THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF PSYCHEDELICS

The Therapeutic Value of Psychedelics: Indigenous Wisdom, Colonization, and the Modern

Psychedelic Healing Movement

Jeanne Porges

Department of Psychology, DePaul University

PSY 361: History and Systems of Psychology

Dr. Laurette Mcllwee

November 4, 2021
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Abstract

Until the early-mid 1900’s, there was little to no interest in psychedelics or hallucinogens in

Western society. Historically, many indigenous populations have incorporated psychedelic plants

into their healing and spiritual rituals, but despite this, knowledge of the value of plant medicine

in Western society did not develop until the synthesis of LSD by Albert Hoffmann in 1938. This

discovery changed the way that psychedelics were perceived in Western culture. When other

scientists like Timothy Leary started using LSD in experiments to explore its therapeutic value,

this influenced an influx of research regarding psychedelics being used in a therapeutic context.

Leary also played a major role in causing psychedelic culture to go mainstream, which increased

the risk of abuse, eventually leading Nixon to categorize psychedelics in Schedule One. Schedule

One is supposed to indicate that a substance does not have any therapeutic value, but despite this

politically driven action, research shows that psychedelics do have therapeutic value. When

discussing the therapeutic value of psychedelics, many ignore the history of indigenous

populations and their knowledge of the therapeutic value of psychedelics. For this reason, this

paper will accurately synthesize the history of both indigenous history of psychedelic use, and

Western psychedelic use in the context of healing and therapeutic value. In addition to this, I will

be analyzing the colonization of psychedelics and describe how we can learn and grow from

colonization today.
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The Therapeutic Value of Psychedelics: Indigenous Wisdom, Colonization, and the Modern

Psychedelic Healing Movement

When one thinks of psychedelics, they typically think of the United States in the 60’s,

when the hippie movement was flourishing and psychedelics like LSD and magic mushrooms

went mainstream. When people think of psychedelic culture, they typically think of tie-dye and

the Grateful Dead. Many people regard psychedelics as recreational drugs that fry the brain and

make individuals go crazy. The way in which most Westerners conceptualize psychedelics is

ethnocentric however, and only takes into account the history of psychedelic use in the United

States. Furthermore, those who conceptualize psychedelics in this way are ignorant of the

therapeutic value of psychedelics, and are unaware that psychedelic culture stems from the

therapeutic use of psychedelics. When the therapeutic value of psychedelics is discussed, many

people ignore indigenous history and knowledge regarding the therapeutic value of psychedelics.

This paper will synthesize the history of both indigenous history and Western history of

psychedelic use, in the context of healing and therapeutic value. In addition to this, it is

important to describe the neurology and pharmacology of classic psychedelics, analyze the

colonization of psychedelics— which is perpetrated by predominantly Western white men— and

describe how we can learn and grow from colonization today, in an era where

psychedelic-assisted therapy is on the brink of being legalized in Western Society.

When did humans start using psychedelic plants and fungi for their healing and

therapeutic value? Most Western historians would identify the synthesis of LSD in 1938 as the

beginning of the psychedelic healing movement. As mentioned previously, this view is

ethnocentric and it is white washed as well. Western historians, politicians, and citizens alike

tend to ignore, and when they don’t ignore, they tend to demonize the indigenous tradition of
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psychedelic healing and spiritual rituals. Despite the stigma of the indigenous use of

psychedelics, Westerners colonized psychedelics, capitalizing off of them, which is against the

core values of many indigenous populations (Ens, 2021). In addition to this, Western historians

and politicians have historically attempted to misinterpret, revise, and suppress the history of

psychedelics used as medicine for healing within indigenous populations (Ens, 2021). For this

reason, when analyzing the history of psychedelics used in a therapeutic context, it is imperative

to explore different indigenous populations and the way in which they utilized psychedelic plants

and fungi for psychological and spiritual healing. Before analyzing the indigenous history of

psychedelics, it is essential to understand the neurology of psychedelics, specifically in regards

to LSD, psilocybin, and DMT.

To begin with, LSD, psilocybin, and DMT are all considered classic psychedelics and

they are all considered tryptamines, which is according to Michael Pollan, “A type of organic

compound (an indole to be exact) distinguished by the presence of two linked rings, one of them

with six atoms and the other with five” (p. 291, 2019). Tryptamines are found in plants, animals,

and fungi, and they typically serve as a signaling molecule between cells (Pollan, 2019). For

example, the most commonly found tryptamine in the human body is Serotonin, or 5-HT. It just

so happens that all classic psychedelics have an affinity for 5-HT2A receptors, which means that

when the chemical enters the brain, it binds to these serotonin receptors, acting as serotonin

agonists or partial agonists (Pollan, 2018). LSD has an even stronger affinity for this serotonin

receptor than other psychedelics, and when it binds to the receptors, it is, according to Pollan,

“stickier than serotonin itself, making this an instance where the simulacrum is more convincing,

chemically, than the original” (p. 292, 2018). This strong affinity is what makes

LSD lasts so much longer than other classic psychedelics.

