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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20

www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Cenozoic deformation history of the area around Yangnam-Yangbuk,

SE Korea and its tectonic significance
Young-Seog Kim*, Joon-Young Park
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, South Korea

Received 28 February 2004; accepted 12 August 2004

Abstract
Detailed mapping and structural analysis were carried out to establish the Cenozoic deformation history of the Yangnam-Yangbuk area,
SE Korea. All structural elements were analyzed to establish the chronological sequence, based on the classification of the fracture systems
and the ages of the rocks. Two detailed grid maps represent the deformation history, based on the cross–cutting relationship between
deformation fabrics.
We established the Cenozoic deformation history in the studied area by synthesizing the analysis of structural elements in rocks of different
ages and observing cross–cutting relationships on grid maps. Results using these two approaches, with two independent data sets, are
consistent. The deformation history is comparable to that proposed from previous studies. Restoration of the structural elements suggests
tilting and rotation in this area.
There is clear evidence of tectonic inversion, which was observed in a previous trench study of the Eupchon Fault. This implies that normal
faults related to the right-lateral Yangsan Fault associated with opening of the East Sea (Japan Sea) may have been reactivated as thrust faults
in the Quaternary period.
q 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Faults; Joints; Tectonic event; Structural element; Structural analysis; SE Korea

1. Introduction
This study arises from the PSAR (Preliminary Site
Assessment Report) for the new site of the Wolsung
nuclear power plant, the northern part of the present
Wolsung nuclear power plant (Da’appolonia, 1976;
Canatom, 1977). The area, consisting of Cenozoic igneous
and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1), was mapped geologically
by Tateiwa (1924). Recently, several papers were pub-
lished about the Quaternary faults along the coastline, such
as the Suryeom and Eupchon faults (KIGAM, 1998; Lee
et al., 1999; Kim et al., 2004b) (Fig. 1). Electron spin
resonance (ESR) dating of the fault zone and optically
stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of the Quaternary
marine terrace sediments has been carried out because of
concern about neotectonic fault activity (KIGAM, 1998;
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C82 2 873 7909; fax: C82 2 871 2466.
E-mail address: ysk7909@snu.ac.kr (Y.-S. Kim).
1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.08.008
Cheong, 2002; Inoue et al., 2002; Ree et al., 2003; Choi
et al., 2003). This area is tectonically linked to the
spreading of the East Sea (Japan Sea) (Fig. 1). Several
regional tectonic, sedimentological and petrological studies
have been carried out (e.g. Lee et al., 1992; Yoon and
Chough, 1995; Choi et al., 2002a,b; Son et al., 2002).
Based on the detailed geologic mapping and analysis of
structural elements, we aim to determine the tectonic history
in this area and compare this with previously established
ideas.
2. Tectonic setting and general geology
The basement rocks in the study area are Cretaceous
sediments, forming part of the Gyeongsang Basin in SE
Korea, and intruded by Cretaceous and Tertiary igneous
rocks (Fig. 1). The intraplate deformation of microplates
initiated back-arc rifting and the spreading of the East Sea in
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Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic map around the East Sea (Japan Sea); (b) Locality map of the study area; (c) Regional geologic map and Quaternary faults around the study
area (modified from Lee, 2000). GB, Gyeongsang Basin; EF, Eupchon Fault; HF, Hupo Fault; IF, Ipsil Fault; MTL, Median Tectonic Line; SF, Suryeom Fault;
TF, Tsushima Fault; UF, Ulsan Fault; WF, Wangsan Fault; YF, Yangsan Fault; YTL, Yonil Tectonic Line.
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the late Oligocene to early Miocene (e.g. Kimura and
Tamaki, 1986; Tamaki, 1988; Kaneoka et al. 1992; Yoon
and Chough, 1995). Tertiary basins along the eastern margin
of the Gyeongsang Basin are associated with the extension
of the East Sea. Collision of the Bonin Arc with central
Honshu resulted in back-arc closing and crustal shortening
in the Middle Miocene (Chough and Barg, 1987) (Fig. 1).
Besides the Geological Map sheet of Gampo (Tateiwa,
1924), additional information is given in the Geological sheet
of Uslan (1:50,000; Park and Yoon, 1968) and the Geological
Map sheet of Pusan (1:250,000; Kim et al., 1998). Canatom
(1977, 1980) carried out more detailed mapping around the
study area. Based on these maps and our studies, we have
constructed a new geological map for this area (Fig. 2).
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are intruded by Tertiary
granites, felsite (or dacite), feldspar porphyry and several
dykes. Tertiary tuff, tuffaceous sediments and Quaternary
marine terrace sediments are developed locally.
2.1. Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
Cretaceous greenish grey to black shale (Tateiwa, 1924)
is correlated with the Cretaceous Jindong Formation of the
Hayang Supergroup developed to the west of the Yangsan
Fault, Pusan sheet (1:250,000) (Kim et al., 1998). On the
Ulsan sheet (1:50,000) (Park and Yoon, 1968), this
formation is named the Ulsan Formation. The Cretaceous
rocks have been affected by the Bulkuksa Orogeny and the
Yonil Disturbance (Kim, 1996; Son et al., 2002), and are
locally highly silicified and hornfelsed by igneous intrusions
showing fluxion structures. The Ulsan Formation is widely
distributed in the study area (Fig. 2), and the rocks are grey,
greenish grey and dark grey in colour and medium
sandstone to shale in grain size. The strike and dip is
generally consistent (average; N158E/458NW) (Fig. 2)
except around faults.
2.2. Tertiary granitic rocks
Two granitoids are exposed in the northern part of the
study area (Fig. 2). Light- to medium-grey, medium- to
coarse-grained granodiorite and pinkish grey feldspar
granite intrude the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. Onion-
skin weathering structures are well developed in the granite,
indicating the presence of systematic joint sets and vadose
fluid flow along the fractures (Fig. 3b). The granite and
granodiorite show faulted contact with a basic dykes which
is intruded along the faulted boundary. The relative age of
the two intrusions is shown by the occurrence of granitoid
xenoliths. The age of the granitoid body was believed to be
Cretaceous (Tateiwa, 1924), but recently an isotopic age
between 50 and 60 Ma was determined (KIGAM, 1998).
Another new age of the granodiorite, using the K–Ar whole
rock method, is 59.8G1.8 Ma and the pinkish feldspar
granite is 34.8G1.0 Ma (KOPEC, 2002) (Table 1). The ages
of basic to intermediate dykes intruded into the granitoids
3
were determined as 21.07G0.47–20.75G0.49 Ma by K–Ar
dating (Lee et al., 1992). The dykes and granitoids are
interpreted as the result of melt generation associated with
rifting and spreading of the East Sea (Lee et al., 1992). The
ages indicate that igneous activity continued until the Early
Miocene.
2.3. Tertiary feldspar porphyry and dacite
Feldspar porphyry intruded Cretaceous sedimentary
rocks in the western part of the study area (Fig. 2). Feldspar
phenocrysts, several millimeters in diameter, are well
developed in a quartzo-feldspathic matrix. Dacite intruded
into Cretaceous sedimentary rocks is exposed in a road cut
in the southwestern part of the study area. It is milky white
in color, and glassy to fine grained with some quartz
phenocrysts and chlorite spots (Fig. 3c). However, there is
no clear relationship between the feldspar porphyry and the
dacite intrusive rocks.
2.4. Tertiary tuff and tuffaceous sediments
Ash- to lapilli-sized tuff and tuffaceous sediments are
exposed locally (Fig. 2), and rest unconformably on the
granodiorite. Tuffaceous sediments are well sorted with
graded bedding and cross-bedding, and generally fine
upwards (Fig. 3d). Two or three sedimentary cycles with
erosional surfaces are recorded, with a slight change in the
dip of the beds. This small patch of tuff and tuffaceous
sediments is probably related to volcanic activity within a
small sedimentary basin which lies in the northern part of
the study area.
2.5. Quaternary marine terraces
Four groups of marine terraces, generally parallel to the
coastline, have been reported in this region (KOPEC, 2002)
(Fig. 2). The terrace sediments are classified from the bottom
(younger terrace) upwards. Because the terrace sediments are
only exposed locally, lateral continuity of the sediments is
poor, and it is very difficult to correlate terrace sediments in
different places at similar levels. The terrace sediments are
mainly conglomerates from sand to pebble size. The ages of
the second and third terrace sediments lie in two broad groups
at 50–70 Ka and 110–120 Ka (Inoue et al., 2002; KOPEC,
2002; Choi et al., 2003). However, the ages of the terrace
sediments are still controversial and more study is needed to
clarify them.
3. Structural elements
3.1. Bedding
Two groups of sedimentary rocks are exposed in this
study area. The Cretaceous sediments are composed mainly
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Fig. 2. (a) Geologic map; (b,c) cross-sections of the study area. The figure numbers are the outcrop locations of the described figures.

of shale and sandstone (Fig. 3a), oriented consistently, rocks generally dips towards the east, but in the study area
except around faults, striking N108–208E and dipping (eastern part of the Gyeongsang Basin), the bedding
308–608NW (Fig. 4a). In the western part of the Cretaceous generally dips towards the west. Although the reason for
Gyeongsang Basin, bedding of the Cretaceous sedimentary the systematic tilting of the bedding has not been clearly
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Fig. 3. Typical rock types in the study area. (a) Well-bedded Cretaceous sedimentary rocks showing alternation of shale and sandstone; (b) Granodiorite
showing onion-weathering structures; (c) Dacite with quartz porphyry; (d) Tertiary tuff and tuffaceous sediments showing sub-horizontal bedding.

