Ranging a survey line means placing a line on ground along
the shortest possible distance between two points.
▪ Depending on conditions available, ranging can be divided
into:
i. Direct Ranging ii. Indirect Ranging
DIRECT RANGING:

▪ Direct ranging is done when the two ends of survey lines are
intervisible.
▪ This ranging can be done either by eye or through optical
instruments like a line ranger or a theodolite.
 i. Ranging by Eye:

C D

A B

Assistant with
Ranging rod Ranging rod Ranging rod

Surveyor
C D B
A
ii. Ranging by line ranger:

Upper A A
prism

B B

Lower
Prism Incorrect Correct
Alignment Alignment

A B
INDIRECT RANGING:

▪ This method is used when stations are intervisible.

▪ This ranging is also known as reciprocal ranging.

▪ Two points can be intervisible due to high ground or long

distance.
 D
C

A B
D1
C1

C2

D2
C3
D3

C D
A B
8. Measuring distances with chains:

▪ For measuring distances with chain/ tape, two people are required,
they are called chainmen.

▪ One chainmen is called the leader and the other called follower.
9. Errors in chaining:

▪ Due to incorrect chain:

If chain is too long, distance measured will be less.

Therefore, error occurring in this scenario is negative (-ve)
and its correction is positive (+ve).

If chain is too short, distance measured will be more.

Therefore, error occurring in this scenario is positive (+ve) and
its correction is negative (-ve).
Suppose, L = true or designated length of chain
L’ = incorrect or actual length of chain used.

▪ Correction to measured length:

l = true length of line

l’ = measured length of line

L’
Then, true length of line = measured length x
L

L′
𝑙 = 𝑙′ ×
L
▪ Correction to measured area:
A‘ = measured or computed area on ground
A = true or nominal area
Then,
L′ 2
true area = measured area x
L

L′ 2
A = A‘ x
L
Or

L′ L + ∆L ∆L
= = 1+ e
L L L

A = A‘ (1+2e)
▪ Correction to measured volume:

v = true or nominal volume

v‘ = measured or computed or volume

L′ 3
Then, true volume = measured volume x
L

L′ 3
v = v‘ x
L
or

v = ( 1 + 𝑒)3 v‘

v = v‘ (1 + 3e)
 2.1 The length of a line measured with a 20 meter chain was found
to be 250 meters. Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was
found to be 10cm too long.

Sol:

10
Incorrect length of the chain = L‘ = 20 + 100
= 20.10 m

Measured length = l‘ = 250 m

Hence,
𝐿′
True length of the line = l‘ x 𝐿
20.12
= 250 x 20

= 251.52 meters
2.2 The length of a survey line was measured with a 20m chain and
was found to be equal to 1200 meters. As a check, the length was again
measured with a 25m chain was found to be 1212 m. On comparing the
20m chain with the test gauge, it was found to be 1 decimeter too long.
Find the true length of the 25m chain was used.

Sol: With a 20m chain: L‘ = 20+0.10 = 20.10m

𝐿′
l = l‘ x 𝐿
20.10
= 1200 x 20

True length of the line = 1206 m

𝐿′
With a 25m chain: l = l‘ x
𝐿
𝐿′
1206 = 1212 x
25
1206 × 25
L‘ = 1212
= 24.88m
2.3 A 20 m chain was found to be 10 cm too long after chaining a
distance of 1500m. It was found to be 18cm too long at the end of
day’s work after chaining a total distance of 2900m. Find the true
distance if the chain was correct before the commencement of the
work.

Sol:
For the first 1500 meters:
0+10
Average error: e = 2
= 5cm = 0.05

L‘ = 20 + 0.05 = 20.05m
Hence,

𝐿′
l = l‘ x 𝐿

20.05
× 1500
l1 = 20

= 1503.75 m
For the next 1400 meters:
10+18
Average error: e = 2
= 14cm = 0.14m
L‘ = 20 + 0.14 = 20.14m
Hence,
𝐿′
l = l‘ x
𝐿
20.14
l2 = 20
x 1400
= 1409.80 m

Total length = l = l1 + l2
= 1503.75 + 1409.80
= 2913.55 m
2.4 A 20 m chain used for a survey was found to be 20.10m at the
beginning and 20.30m at the end of the work. The area of the plan
drawn to a scale of 1cm =8m was measured with the help of a
planimeter and was found to be 32.56 sq. cm. Find the true area of
the field.