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Pollan further describes the nature of tryptamines, explaining, “This has led some

scientists to speculate that the human body must produce some other, more bespoke chemical for

the express purpose of activating the 5-HT2A receptor” (p. 292, 2018). Many scientists speculate

that DMT may have served to activate the 5-HT2A receptor in human brains long ago, based on

evidence that shows tiny amounts of DMT in the pineal gland of rat brains (Pollan, 2018),

however there has been no research done involving the measurement of DMT in a human brain,

and in order to strengthen this theory, more research needs to be done, on human participants

rather than animals.

In addition to this, the default mode network (DMN) has been found to regulate

conscious experience and sense of self. When under the influence of psychedelics, the DMN is

interrupted, which can create a sense of “ego dissolution” (Polla, 2018), also known as “ego

death” within the psychedelic community. When the DMN is interrupted, one’s sense of self is

also interrupted, causing ego dissolution and out of body experiences. This can be experienced in

a variety of ways, from extrasensory perceptions of the self, to a complete loss of bodily

perception. Many describe this feeling as a sense of unity or oneness with consciousness and the

universe. The DMN also regulates the limbic system, specifically regarding emotion and

memory. When it is interrupted, repressed memories and feelings are once again available to

recall (Pollan, 2018). Perhaps it is this neurological function that allows trauma to resurface and

be processed while under the influence of psychedelics. Pollan references Carhart-Harris saying,

“Psychedelics alter consciousness by disorganizing brain activity” (p. 314, 2018). Pollan goes on

to explain that psychedelics trigger primary consciousness, an older mental system where the ego

is disrupted and the unconscious becomes observable (2018). Another way to conceptualize this

lack of organization in the brain is to frame it as neurogenesis. Pollan explains that the Imperial
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College lab measured neurogenesis in a sober brain versus a brain under the influence of

psilocybin (2018) and goes on to state the following regarding neurogenesis:

The specialized neural networks of the brain—such as the default mode network and the

visual processing system— each become disintegrated, while the brain as a whole

becomes more integrated as new connections spring up among regions that ordinarily

kept mainly to themselves or were linked only via the central hub of the DMN (p. 316,

2018).

To put this in simpler terms, when under the influence of psychedelics, the DMN network

is interrupted, and due to this, neurogenesis occurs, which allows parts of the brain to

communicate that wouldn’t normally communicate. In this sense, psychedelics essentially

influence the development of new neural networks and rewire the brain. This may also be a

reason individuals under the influence of psychedelics are able to recall repressed memories,

emotions, and trauma, which is then able to be processed and worked through in a therapeutic

capacity. Neurogenesis also influences visual processing and perception, which can create

synesthesia, a very common occurrence during psychedelic experiences. Lastly, neurogenesis

increases plasticity in the brain, which makes it easier for individuals to change their brain

through learning, creativity, meditation, breathwork, yoga, etc.

Now that the neurology of psychedelics is clear, the focus will shift to the indigenous

history of psychedelic use in a therapeutic context. The first indigenous population of focus is the

Mesoamericans, which include Aztec and Mayan tribes, in what would be modern day Mexico

and Guatemala, as well as other parts of Central America. For example, Sayin provides images in

his article that illustrate Maya mushroom stones in Guatemala (p. 212, 2017), which support the

idea that psilocybin mushrooms were used in Mayan rituals. Sayin also provides images
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depicting a statue in Mexico City that represents the Aztec god of Flowers and dance. The statue

of the Aztec god and the base of the statue are covered in images of mushrooms and other

psychedelic plants (p. 212, 2017). This once again suggests the use of mushrooms as well as

other entheogenic plants in Aztec and Maya culture. In addition to this the author states,

“Hundreds of other archeological items of evidence came out in Mexican, Maya, and Aztec

cultures that psilocybin, peyote, cannabis, and some other psychoactive plants were used during

shamanic and religious rituals” (Sayin, p. 223, 2017). Bourzat, a specialist in indigenous plant

medicine, supports the idea of psychedelics being used in rituals when she says the following:

There is evidence of ritual ingestion of psychoactive plants and fungi-based

practices from nearly every place where humans have lived on this planet. Carved

stone mushroom effigies have been found throughout Mexico and Central

America dating back to 1000 B.C.E. (p. 23, 2019).