determined, it may be related to tectonic movement the dominant joint directions in the study area, comprising
associated with basin folding or block rotation (e.g. Choi two major sets (Fig. 4c and d). NW–SE, NE–SW and N–S
et al., 2002b). trending joints are also developed. The main intersection of
Bedding in Tertiary tuffaceous sediments is almost the joints plunges moderately to the ESE (1108/408) (Fig. 4c).
horizontal (Fig. 3d). There is evidence of a local Joints are generally interpreted as formed by brittle
unconformity between the basal tuff and the overlying failure associated with regional stresses (e.g. Engelder,
tuffaceous sediments. In the tuffaceous sediments, cross- 1987; Dunne and Hancock, 1994) or as secondary structures
bedding is well developed. Although the Tertiary sediments associated with larger scale faulting or folding (e.g.
are only exposed locally and provide little data, the Hancock, 1985; Dunne and Hancock, 1994) (Fig. 5c).
difference in the dip of the beds may be primary Joints are commonly formed perpendicular to the least
sedimentary features due to changes in the flow direction compressive stress or as conjugate sets bisected by the
(Fig. 4b). maximum compressive stress. Small systematic, spaced
joints with one predominant direction are interpreted as
3.2. Joints extension joints. Extension joints are developed perpen-
dicular to the least compressive stress direction (e.g. Brace
Joints generally show a large scatter of orientations in the and Bombolakis, 1963; Granier, 1985).
study area (Fig. 4c and d). However, in field exposures, joints Based upon the assumption, that the NNE–SSW and
can be classified into a few systematic joint sets. Complex ESE–WNW trending joint sets are conjugate, the trend of the
hybrid joints are also developed (Figs. 4c, d and 5a, c). maximum compressive palaeostress was NE or ENE,
The WNW–ESE and ENE–WSW trending joints are producing a parallel joint set. This agrees with the postulated
Table 1
K–Ar analytical data for granitic rocks from Bonggil area
40
Sample Material K (%) Arrada (10K8 mol/g) 40
Arrad/40Artota Calculated ageb (Ma)
TB-131 whole rock 3.90 531.57 0.83929 34.77G1.0
TB-132 whole rock 1.74 410.09 0.55336 59.75G1.8
TB-133 whole rock 2.85 624.63 0.24826 55.51G1.6
a
Concentration of radiogenic 40Ar in mol/g determinated by isotope dilution using a 38Ar tracer. Overall one-sigma analytical uncertainties assigned 1%.
b
The age is calculated using the average of respective analyses with the following constants; 40KZ0.01167 atom% of K; leZ0.581!10K10 yK1;
lBZ4.962!10K10 yK1; and (40Ar/38Ar)atmosphereZ295.5 (Steiger and Jäger, 1977).
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Fig. 4. Stereographic projections and rose diagrams for the structural elements. (a) Bedding of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks; (b) Bedding of the Tertiary
tuffaceous sediments; (c,d) All joints developed in the study area; (e,f) All dykes developed in the study area. (g,h) All faults developed in the study area.
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Fig. 5. (a) Systematic joints developed in the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks; (b) Basic dyke intruded between granodiorite and pinkish granite; (c) Secondary
fractures at the fault tip associated with a thrust fault.

Table 2
Deformation history from detailed grid mappings and their related stress conditions

Relative sequence Principal stress Structural deformation inferred from outcrops Related igneous activity
6 NNW–SSE trending high-angle reverse faulting and reactivation of pre-
existing normal faults
5 NE–SW trending right-lateral faulting and N–S trending reverse faulting E–W trending veins
4 WNW–ESE trending low-angle normal faulting WNW–ESE trending basic dykes

Brittle deformation along the pre-existing NW–SE trending left-lateral

ductile shear bands
NNW–SSE trending high-angle normal faulting
3 E–W trending left-lateral ductile shear banding 0Uplifting, transition Feldspar porphyry and NE–SW trend-
from ductile to brittle deformation along the shear bands 0NE–SW to ing basic dykes
ENE–WSW trending tension joints filled with opaque materials
0NE–SW trending normal faulting
2 NW–SE trending left-lateral ductile shear banding
1 Intrusion of N–S trending (conjugate set) basic materials N–S to NNE–SSW trending basic dykes
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maximum compressive palaeostress controlling the Yangsan tectonic evolution. Younger dyke emplacement may be
Fault during its right-lateral movement stage (e.g. Yoon and related to regional tectonic Event 4 (Table 2), WNW–ESE
Chough, 1995). It is suggested that this area was affected trending compression.
mainly by right-lateral strike-slip movement, with NE-
trending maximum compressive stress. 3.4. Faults

3.3. Dykes 3.4.1. General characteristics of faults in the study area

Dyke rocks in the study area are classified into acidic,
basic or intermediate dykes based on their chemical
composition. The dominant trend of the dykes is NW–SE
(Fig. 4e and f). The intrusive age of the basic-intermediate
dykes is estimated as about 20 Ma (Fig. 5b; Lee et al., 1992).
Dyke intrusion can be used as an indicator of tectonic
extension, and if used with age data can constrain models of
Various types of faults are developed in the study area
(Figs. 4g, h, 6). Fig. 6a shows a normal fault system cross-
cutting Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, Fig. 6b shows
a strike-slip fault developed in Cretaceous sedimentary
rocks, and Fig. 6c shows a thrust fault cutting Tertiary
granite. A thrust fault cutting Quaternary marine terrace
sediments has been reported close to the study area (Kim
et al., 2004b).

