Aviation Disaster

REPORT

NAME:-1.NIDHI PRASAD
2.MEET SAVANI
 Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)
 PREVENTION
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the statutory body formed under the Aircraft (Amendment) Bill, 2020. This directorate
investigates aviation accidents and incidents,maintains all regulations related to aviation and is responsible for issuance of licenses pertaining to
aviation like PPL's(private pilot certificate), SPL's (student pilot certificate)and CPL's(commercial pilot licence)in India. It is headquartered along Sri
Aurobindo Marg, opposite Safdarjung Airport, in New Delhi.The Government of India is planning to replace the organisation with a Civil Aviation
Authority (CAA), modelled on the lines of the American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

 Vision (PRO-ACTION))
 Endeavour to promote safe and efficient Air Transportation through regulation and proactive safety oversight system.

 Functions (MITIGATION)
 Registration of civil aircraft
 Certification of airports
 Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that
purpose
 Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft Rules and the Civil Aviation Requirements for complying with the amendments to
ICAO Annexes, and initiating proposals for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act in order to give effect to an international
Convention or amendment to an existing convention.
 Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and grant of certificates of airworthiness to such aircraft
 Conducting investigation into incidents and serious incidents involving aircraft up to 2250 kg AUW and taking accident prevention measures,
including formulation of implementation of Safety Aviation Management Programmes
 Checks on the proficiency of flight crew and other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew
 Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies, sending replies to State letters, and taking all necessary action arising out of the Universal
Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP) of ICAO.
 Granting Air Operator's Certificates to Indian carriers and regulation of air transport services operating to/from/within/over India by Indian
and foreign operators, including clearance of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such operators
 Approval of institutes engaged in flying training including simulator training, AME training, air traffic services training or any other training
related with aviation, with a view to ensuring a high quality of training
 Approval to aircraft maintenance, repair, design and manufacturing organizations and their continued oversight
 A nodal agency for implementing Annex 9 provisions in India and for coordinating matters relating to facilitation at Indian airports, including
holding meetings of the National Facilitation Committee DGCA Organisation Manual
 Rendering advice to the Government on matters relating to air transport including bilateral air services agreements, on ICAO matters and
generally on all technical matters relating to civil aviation, and to act as an overall regulatory and developmental body for civil aviation in the
country
 Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in accordance with ICAO Annex 16 and collaborating with the environmental
authorities in this matter, if required
 Regulation and oversight of matters related to Air Navigation Services. Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil and
military air traffic agencies and interaction with ICAO for provision of more air routes for civil use through Indian airspace
 Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components by acting as a catalytic agent
 Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of dangerous goods, issuing authorizations for carriage of dangerous goods, etc.
 Safety Oversight of all entities approved/ certified/ licensed under the Aircraft Rules 1937.

 Departments
 These are classified and divided into the following:
 Administration Directorate
 Aerodrome Standards Directorate (AD)
 Air Safety Directorate (DAS)
 Air Transport Directorate (AT)
 Airworthiness Directorate (DAW) (which is also responsible for registering drones in India)
 Flight Standards Directorate (FSD)
 Information & Regulation Directorate (DRI)
 Aircraft Engineering Directorate (AED)
 Directorate Of Flying Training (DFT)
 Medical Section
 Directorate of Training & Licensing (DTL)
 Directorate of Airspace and Air Navigation Services Standards (ANSS)

 Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)