Bourzat’s statement is profound in more ways than one. First, the evidence of psilocybin

mushroom use in a healing context dates back to 1000 B.C.E., which predates modern religion

and the birth of Christ. In addition to this, the author highlights an important consideration,

which is the fact that psychedelic plants and fungi seem to historically exist anywhere that

humans existed. For example, Siberian tribes in the Arctic Circle like the Nenets (Kaur, 2021),

Koryaks (Lee, et al., 2018) and the Inuit historically consumed amanita muscaria mushrooms,

which acted as a deliriant and entheogen (Nyberg, 1992). These mushrooms were historically

consumed orally and tribes would prepare them by drying the mushrooms, then boiling them to

remove ibotenic acid which is the toxic component of the mushroom. There are also records of

shamans drinking the urine of reindeer, which would eat the mushrooms and secrete the

psychoactive chemical muscimol in their urine (Nyberg, 1992). The Nenet tribe has records
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which provide support that amanita muscaria or fly agaric mushrooms were used during their

shamanic rituals. According to the author, “The consumption of fly agaric is supposed to help the

shaman get into the necessary trance, during which he communicates with the spirits and gets

answers to his questions” (Kaur, p. 10, 2002). In addition to this, the Shamans had songs that

were intended to be sung while under the influence of the mushroom, and “According to one

tradition the shaman used to sing these songs during the performance, standing on one leg and

imitating thus the external aspect of the mushroom” (Kaur, p. 10, 2002). These examples all

support the fact that Siberian tribes used psychedelics for healing and spiritual purposes. Now

that the Mesoamerican and Siberian histories of psychedelic healing have been explored, it is

important to explore the Amazonian tribes of South America.

The Amazon region nurtures several species of plants that contain the psychoactive

chemical DMT. The most common plant containing DMT in this region is B. Caapi vine, which

is used to make a brew called ayahuasca (Sayin, 2017). This brew, sometimes referred to as a tea,

is traditionally consumed orally during shamanic rituals. According to Sayin, “The name

Ayahuasca comes from the Napo Runa people of the Upper Amazon” (p. 203, 2017). The

ayahuasca experience is described as a healing ritual, which is reinforced when Sayin describes

“icaros” as sacred healing songs that are sung by shamans who are under the influence of the

brew (2017). Sayin describes the Ayahuasca ceremony further when he introduces the idea of

purging, or throwing up, which is prone to happen after ingesting Ayahuasca. This throwing up is

interpreted by shamans as the purging of negative energy, which acts as a cleansing experience,

ultimately bringing healing and peace (2017) to individuals. In addition to this, DMT is known

as the “spirit molecule,” (Sayin, 2017) due to the way in which many individuals perceive spirits

while under the influence of Ayahuasca. Sometimes these spirits appear as plant spirits, deities,
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or even loved ones or ancestors who have died (Sayin, 2017). Many individuals report receiving

messages from these spirits, which tends to give individuals a sense of peace and understanding,

as well as a sense of oneness with the Universe. It is this peace, understanding, and oneness that

offers healing to individuals who undergo these journeys. Ultimately, these tribes believe that the

Ayahuasca experience and sense of community are what allows one to heal both psychologically

and spiritually.

After discussing the history of psychedelics used for healing in Mesoamerican tribes,

Siberian tribes, and Amazonian tribes, it will be easier to conceptualize the contrasting values of

Western society, which led to the colonization of psychedelics. The colonization of psychedelics

began when many primary sources relating to psychedelics were written by white male

researchers in the West who, according to Ens, “exotisized, omitted, misunderstood, and/or

downplayed the importance of indigenous people in their own historical movement” (p. 3, 2021).

Due to these misrepresentations, indigenous populations are not given credit for their rich history

of using psychedelics in a therapeutic context, and their history is often skewed or

misinterpreted. Ens offers an example of white Western men’s revisionist tendencies when she

describes Aldous Huxley’s book Doors of Perception, which misinterprets the spiritual

significance of peyote rituals among indigenous participants. Specifically, Huxley did not

understand that the significance of the peyote experience lies in the communal experience and

instead he wrongfully assumed that the significance lies in the individuals’ sensation and

perception changes during the peyote experience (Ens, 2021). This misinterpretation ultimately

advanced misinformation about indigenous peyote consumption in a primary source, which

contributed to the colonization of psychedelics and their history.