Fig. 6. A variety of fault types observed in the study area. (a) Normal faults developed in Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. It shows antithetic and synthetic faults.
The slip sense is also determined from small quartz veins; (b) Strike-slip fault showing slickenside striae; (c) Minor reverse faults cross-cutting a felsite dyke;
(d) Tip damage zone at the tip of a right-lateral strike-slip fault.
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In this study, secondary fractures are used to infer the slip
sense, where no offset markers are available (Kim et al.,
2003; 2004a) (Figs. 5c, 6d). Displacement on normal and
thrust faults in the granodiorite are usually only a few cm
and a few mm, respectively (Figs. 7–10). Slip sense on the
faults is recognized by the displacement of early-formed
shear bands (Figs. 7a, 9a), or inferred from secondary
fractures (tip damage zones) (Figs. 5c, 6d, 7b, 9b). Because
both normal slip and reverse slip are recorded on the same
fault planes (average attitude; N848W/268NE), the faults
have been reactivated along pre-existing fault planes (Fig.
9b). Reverse faults and their secondary fractures have not
been affected by any later deformation. Damage zones at the
final fault tips usually indicate a reverse sense of movement
(Fig. 9b). Faults cutting Quaternary terrace sediments
indicate a reverse sense of slip (Kim et al., 2004b), and
thrust faulting may be the latest recorded movement in this
Fig. 7. Slip sense indicators on the plane of grid mapping surface. (a) Right-lateral strike-slip sense displacing the early-formed ductile shear band;
(b) Secondary fractures indicating right-lateral and left-lateral slip senses.
9
area. This interpretation is generally consistent with the
present stress condition around the Korean peninsula from
earthquake focal mechanisms and fracture analysis (Jun,
1991, 1993; Choi et al., 2002a).
Some thrust faults are reactivated pre-existing normal
faults. However, many faults still indicate a normal slip sense.
This indicates that the amount of displacement along the fault
planes during reactivation as thrust faults was less than that of
the earlier normal faulting. Some faults record only reverse
faulting (Fig. 6c), which may indicate that the faults were
originally joints or normal faults with only small amount of
displacement before reactivation (cf. Kim et al., 2001).
3.4.2. Kinematic analysis of faults
All faults are plotted on equal-area stereographic nets and
rose diagrams (Fig. 4g and h). The N–S or NNE–SSW and
WNW–ESE trending faults are dominant, but ENE–WSW
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Fig. 8. Detailed grid map of the almost horizontal plane. (a) Photo mosaic of the plane of detailed grid map; (b) Sketch of the structural elements on the
horizontal plane. The attitude of the grid surface is N308E/148NW.