Sol: L‘ = average length of the chain = 20.10+20.30

2

= 20.20m
Area of the plan = 32.56 cm2
Area of the ground = 32.56 (8)2
A’ = 2083.84 m2

L′ 2
True area A = A‘ x
L

20.20 2
= 2083.84 x
20

= 2125.73 m2
2.5 A 30m chain was tested before a survey and found to 0.07m too
short. If the length of a line measured with this chain was 273.35m,
find the true length of the line.

Sol: Incorrect length of the chain L' = 30-0.07

= 29.93m

𝐿′
True length of the line l = l‘ x
𝐿

29.93
= 273.35 x
30

= 272.71m
2.6 The true length of a line measured from a plan as per scale was
1276.54m. When the line was measured with a 30m long chain, length
was measured as 1274.84m.Find the actual length of the chain.

𝐿′
Sol: True length of the line l = l‘ x
𝐿
𝐿′
1276.54 = 1274.84 x
30

1276.54
Actual or Incorrect length of the chain = L‘ = 30 x
1274.84

L‘ = 30.04m

Therefore, the chain is 4cm too long.

2.7 All the dimensions of an embankment were measured with a 20m
chain and the volume was calculated as 486.95 cu.m. It was then
found that the chain was 10cm too long. Find the true volume of the
embankment.

L′ 3
Sol: True volume of embankment= v = v‘ x
L

10
Actual length of the chain= 20 +
100
L‘ = 20.10m

20.10 3
True volume of the embankment = v = 486.95 x
20

𝟑
= 493.3 m
10. Chaining on uneven or sloping ground

When the ground to be surveyed is uneven, methods of linear

measurements can be broadly classified into:

▪ Direct Method
▪ Indirect Method.
Direct Method:

▪ This method is also called as stepping because the distance

is measured in small horizontal stretches or steps.

l1
A
l2
l3
l4
l5

l6
l7
l8
D
B
▪ Horizontal distance between points A and B is given by:
D = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 +…..
▪ In case of irregular slopes, this method is the only suitable
method.

▪ Lengths l1 , l2… or the steps are selected based n the

steepness of the slope.

▪ Steeper the slope, lesser the length & vice versa.

Indirect Method:

▪ In some cases when the slope is even or regular, indirect

method of chaining is used to measure the slope and
calculate the horizontal distances.

▪ In such cases, along with sloping distance, the angle of slope

ϴ or difference in elevation between two points is also
measured.
Method 1: Angle measured:

l1 = measured linear distance between AB

ϴ1 = slope of AB with horizontal
horizontal distance D1 = l1 cos ϴ1
Similarly, for BC D2 = l2 cos ϴ2

Therefore, total horizontal distance between two points = Σl cos ϴ

▪ Slopes of line can be measured with a clinometer.

A
l1

B
d1 l2

d2
C
D
Method 2: Differences in level measured

▪ In place of measuring angle ϴ, differences in level between

the points is measured using levelling instrument & the
horizontal distance is computed.

B
D

▪ D= 𝑙 2 − ℎ2
ℎ2
And slope correction = 2𝑙
Method 3: Hypotenusal allowance

▪ Correction is applied in the field at every chain length and at every

point, the slope changes.
▪ When the chain is stretched on slope, the arrow is not put at the
end of the chain but instead put in advance of the end by an
amount which allows for slope correction.
BA‘ = one chain length on slope

▪ BA= horizontal equivalent to 1 chain

▪ This distance AA‘ is called as hypotenusal allowance.
A

A’

ϴ
C B

1 Chain
▪ So, BA = 100 sec ϴ links
BA‘ = 100 links

AA‘ = 100 sec ϴ - 100 links

AA’ = 100 (sec ϴ-1) links

Now, if ϴ = radians.
Then,
ϴ2
AA’ = 100 (1+ 2
- 1) links
AA’ = 50 ϴ2 links

If ϴ= degrees
1.5 2
AA’ = ϴ links
100

Now, if ϴ = 1𝑛 radians

50
AA’ = 𝑛2
links
2.8 The distance between the points measured along a slope is 428 m.
Final the horizontal distance between them if (a) the angle of slope
between the points is 8 •. (b) the difference in level is 62 m (c) the slope
is 1 in 4 .