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In addition to this, R. Gordon Wasson gave a presentation in 1960 titled “The

Hallucinogenic Fungi of Mexico: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Religious Idea Among

Primitive Peoples,” which served to identify contrast between Western norms and the norms of

that in Mexico, where these psychedelic rituals took place. To reinforce this belief, Wasson

stated, “We view this anthropological trait with amused detachment… Confident that it will long

remain unchanged for future students to examine at their leisure” (Ens, p. 4, 2021). When

Wasson states this, he is not only regarding the psychedelic healing rituals of Mexico with

humor, but he also regards the tribes as something for students to examine at their leisure, like

specimens, rather than humans. In saying this, Wasson is dehumanizing indigneous peoples and

in doing so, he is elevating himself to a position of superiority and power. It is this power that he

ultimately uses in order to influence the colonization of psychedelics and their history.

Similarly to the way that indigenous populations haven’t historically received credit for

their contributions relating to psychedelic healing, women haven’t received credit for their

contributions either. For example, Dr. Valentina Wasson, R. Gordon Wasson’s wife contributed

significantly to the fields of mycology and psychedelic sciences. Historically, R. Gordon Wasson

received credit for being “the father of ethnomycology” (Williams et al., 2020), even though

Valentina Wasson arguably had more influence regarding bringing awareness to psilocybin

mushrooms in the U.S (Williams et al., 2020). In addition to this, despite the fact that Valentina

Wasson was the lead author in a text called Mushrooms, Russia, and History, R. Gordon Wasson

was falsely cited as the lead author, when he was actually a secondary co-author (Williams et al.,

2020). Lastly, journals wrote pieces on R. Gordon Wasson’s article “Seeking the Magic

Mushroom,” however, these same journals ignored a publication regarding Dr. Valentina

Wasson’s personal account with psilocybin mushrooms. After examining these examples, it’s
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clear that marginalized groups as a whole are suppressed by the White Western male majority in

regards to academic and historical recognition. When marginalized groups fail to be recognized

for their historical contributions for generations, colonization is the result. Colonization

inherently influences the Western perception of psychedelics and impacts the application of

psychedelic-assisted therapy.

Next, it is important to explore the therapeutic value of psychedelics in a Modern context.

“Modern” will refer to the synthesis of LSD in 1938 up until the present day. As mentioned,

Albert Hoffman synthesized LSD in 1938, but he did not intentionally dose himself until April of

1943 (Nichols et al., 2020), which is called Bicycle Day, due to Hoffman having to ride his

bicycle home while under the influence of LSD. After this discovery, the therapeutic value of

LSD was heavily explored and LSD-assisted psychotherapy was even incorporated into the

psychiatric field for the treatment of alcoholism and addiction. By 1951, there were over 100

articles published on LSD in medical journals and by 1961, there were over 1000 articles

published (Nichols et al., 2020). After World War II ended, LSD was used in order to treat “shell

shock,” which would be referred to as PTSD today (Nichols, et al., 2020).

In addition to this, between 1953 and 1969, over 7,000 patients were treated for

addiction with LSD-assisted psychotherapy, with between ten and twenty drug sessions, and two

drug-free sessions per week (Nichols, et al., 2020). It is clear from this minimal amount of data

that LSD showed promise in its therapeutic value. So what changed? It is noted that only five out

of five thousand participants committed suicide (Nichols, et al., 2020), which is a significantly

low rate. Why is it then, that the narrative changed to advocate against psychedelics? When

psychedelics became mainstream with the help of Timothy Leary, the Nixon administration

cracked down on all psychedelics, categorizing them in Schedule One. The Drug Amendments
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of 1962 also mandated that a drug show safety and effectiveness before its approval (Nichols, et

al., 2020). This amendment prevented any new clinical research trials on psychedelic-assisted

therapy from being approved by the FDA. This ultimately led to the end of psychedelic use

within the field of psychiatry.

Since then, the field of psychiatry has been relying on psychotropic drug therapy to treat

individuals who are diagnosed with mental disorders. Although individuals in drug therapy are

encouraged to recieve talk therapy in conjunction, many choose not to, due to the stigma around

psychotherapy. Even in conjunction with talk therapy, some individuals have disorders that

cannot be treated effectively with drug therapy and talk therapy. These individuals have

diagnoses that are referred to as “treatment-resistant.” It is these individuals who would primarily

benefit from psychedelic-assisted therapies, however this population has been virtually ignored

by the psychiatry field for decades, all due to this amendment from 1962. Despite the fact that

the field of psychiatry withdrew from studying the effects of psychedelics, other researchers took

it up in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1984, the non-profit Multidisciplinary Association for

Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) was created by Rick Doblin with the intention of, according to

MAPS, “Developing medical, legal, and cultural contexts for people to benefit from the careful

uses of psychedelics and marijuana” (Doblin, 2021). This organization has pushed for the ability

to do clinical trials on psychedelics for over three decades and they have had a large part in the

initiative to legalize psychedelics and plant medicine through education and research initiatives

that aim to prove to the FDA that psychedelic-assisted therapy is effective and safe enough to be

legalized.