Fig. 9. Slip sense indicators on the almost vertical plane of grid mapping surface. (a) Normal slip sense displacing the early-formed opaque mineral filling
apertures; (b) Reverse faults with secondary fractures and displacement of pre-existing veins.
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Fig. 10. Detailed grid map of the almost vertical section. (a) Photo mosaic of the cross-section of detailed grid map; (b) Sketch of the structural elements from
(a) on the cross-section. The attitude of the grid surface is N478E/598SE.
and NNW–SSE trending fault are also developed. NNE–
SSW to NE–SW trending faults are generally right-lateral
strike-slip faults, while ENE–WSW and NE–SW trending
faults are generally normal faults. N–S or NNW–SSE
trending faults are normal faults or reverse faults, and the
WNW–ESE trending faults are left-lateral strike-slip faults
or small-scale low angle normal faults (Fig. 4h).
The line of intersection between the predominant NNE–
SSW and WNW–ESE trending faults plunges moderately
ENE (110/408), similar to that of the joints. This suggests
that some of the joints developed parallel to faults, or that
the faults are reactivated pre-existing joints (cf. Wilkins
et al., 2001). These two main fault trends may indicate that
right-lateral faults such as the Yangsan Fault (NNE–SSW)
and antithetic left-lateral faults (WNW–ESE) are conjugate
to the NE–SW direction of maximum compressive palaeos-
tress. However, the dip of the strike-slip faults is rather
shallow for classic strike-slip faults. This problem can be
resolved if the block to the southeast of the Yangsan Fault
was tilted before, or simultaneously with, rotation (Han,
2002; Choi et al., 2002b). It is therefore probable that the
pre-tilting faults experienced some rotation.
The relatively small-scale N–S or NNW–SSE trending
thrust faults need more attention, because they have a
similar trend and fault type as the faults which affect
Quaternary rocks (KIGAM, 1998). These faults might have
11
been reactivated under the current stress regime as
calculated from earthquake focal mechanisms (Jun, 1991).
The maximum compressive stress axis in the south eastern
part of the Korean Peninsula trends ENE–WSW, and strike-
slip faults are predominant (Jun, 1991, 1993). This
orientation is obtained from earthquakes propagating from
over 10 km in depth, and the maximum stress orientation on
the surface could be different. Although strike-slip is
dominant at deeper levels, thrust faulting could be dominant
at shallow depths, because of the change in loading and
confining pressures (Iio, 1996).
4. Analysis of tectonic history
4.1. Research methods
To clarify the deformation and the tectonic evolution of
the study area, structural elements such as faults, joints and
dykes, have been kinematically analyzed and their maxi-
mum compressive or extensional stress axes inferred. The
basic concept of this analysis is that the structural
complexity in older rocks is due to overprinting by repeated
deformation. The youngest rocks record the simplest
deformation history and the oldest rocks record the most
complex deformation history. However, other factors may
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also affect the development of the structures such as
material property, anisotropy and local tectonic setting.
The analysis has been carried out by combination of two
different methods: (1) grid mapping and deformation
analysis based on cross-cutting relationships deduced from
the granodiorite outcrops, (2) statistical analysis of the
structural elements recorded in rocks of different ages.
The relative age of structural features is based on cross-
cutting relationships, rock ages, secondary fractures and the
orientation and type of dykes. Chronological relationships
established in the field are confirmed by the ages of the rock
units. The established tectonic history is compared with that in
the literature (e.g. Choi et al., 2001; Yoon and Chough, 1995).
4.2. Grid analysis
To analyze the 3D relationship of structural elements such
as shear bands, faults and joints, two almost perpendicular
horizontal and vertical sections of granodiorite have been
selected (Figs. 2, 8, 10). Quadrats 1!1 m in size were
mapped in detail, in conjunction with photographs.
4.2.1. Plan view of the outcrop
Within this outcrop, the NW–SE and E–W trending
minor shear zones, NE–SE trending right-lateral faulted
joints and NNW–SSE trending thrust faults are developed
Fig. 11. Grid analysis data for faults. (a,b) Fault data for the horizontal plane. N–S and N–W trends are predominant; (c,d) Fault data for the cross-section. N–S
trend is predominant.
(Figs. 8, 11a and b). From this outcrop, the deformation
history is as follows:
(1) NW–SE trending minor shear bands were developed.
Fabrics in the shear bands indicate a left-lateral slip
sense and formation in a relatively deep environment
under ductile conditions. These shear bands were
reactivated as brittle structures during a later defor-
mation Event 4 (Event 2 in Table 2).
(2) E–W trending minor ductile shear bands are developed
as the environment changed from mainly ductile to
brittle conditions. This may be related to uplift. NE–SE
or ENE–WSW trending opaque mineral veins may be
developed at this stage (Event 3 in Table 2).
(3) NW–SE trending fault cross-cut the veins with a left-
lateral sense of movement (Event 4 in Table 2).
(4) NE–SW trending right-lateral faults cross-cut all earlier
structures (Event 5 in Table 2).
(5) Finally, NNW–SSE trending faults cross-cut all the
structures described above (Event 6 in Table 2).
4.2.2. Cross-section of the outcrop
The exposures show N–S trending conjugate joints with
opaque minerals, NW–SE trending minor shear zones,
WNW–ESE trending low angle normal faults and NNW–