Sol: Let, I = measured length = 428 m

a. D = horizontal length; D = l cosϴ

= 428 x cos 8°
= 423.82m

b. D = 𝑙 2 − ℎ2
= (428)2 − (62)2
= 423.48 m

c. For 1 unit vertically, horizontal distance is 4 units.

tan ϴ = ¼ = 0.25
or ϴ = 14°2’
L = l cos ϴ
= 428 cos 14°2’
= 415.23 m
2.9 Find the hypotenusal allowance per chain of 20m length if (a) the
angle of slope is 10°. (b) the ground rises by 4m in one chain length.

Sol: a. Hypotenusal allowance = 100(secϴ - 1) links

= 100(sec 10° - 1)

= 1.54 links

= 0.31 m

b. Hypotenusal allowance = 100(secϴ - 1) links

tan ϴ = 4/20 = 0.2

ϴ = 11°19’

Hypotenusal allowance = 100(sec 11°19’ - 1) links

= 1.987 links

= 0.4m
2.9 Find the hypotenusal allowance per chain of 20m length if (a) the
angle of slope is 10°. (b) the ground rises by 4m in one chain length .

1.5 2
Alternate Solution: If ϴ is in degrees, Hypotenusal allowance= ϴ links
100
a. ϴ = 10°
1.5
Hypotenusal allowance= (10)2 links
100
= 1.5 links
=0.3 m

b. Slope is 4m in 20m or 1m in 5m
or 1m in n m ; where n = 5.
1
if ϴ = 𝑛
radians

50
Hypotenusal allowance = 𝑛2
links
50
= (5) 2
links
= 2 links
= 0.4 m
2.10 While measuring the distance on a slope it was found that the
ground rises by 3.2m for each 20m chain length. Find the angle of
slope and the hypotenusal allowance per chain length.

3.2
Sol: tan ϴ =
20

tan ϴ = 0.16

ϴ = 9°1’

Hypotenusal allowance AA’ = 100 (sec ϴ - 1) links

= 100 (sec 9°1’ - 1 ) links

= 1.27 links

= 0.25m
 Errors in Chaining

▪ Cumulative errors: These errors occur in a same direction. They

are accumulative in nature.

▪ Compensating errors: These errors can occur in either direction

and hence tend to balance out.

▪ Positive errors or Negative errors are based on their possibility to

make the result either too great or too small.

1. Erroneous Length of chain: (Cumulative; + or -), Error due to

wrong length of chain is always cumulative.

2. Bad ranging: (Cumulative; + ), For each stretch error, error is

accumulated and the effect on end result will be too great
3. Careless holding and marking: (Compensating; +)

4. Bad straightening: (Cumulative; + )

5. Non horizontality: (Cumulative; + )

6. Sag in chain: (Cumulative; + )

7. Variations in Temperature: (Cumulative; + or -)

8. Variation in Pull: (Cumulative; + or - / Compensating +)

9. Personal mistakes: irregular effects.

Tape Corrections:
1. Correction for absolute length:
▪ If absolute length (actual) length is not equal to the nominal
(designated) length of the chain, this correction will have to be
applied to the measured length of line.
▪ If the actual length is greater than the designated length, the
distance measured will be less or too short, hence correction will be
positive.
▪ If actual length is lesser than the designated length, then the
distance measured will be too great and correction needed to be
applied will be negative.

𝐿 ×𝐶
𝐶𝑎 =
𝑙
Where, 𝐶𝑎 = correction for absolute length
L = measured length of line
C= correction for tape length
l = designated length of tape
𝐶𝑎 will be the same sign as C.
2. Correction for temperature:

▪ When the temperature on the field is more than the temperature at

which the tape was standardized, the length of the tape increases.
▪ Due to this the distance measured will be lesser and the correction
which is needed to be applied will be additive.

𝐶𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑜 𝐿

Where, 𝑇𝑚 = mean temperature during measurement

𝑇𝑜 = temperature of standardization
𝛼 = co.efficient of thermal expansion of the material
= 0.0000035/C for steel
= 0.000000122/C for invar
L = measured length (m)
3. Correction for pull or tension:

▪ If the pull which was applied to the tape during measurement is

more than the standard pull at which the tape was standardized, the
length of the tape increases.
▪ Due to this the distance measured becomes lesser than the actual
and correction to be applied will be additive.