In addition to MAPS research, Rick Strassman was one of the first researchers to resume

clinical studies of psychedelics in 1994, specifically in relation to intravenous DMT. The first
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study carried out to determine the therapeutic value of psychedelics was done by Moreno and

colleagues in 2006, but their research did not have conclusive results. A more accurate research

study was done by Charles Grob in 2011, regarding the therapeutic value of psilocybin. The

results suggested that when a “modest” dose of psilocybin was given to a participant with

anxiety and cancer, there was a statistically significant decrease in anxiety three months after

treatment and participants also experienced an improved mood that reached significance at six

months prior to the psilocybin treatment (Nichols et al., 2020).

After reviewing the history of psychedelics used in the U.S. for therapeutic value, it is

clear that between the 1990’s and the present year, a new wave of research has developed, with

the goal of legalizing psychedelic-assisted therapy. The goal isn’t just to legalize this

intervention, but to do so through reinforcing evidence based practice and empiricism. The idea

that the psychedelic experience can be empirically quantified is still developing and will

continue to develop as technology does. Even without the use of empiricism,

phenomenologically, it is clear from all that has been observed and recorded in history that

psychedelics inherently have therapeutic value. Now that the therapeutic value of psychedelics is

fully understood, it is essential to discuss the present psychedelic healing movement in regards to

moving forward with the initiative to legalize psychedelics-assisted therapy while being mindful

of the colonist bias that all Westerners hold.

As mentioned previously, MAPS has played an integral role in pushing for the

legalization of psychedelic-assisted therapy. Not only does MAPS want to integrate

psychedelic-assisted therapy into Western culture, but they want this integration to be led by

indigenous knowledge and wisdom. Currently, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is on track to be

approved by the FDA for use in the United States by 2023. Oregon has already legalized
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psilocybin for therapeutic purposes, and California is considering doing the same. Chicago has

also established clinical trials for psilocybin-assisted therapy, to treat depression.

Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy has also been legalized in 27 states for the treatment of

depression, although there are accessibility challenges related to ketamine treatment due to

insurance not covering this intervention. How can the United States move forward with the

initiative to legalize psychedelic-assisted therapy, in a way that honors and respects the

inidgenous history and knowledge of psychedelics?

There are a couple considerations that need to be made from social and financial lenses.

For example, when psychedelic substances are developed there will be profits gained from those

substances, and according to indigenous culture, plant medicine and non-plant psychedelics are

not to be profited off of. For this reason, MAPS Public Benefit Corporation, who are producing

MDMA, are using their income from MDMA to prioritize public benefit over profit. This model

should be used in the future when legalizing other psychedelic-assisted therapies, in order to

protect psychedelics from being capitalized off of, ultimately preventing further colonization of

psychedelics. By developing more Public Benefit Corporations, psychedelic-assisted therapy can

be implemented in a way that benefits both the individual and Western society, as well as protect

indigenous values and wisdom regarding psychedelic healing.

It is also important to consider the accessibility of psychedelic-assisted therapy when it is

legalized. As mentioned, ketamine-assisted psychotherapy is not always accessible to those who

may benefit from it, due to insurance not covering this treatment. It will be imperative that

policies be put in place that hold insurance responsible for covering psychedelic-assisted therapy.

Even with policies in place, there are still many people without insurance, who would not be able

to receive psychedelic-assisted therapy. For this reason, scholarships and grants should be
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available to those who are low income, do not have insurance, or who are otherwise needing

financial assistance. When these structures are implemented, psychedelic-assisted therapy will

become more equitable and accessible.

After discussing the neurology of classic psychedelics, the indigenous history of

psychedelic use for healing purposes, the colonization of psychedelics, and the psychedelic

movement today, it is clear that when all of this information is synthesized, it can be used in

order to inform and guide the United States through the process of legalizing and integrating

psychedelic-assisted therapy into Western culture. Through this psychedelic healing movement,

it is essential to above all, lift up the voices of indigenous populations and let them guide us in

the direction of healing. Indigenous folks were the first known to consume psychedelics and the

wisdom indigenous populations hold is essential to the future of psychedelic-assisted therapy and

the overall therapeutic value of psychedelics.

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