SSE trending high angle normal faults (Figs. 10, 11c and d).
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Some of the NNW–SSE trending normal faults have been
reactivated as reverse faults (Fig. 9). The deformation
history from this outcrop is as follows.
(1) N–S trending conjugate joints with opaque minerals are
developed (Event 1 in Table 2).
(2) NW–SE trending minor ductile shear bands are
developed. They are subsequently reactivated as brittle
shear zones (Event 2 in Table 2).
(3) NNW–SSE trending normal faults are developed (Event
4 in Table 2).
(4) WNW–ESE trending low angle normal faults are
developed. The low angle normal faults might have
been initiated as steeper faults, which have been back-
rotated during tilting of this area (Event 4 in Table 2).
(5) Some of the normal faults are reactivated as reverse
faults (Events 5 and 6 in Table 2). This is indicated from
displacement data along the faults and secondary
fracture patterns around fault tips (Figs. 9 and 10).
4.2.3. Summary of grid analysis
A summary of the tectonic history from these outcrops is
shown in Table 2, where relative ages, maximum compres-
sive or extensive stress axes, and related tectonic events
recorded in the granodiorite are described. From the cross-
cutting relationships, we recognize six events since the
intrusion of the granodiorite (59.8G1.8 Ma). The fourth
event may be related to the intrusion of dykes (21.07G
0.47w20.75G0.49 Ma; Lee et al., 1992; Kim et al., 2002).
4.3. Deformation history in rock units
The recorded structural elements and their orientations are
plotted in Fig. 12, and their relative ages and associated events
are summarized in Table 3. By editing out the younger struc-
tures from the older structures, the remaining structures indi-
cate the events between the two rock units of different ages.
Table 3 shows the orientations of the structural elements
in each rock type and their relative order of formation. The
deformation history in Table 3 is corresponds with the grid
mapping data in Table 2.
4.4. Restoration of structural elements
Choi et al. (2002b) and Son et al. (2002) suggest that the
northeastern part of the Ulsan Fault and the eastern part of
the Yangsan Fault have rotated w30–508 clockwise, and
also tilted. Therefore, we tried restoring for a strike-slip
fault system that has proper angular relationships for the
fault type (Fig. 13). The reference angle of the tilting used is
as the dip angle of the beds supposing original horizontal
beds, and rotated 308 anticlockwise based on the previous
studies of paleostress and paleomagnetic data (Fig. 13; Choi
et al., 2002b; Son et al., 2002).
After restoration, the relatively low dipping strike-slip
fault and secondary fractures have steeper angles.
13
Also, the relationship between secondary fractures and the
master fault, and the angles of dip of the fault and fractures show
the appropriate relationship for this fault system. This suggests
that these structures pre-date tilting and clockwise rotation.
The fault history in this area is more complicated because
of the presence of faults both pre- and post-dating rotation
and tilting. High angle reverse faults, low angle normal
faults and strike-slip faults are difficult to interpret. They
may have been formed at the third stage in Table 2 based on
the orientation of extension fractures. Faults predating the
third stage may subsequently have been rotated clockwise,
even though they have local variance (Choi et al., 2002b).
5. Discussion
5.1. Tilting of the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
The Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are consistently tilted
westward at w408 (Fig. 4a). Han (2002) suggests rapid
uplift around 62–47 Ma (Paleocene to Middle Eocene) was
responsible for this. Alternatively, Choi et al. (2002b)
suggest tilting is related to the rotation associated with
tectonic events such as opening of the East Sea and
subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate. They argue that the
difference in the time of rotation is dependent on location
and is related to the progression of the rotation from the
Japanese islands. The timing of the rotation is put at around
12 Ma after the intrusion of the basic dykes (24–12 Ma)
(Choi et al., 2002b).
To the west of the Yangsan Fault, the sedimentary rocks
in the Gyeongsang Basin dip eastwards. The opposite
dipping direction may be related with basin-scale folding or
block rotation associated with faulting. Knowledge of the
tilting history of these beds will aid the interpretation of the
basin evolution and tectonic history of this area.
5.2. Characteristics of the faults
Faults need to be assessed for potential neotectonic
seismic activity to estimate their risk to large engineering
structures, particularly nuclear facilities. Furthermore,
serious earthquake hazards are related mainly to surface
faults and associated with damage zones (e.g. Sibson, 1989).
At least six deformation events are recognized in the
coastal outcrops, and the slip senses and attitudes of the
faults are described in Table 2. High angle NE–SW trending
faults have a right-lateral slip sense, and high angle N–S
trending faults are associated with minor ductile shear bands
and reactivated brittle deformation along the pre-existing
bands with a left-lateral sense. Relatively low angle, east
dipping, N–S or NW–SE trending faults have normal and
reverse movement senses (Fig. 4h), suggesting the possi-
bility of reactivation in this area (Yoon and Chough, 1995).
These dip-slip faults cross-cut earlier ductile shear bands.
Along some of the normal faults, reduction of grain size by
DTD 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 Y.-S. Kim, J.-Y. Park / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20