▪ 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜
𝐴 𝐸
𝐿

Where, 𝑃𝑜 = standard pull

𝑃 = applied pull during measurement
A = area of cross section of tape (mm2)
E = modulus of elasticity
= 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 (Steel)
= 1.54 x 10 5 N/mm2 (Invar)
L = measured length (m)
4. Correction for Sag:

d1
A B
P P

L1
M

▪ Difference between horizontal distance and measured length along

the catenary is called as sag correction. (always subtractive)

𝑊2 𝑙1
𝐶𝑠𝑎 = 24𝑃2

Suppose n equal spans per length,

W = weight of tape per meter length
P = pull applied (N)
𝑊2 𝑙 l = length of tape= nl1 (m)
𝐶𝑠𝑎 = 24 𝑃2 l1 = length of tape suspended
between two supports
5. Correction for slope or vertical alignment:

▪ Distance measured along the slope is always greater than

the horizontal distance an the correction is always subtractive

ℎ2
Total correction of slope = σ 2𝑙

A b B1
ϴ

h
l

B
6. Correction for horizontal alignment

a. Bad ranging or misalignment:

When tape is stretched out of the line the measured

distance will be more. Hence correction to be applied will
be subtractive.

𝑑2
𝐶ℎ = 2𝐿

AB = wrong alignment
AC = correct alignment L d

A C
l
b. Deformation of tape in horizontal plane:

If tape is not pulled straight and the length l1 of the tape is out of the
line by amount d, then

𝑑2 𝑑2
𝐶ℎ = 2 𝐿2
+ 2 𝐿2

l1 l2
d

A B
l
 7. Reduction to Mean Sea Level:

Measured horizontal distance should be reduced to distance at mean sea

level, called Geodetic distance.
Necessity of reducing distance to a common datum arises when surveys
are to be connected to the national grid.

ℎ
𝐶𝑅 = 𝑅
𝐿

Where h= altitude of line

R= radius of earth

L = measured horizontal distance

Correction is always subtractive

8. Combining corrections:

In practice, each of above corrections, which are recorded based

on length, are combined by addition.

Assume that for given length, the following unit corrections have been
computed and should be applied:

unit sag correction =a

slope correction = b
temperature correction = c
true length correction = L
recorded length = L’

L = L’ (1+a)(1+b)(1+c)
= L’ (1+ a+b+c+ab+bc+ca+abc)
= L’ (1+a+b+c)
= L’ + L’a + L’b + L’c
2.11 A tape 20m long of standard length at 84°F was used to measure the
line, the mean temperature being 65°F.The measured distance was 882.10m,
the following being the slopes:
2°10’ for 100m
4 °12’ for 150m
1 °6’ for 50m
7 °48’ for 200m
3 °0’ for 300m
5 °10’ for 82.10m -7
Find the true length of the line if co efficient of expansion is 65 x 10 per 1 °F

Sol: Correction for temperature of whole length = L α (Tm - To)

-7
Cr = 882.10 x 65 x 10 x (65-84)

= 0.109m (subtractive)
Correction for slope= Σl (1-cosϴ)

Cs = 100 (1- cos 2°10 ) + 150(1-cos 4 °12’ ) + 50 (1- cos

1 °6’ ) + 200 (1- cos 7 °48’) + 300(1 – cos 3 °0’) + 82.1 (1 – cos 5 °10 )

Cs = 0.071 +0.043 + 0.009 + 1.850 + 0.411 + 0.334

= 3.078m (subtractive)

Total Correction = 0.109 + 3.078

= 3.187m (subtractive)

Corrected length = 882.10 – 3.187

= 878.913m
2.12 Calculate the sag correction for a 30m steel under a pull of 100N in three
equal spans of 10m each. Weight of one cubic cm of steel = 0.078N. Area of
cross section of the tape is 0.08sq.cm.