Joints Faults Dykes

N N
4
3
2
1
Tuff 4 3 2211 3 4
1
2
3
4

N N N
4
3
2
1
Dacite 4 3 2211 3 4
1
2
3
4

N
4
3
2
1
Feldspar 4 3 2211 3 4
porphyry 1
2
3
4

N N N
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
Granitoids 4 3 2211 3 4 4 3 2211 3 4 4 3 2211 3 4
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4

N N N
12 4
9 3
6 2
3 1
K-Sed. 129 6633 9 12 4 3 2211 3 4
3 1
6 2
9 3
12 4

Fig. 12. Rose diagram for the orientation of joints, faults and dykes developed in each rock unit.
DTD 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Y.-S. Kim, J.-Y. Park / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20 15

communition is recognized, indicating brittle–ductile tran-

Underlined orientations indicate the youngest rock in which the structural elements developed. Da, dacite; FP, feldspar porphyry; Gr, granitoid; K-sed, Cretaceous sedimentary rocks; -tf-, thrust fault; -nf-, normal
pre-Ceno-
sition conditions during fault development. Similar or

Comp.
NW,

zoic
NW

NW
slightly higher angle minor thrust faults show indications
of brittle deformation. The higher angle of dip of reverse

Exten.
faults compared to normal faults may indicate that the

EW,
NS
normal faults were tilted before thrusting. During thrusting,

1
pre-existing normal faults were reactivated and some new

WNW,
Exten.
NNE
reverse faults may have developed.

3
Therefore, the deformation events are interpreted as
Orientation of dykes

WNW,
Young ) / Old follows:

Comp.
WNW

WNW

(1) Ductile shear bands developed at several kilometers

4
depth. (2) Normal faulting accompanied uplift, in the
brittle–ductile transition zone. (3) During further progress-
Comp.
EW,
EW

5
ive uplift, thrust faulting under E–W trending compression
and NE–SW trending strike-slip faulting developed.
NNE, -ss-,

The timing of the normal faulting may be related to the

opening of the East Sea during the Tertiary (Yoon and
dex

Chough, 1995) as shown by evidence from Tertiary volcanic

sediments. Thrust faulting may be related to the changing
EW, -ss-,

EW, -ss-,

of stress axis during uplift and the onset of E–W or

WNW–ESE trending compression (Table 4).
sin

sin

NW–SE trending left-lateral faults are interpreted as

NE, -nf-

NE, -nf-

antithetic cross-faults (e.g. Nicholson et al., 1986; Kim

Comp.
ENE,
NE-

et al., 2001) or tear faults between NE–SW or N–S trending

3

thrust faults. This interpretation agrees with that reported for

WNW, -nf-

WNW, -nf-

Quaternary thrust faults in this region (KIGAM, 1998; Ree

WNW,

et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2004b). Most of the Quaternary

Comp.

faults may have been reactivated under changed stress

4

condition along pre-existing normal faults (Ree et al., 2003;

-ss-, dex
Orientation of faults

Kim et al., 2004b) developed at the time of right-lateral

Young ) / Old
ENE,

movement of the Yangsan Fault. This interpretation is also

fault; -ss-, strike-slip fault; dex, dex-tral; sin, sinistral; comp, compression; exten, extension.

supported by the thrust geometry of the reactivated faults.

The curved fault tips near the surface at Suryeom (KIGAM,
NS, -tf-

NS, -tf-

Comp.
EW,

1998; Ree et al., 2003) and Eupchon (KIGAM, 1998; Kim

5

et al., 2004b) faults may indicate reactivation of pre-existing

normal faults with steeper angles. In summary, strike-slip
Ceno-zoic
Comp.

faults were reactivated as strike-slip or oblique slip faults

NW,

pre-,
NW

NW

(e.g. Ipsil Fault) and normal faults were reactivated as

reverse faults (e.g. Suryeom and Eupchon faults).
Exten.
EW,
Structural elements and their orientations in each rock unit

NS
NS

NS

5.3. History and continuity of the faults

NE

NE

The tectonic history of the main NNE–SSW trending

NE-ENE,

Yangsan Fault is of right-lateral strike-slip movement,

Comp.
ENE

ENE

ENE

followed by left-lateral strike-slip movement (Figs. 1 and

3

15; Yoon and Chough, 1995). In the Pohang-Ulsan area to

the east of the Yangsan Fault, several Quaternary faults have
Orientation of joints

WNW,
Young ) / Old

Exten.
NNE

NNE
NNE

been reported recently (KIGAM, 1998; Ree et al., 2003;

3

Kim et al., 2004b). This area can be interpreted as an

overstepping or relay zone between the Yangsan Fault and
WNW,
Comp.
WNW
WNW

WNW
WNW

WNW

the Hupo Fault (e.g. Yoon and Chough, 1995). In strike-slip

overstep zones, a variety of secondary faults (normal,
4

reverse and strike-slip) and fractures are developed to

Table 3

K-Sed.
graphy

Events
Comp.
Strati-

accommodate displacement along the fault (Fig. 14; Sibson,

Max.,
Tuff

Age
F.P.
Da.

Gr.

1986; Stewart and Hancock, 1994; Kim et al., 2003, 2004a).

DTD 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS
16 Y.-S. Kim, J.-Y. Park / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20

Fig. 13. An example of restoration of a fault system. (a,b) Untilting of the bedding. The dip of the Cretaceous sedimentary bed has been rotated until the bed is
horizontal; (b,c) Rotated 308 anticlockwise. The degree of rotation is suggested by Choi et al. (2002a).

This overstep zone was an extensional or releasing relay
zone during right-lateral movement, where normal faults
and pull-apart basins are typically developed (Figs. 14, 15a).
Many normal faults are developed in the Tertiary rocks.
Block rotation is frequently reported in this type of overstep
zone (Nicholson et al., 1986; Kim et al., 2003, 2004a), and
the clockwise block rotation of 30–508 in the early Late
Miocene (Choi et al., 2002b; Son et al., 2002) may be
associated with the fault overstepping. Volcanism occurred
and sedimentary basins were developed in these transten-
sional tectonic settings.
Sedimentation continued until the end of the Tertiary, but
diminished when the tectonic setting changed to left-lateral
slip (Fig. 15b). The left-lateral movement along the
Yangsan and Hupo faults is interpreted as due to subduction
of the Philippine Sea Plate around 12 Ma (Yoon and
Chough, 1995). Since then, the overstep zone, dominated by
normal faults, has been reactivated as a compressional or
restraining relay zone with inversion promoting uplift (e.g.
Williams et al., 1989) (Figs. 14, 15b). The later left-lateral
fault movement is smaller than that accumulated by the
earlier right-lateral movement, and the Yangsan and Hupo
faults still show a net right-lateral slip displacement in most
places. The stress configuration later changed again from
NW–SE to E–W trending compression or ENE–WSW-
trending compression under the influence of subduction of
the Pacific Plate (Table 4; Son et al., 2002; Choi et al.,
2002a). During the reactivation period, some new faults
were generated (e.g. Yonil Tectonic Line, Son et al., 2002)
and pre-existing faults selectively reactivated (e.g. Kelly
et al., 1999) as reverse faults or oblique slip faults. Under
renewed compression, the Quaternary thrust faults such as
Suryeom and Eupchon were developed.
Our interpretation of the tectonic history of this area
agrees with that proposed by previous workers (Yoon and
Chough, 1995; Son et al., 2002; Choi et al., 2002b) (Table 4).
DTD 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Y.-S. Kim, J.-Y. Park / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20 17