Sol: Volume of tape per meter run = 0.08 x 100

= 8 cm3
Weight of tape per meter run = 8 x 0.078
=0.624 N
Total weight of tape suspended between two supports = W= 8 x 0.078 x10
W = 6.24N

Now,
𝑊2 𝑛 𝑙1
Correction for Sag= Csa =
24𝑃2

(6.24)2 𝑥 3 𝑥 10
= 24 (100)2

= 0.00487m
2.13 A steel tape 20m long standarised at 55°F with a pull of 10kg was used for
measuring a base line. Find the correction for tape length if the temperature at the
time of measurement was 80°F and the pull exerted was 16kg. Weight of 1 cubic cm
of steel = 7.86g , weight of tape was 0.8kg and E= 2.109 x 10 6 kg/cm2 . Co efficient
per expansion of tape per 1°F=6.2 x 10-6 .

Sol: Correction for temperature = L α (Tm - To)

Cr = 20 x 6.2 x 10 -6 (80- 55)

= 0.0031m (additive)

𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜
Correction for pull = 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐴 𝐸
𝐿

weight of the tape = A (20 x 100) (7.86 x 10-3) kg

0.8 = A (20 x 100) (7.86 x 10-3)
A = 0.051 sq.cm
 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜
Hence, 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐴 𝐸
𝐿

16 − 10 × 20
= 0 .051 × 2.109 × 106

= 0.00112 (additive)

W2 l 1
Correction for Sag= Csa =
24P2

(0.8)2 x 20
=
24 (16)2
= 0.00208 m (subtractive)

Total correction = + 0.0031 + 0.00112 – 0.00208

= + 0.00214m
Obstacles in Chaining
▪ Obstacles to chaining restrict direct measurements between two
points and give rise to a set of problems in which distances are
found by indirect measurements.

▪ Obstacles to chaining are of three kinds:

a. Obstacles to ranging
b. Obstacles to chaining
c. Obstacles to ranging and chaining

a. Obstacles to ranging but not chaining:

The ends are not inter visible. There are two cases of this kind:

i. Both ends maybe visible from intermediate points on line:

Reciprocal ranging
 D
C

A B
D1
C1

C2

D2
C3
D3

C D
A B
ii. Both ends may not be visible from intermediate points on line

B1

D1

C1

A C D B

𝐴𝐶1
CC1 = 𝐴𝐵 1
× 𝐵𝐵1

𝐴𝐷1
DD1 = 𝐴𝐵 1
× 𝐵𝐵1
b. Obstacles to chaining and not ranging:

This can be divided into two further cases:

i. When it is possible to chain round the obstacle.

- Case 1:

Select two points A & B on either side. Set equal perpendicular AC & BD.
Measure CD. Then, CD=AB.

C D

A B
Case 2:

A B

Set AC perpendicular to chain line. Measure AC and BC.

AB= 𝐵𝐶2 − 𝐴𝐶2
Case 3:

A B

Using optical square or cross staff, find point C which forms 90° with A & B.
Measure AC & BC.
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶2 + 𝐵𝐶2
 C
Case 4:

A B

Let angle BCD = ϴ

From ΔBCD, BD2 = BC2 + CD2 - 2x BCx CD cos ϴ
𝐵𝐶2 + 𝐶𝐷2 − 𝐵𝐷2
cos ϴ = 2 𝐵𝐶 𝑥 𝐶𝐷
------ 1
In ΔBCA
𝐵𝐶2 + 𝐴𝐶2 − 𝐴𝐵2
cos ϴ = 2 𝐵𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝐶
--------2

𝐵𝐶2 𝑥 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷2 𝑥 𝐴𝐶 − (𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝐷)

AB = 𝐶𝐷
Case 5:

A B

D C

Select any point E and range C in line with AE making AE=EC.

Range D in line with BE ; such that BE =ED.
Measure DC. Then AB=DC.
Case 6: E

C D

A B

Select suitable point E and measure AE & BE. Mark C & D on AE &
AE BE
BE respectively, such that CE = and DE=
n n
Measure CD. Then AB = n. CD
ii. When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle.

Case 1:
B

A D

C F E

𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐹
ΔABD & Δ FDE will be similar. 𝐴𝐷
= 𝐹𝐸
FE= CE-CF =CE –AD & DF=AC

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐷
= 𝐶𝐸−𝐴𝐷 𝐶𝐸 − 𝐴𝐷
= 𝐴𝐵
Case2:

A D C

Measure CE.
AB=CE

E
Case 3:
B

A C

Measure AC & AD
BCD is a right angle.
D ΔABC & ΔDAC are similar.
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
=
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐷

𝐴𝐶2
AB= 𝐴𝐷
 B
Case 4:

D A C

E
AB = AE
c. Obstacles to both chaining and ranging:
Problem lies in prolonging the line beyond the obstacle and then
determining the distance across it.