Table 4
Summary of the tectonic history in the study area showing associated faults, tectonic activity and their related references

The NE–SW to ENE–WSW trending normal faults connect- 6. Conclusions

ing the strike-slip faults (Son et al., 2002) are interpreted as
linking normal faults developed in the overstep zone (Kim
et al., 2004a) (Fig. 15a). Although Quaternary faults
developed in this region have relatively large displacements
(e.g. the Wangsan Fault with vertical separation of about
19.6 m), the fault traces are not well exposed at the surface
(personal communication with U. Chwae, 2003). This may
be because the reverse faults are reactivated normal faults
developed in the overstep zones bounded by strike-slip faults.
Therefore, further studies and careful consideration are
necessary to apply the length and displacement relationship
to the faults (e.g. Kim et al., 2004b; Kim and Sanderson,
2005) in this region.
(1) This area is composed of Cretaceous sedimentary
rocks, Tertiary granodiorite, pinkish feldspar granite,
dacite and feldspar porphyry. Tertiary volcanic tuff
and tuffaceous sediments, and Quaternary marine
terrace sediments parallel to the coastline are devel-
oped locally.
(2) K–Ar isotopic age dating has been carried out for
three granites. The age of the granodiorite is 59.8G
1.8 Ma (Early Tertiary), that of foliated biotite
granodiorite is 55.8G1.8 Ma (Early Tertiary), and
that of the pinkish feldspar granite is 34.8G1.0 Ma
(Oligocene).

Fig. 14. Fractures and deformation structures around a segmented strike-slip fault system (modified from Sibson, 1986; Stewart and Hancock, 1994). Normal
and strike-slip faults are developed in extensional overstep zones, and strike-slip, reverse faults and folds are developed in contractional overstep zones.
DTD 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS
18 Y.-S. Kim, J.-Y. Park / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xx (2005) 1–20
Fig. 15. A conceptual model of reverse reactivated strike-slip faults (the Yangsan and Hupo faults see Fig. 1a) with oversteps. (a) Normal faults and pull-apart
basins are developed during the right-lateral stage; (b) Uplift of the basins and reverse faults are developed during the left-lateral stage.
(3) The Cretaceous sedimentary rocks show consistent
westward dips. The westward dip of the bedding may
be caused by tilting. Although the Tertiary tuffaceous
sediments are almost horizontal, they can be classified
into NNE–SSW and NNW–SSW striking groups. This
may be due to a slight change in the sediment source
direction.
(4) The joint system is very complicated, with WNW–
ESE and NE–SW to ENE–WSW trending joint sets
predominant. The joints intersect along a line plunging
moderately ESE, and indicate a NE–SW maximum
compressive stress axis. This is compatible with right-
lateral movement along the Yangsan Fault.
(5) The predominant faults are the NE–SW to NNE–SSW
trending right-lateral faults, WNW–ESE trending left-
lateral faults, and N–S to NNW–SSE trending normal
faults reactivated as reverse faults. Because the trend
and nature of the N–S to NNW–SSE trending faults are
very similar to those of the Quaternary faults in this
area, these faults could have been reactivated under the
condition of Quaternary faulting. Further studies are
necessary to resolve this problem.
(6) NW–SE to WNW–ESE dykes may be parallel to the
maximum compressive stress associated with the
inversion of the tectonic setting around the East Sea.
(7) Restoration of the earlier faulting by back-rotation of
tilted fault blocks and removal of plate tectonic
clockwise rotation produces a more acceptable
geometry for the earlier faults.
(8) We established the tectonic history in this area using
the grid mapping data, the chronological filtering of
structural elements, and the example of restoration as
shown in Table 4.
(9) The field data are compatible with the tectonic model
in which the right-lateral Yangsan Fault was reacti-
vated as a left-lateral fault. Right-lateral movement
was predominant and the Yangsan Fault still records a
predominant right-lateral displacement.
(10) The right-lateral movement along the Yangsan and
Hupo faults developed Tertiary pull-apart basins, and
it may be related to the opening of the East Sea. The
left-lateral movement along the faults, associated with
the closing of the East Sea, is related to the
compressional tectonic of this area. These tectonic
movements are well recorded in the meso-scale
deformation structures.
Acknowledgements
First of all, we thank H. C. Shin and Y. J. Kim for their
hospitality and help for this project. This project is mainly
funded by KOPEC, and partly supported by MOCIE (R-
2002-0-279) and BK21, SEES, SNU. Constructive reviews
and comments by A. J. Barber, D. J. Sanderson and P. Y.
Choi greatly improved the manuscript. We also great thank
to J. H. Kim, W. R. Fitches and J. R. Andrews for their
careful reviews, and to C. D. Park and C. B. Kim for their
fieldwork and data analysis. We appreciate the support from
the members of FFRG and the Structural Geology Lab,
SNU.
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