Case 1:

C D E F

A B G H

Measure DE
BG=DE
Case 2 :

Measure CF.
AG=CF
D

C F

B A G E
Case 3 :

A B C D

G
E

H K

BC=AD-AB-CD F
BC=AF-AB-CD
 H
Case 4:
F
AF = n AC
AG= n AD
FE= n BC
AH= n’ AC
AK= n’ AD
HJ= n’ CB
C

A
B E J

Obstructed distance BE
BE= AE-AB (but AE=n AB)
BE= n (AB) – AB G
= AB(n - 1)
K
2.14 To continue a survey line AB past an obstacle, a line BC 200 meters long was set
put perpendicular to AB and from C angles BCD & BCE were set out at 60º & 40º
respectively. Determine lengths which must be chained off along CD & CE in order that ED
may be in AB produced. Also determine obstructed length BE.

Sol: ABC is a right angle

Δ BCD, CD= BC sec60º

= 200 x 2
= 400m

From ΔBCE
CE = BC sec 45º
= 200 x 1.4142
= 282.84m
BE= BC tan 45º
= 200 x 1
= 200 m
 Field Book

▪ A book in which chain or tape measurements are entered is called as a

field book.
▪ This is a very important part of survey work.
▪ Chain line may be represented by a single or double line spaced about
1.5cm to 2cm apart ruled down in the middle of the page.
▪ Double line book is commonly used for ordinary work and single line is
used for a large and detailed survey.
▪ Offsets are entered in the order that they appear on the chain line.
▪ At the starting of chain line:
-name of line
-name of station
-bearing of line
-details of any other line meeting at the starting point of the line
Offsets

▪ Lateral measurements to chain lines for locating ground

features are known as offsets.
▪ Offsets less than 15m are short offsets and offset greater
than 15m are called long offsets.
▪ Short offsets are preferred.
▪ Offsets are also classified into perpendicular and oblique
offsets.

▪ Perpendicular offsets:
- Offsets that are taken perpendicular to the chain line are
termed as perpendicular offsets.
- These are taken by:
i. swinging
ii. using a cross staff or optical square
iii. setting right angle (3,4,5 method)
Plotting a chain survey
▪ Scale of the plotting is decided before the survey is started.
This depends on the purpose and extent of survey, finances, etc.

▪ Plan must be oriented on the sheet such that the north side of the survey
lies at the top of the sheet and is centrally placed.

▪ After orienting it, points may be pricked through for stations.

Firstly, the base line is plotted.

▪ Other triangles are laid by the intersection of arcs. Each triangle must be
verified by measuring a check line on plan and comparing it with the
measured line on the field.

▪ After plotting the skeleton consisting of a number of triangles, then the

offsets are plotted.
There are two methods:
- using a set square.
- using a offset scale.

▪ Different features are represented using different conventional signs and

symbols.
2.14 Plot the following cross staff survey of a field ABCDEFG and calculate
its area.

C
Sol: B (180)
(160)

6 5
7

h (100) j (300) l (650)

A i (180) k (490) D
(0) 1 (750)
4
2
G 3
(50)

E
F (210)
(250)
 1
Sol: Area of triangle = 2
×b×h

1
Area of trapezium = 2
× b × (a + b)

Area 1: Δ AhG = ½ x hG x Ah
= ½ x 50 x 100
= 2500m

Area 2:
▱ hjFG = ½ x hj x (Gh + Fj)
= ½ x 200 x (50 + 250)
=30000m

Area 3: ▱ jlEF= ½ x jl x (Fj + El)

= ½ x 350 (250+210)
= 80500m
Area 4: ΔDlE = ½ x Dl x lE
= ½ x 100 x 210
=10500m

Area 5 : ΔCkD = ½ x kD x Ck
= ½ x 260 x 180
= 23400m

Area 6: ▱ BikC = ½ x ik x (Bi + Ck)

= ½ x 310 (160+180)
=52700m

Area 7: ΔAiB= ½ x Ai x Bi
= ½ x 180 x 160
=14400m
Area of plotted area ABCDEFG= Σ(Areas of frameworks) =
A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7 = 214000m = 214km