 PRO-ACTION,PRIVENTION,MITIGATION AND PREDICATE
 The CAA has been envisaged as an autonomous regulatory body which will replace the DGCA and will meet standards set by the UN's
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The CAA will have separate departments to deal with safety, economic regulation and
grievance resolution, as well as a full-fledged environment department. It will also have an independent accident investigation bureau. The
Authority will also have the autonomy to recruit staff. Currently, the DGCA is understaffed and does not have any recruitment powers. The CAA
will have administrative and financial powers similar to those of the American FAA. These powers will redefine the regulator's role and better
equip it to face the challenges of the growing Aviation sector in the country. Employees working with DGCA will be transferred to the CAA.
 The estimated cost of establishing the new Authority would be around Rs 11.2 million. The CAA would be self-financing and have a separate
fund called the 'Civil Aviation Authority of India Fund' that would finance its entire expenses. It would have a Chairperson, a Director General
and 7-9 members appointed by the Central Government. These members will be qualified in the fields of aviation safety, aircraft engineering,
flight standard operations, aerodromes, air navigation systems and air space management.
 From deadly crashes to runway mishaps: A timeline of air accidents in India
 Jan 1978: Air India Flight 855 crashed off the coast of Bandra after the
captain became spatially disoriented following the failure of one of the
flight instruments in the cockpit. All 213 aboard were killed.
 June 1982: Air India Flight 403 crashed at the Sahar International
Airport in Mumbai due to bad weather. Two crew members and 15
passengers lost their lives.
 Feb 1990: Indian Airlines Flight 605 crashed on its final approach to
Bangalore airport, killing 92 people. The cause was pilot error.
 July 1991: Indian Airlines Flight 257 crashed on a descent into Imphal
due to pilot error killing all 69 occupants.
 April 1993: Indian Airlines Flight 491 crashes into a truck at the end of
the runway while taking off from Aurangabad due to pilot error and the
failure of the aviation administration to control highway traffic. 55
people died.
 November 1996: Saudi Arabian Airlines Flight 763 collided mid-air with
Kazakhstan Airlines Flight 1907, all 349 people on board both flights
were killed, making it the deadliest mid-air collision in history. It is also
known as the Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision.
 July 2000: Alliance Air Flight 7412 crashed in a residential estate of
Patna after the pilot lost control of the aircraft and stalled. Casualty
included 55 people aboard, along with 5 on the ground.
 May 2010: Air India Express Flight 812, a Boeing 737-800, flying on the
Dubai-Mangalore route overshot the runway on landing at the
Mangalore International Airport killing 158 passengers on board
 April 2019: SpiceJet aircraft skids off the runway on landing at the
regional Shirdi airport, leading to halting of operations. The aircraft
touched down some 30-40 meters away from the landing spot and
veered off the runway.
 May 2019: A major mishap was averted at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
International Airport when an Indian Air Force aircraft overshot the
main runway, resulting in the runway shutting down for 16 hours.
 July 2019: Air India Express flight from Saudi Arabia suffers a "tail tip",
the rear part of the plane touched the surface while landing at the
Kozhikode airport in Kerala.
 July 2019: A SpiceJet domestic flight overshot the runway while landing
at the Surat International Airport due to heavy rains and poor visibility.
 July 2019: Air India Express flight from Dubai veered off the taxiway
after landing at the Mangalore International Airport. The Boeing 737
got stuck in the soft ground near the taxiway and all passengers and
crew on board were safely deboarded.
 August 2019: A New Delhi-bound IndiGo flight failed to take off from
Nagpur airport due to a “technical fault”. Flight 6E 636 from Nagpur
to Delhi returned to the taxiway from the runway after the pilot was
alerted about the serious error in the aircraft. Union Minister Nitin
Gadkari was among the 159 passengers on board.
 Nov 2019: A GoAir aircraft from Nagpur, veered off the runway at
the Kempegowda International Airport in Bengaluru due to bad
weather conditions. DGCA suspended pilots for landing the aircraft
even as they lost the “visual reference” 50 feet before touchdown.
 Dec 2019: A major accident was averted even as the SpiceJet flight
SG 3568, which took off from Surat, failed to deploy the nose gear at
Goa’s Dabolim International Airport. The runway controller
immediately alerted the ATC tower, which informed the incoming
aircraft to abort the landing and make a second attempt.
 Dec 2019: IndiGo’s A320neo aircraft flying from Udaipur to
Bangalore was turned back from the runway after the air traffic
control (ATC) spotted a spark and smoke in the tailpipe of the plane.
 Dec 2019: A GoAir plane, operating a Pune-Delhi flight, returned to
Pune airport 20 minutes after takoff after a bird-hit. The aircraft was
carrying 172 passengers.
 Feb 2020: Air India aircraft’s fuselage was damaged when its pilot
decided to immediately lift the plane to avoid hitting a person and a
jeep that had suddenly come on the Pune airport runway during
takeoff.
 Feb 2020: Over 100 passengers and crew of GoAir flight G8 802 from
Ahmedabad to Bengaluru had to be evacuated at the Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, after the right engine of the
aircraft caught fire during take-off after a bird-hit.
 June 2020: Operations at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
International Airport (CSMIA) were suspended for nearly four hours
after FedEx flight 5033, arriving from Bengaluru, veered off the
runway amid heavy rains triggered by Cyclone Nisarga.
 Runway:-According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome
prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a
natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, as well as taxiways and ramps, are sometimes referred to as "tarmac", though
very few runways are built using tarmac. Runways made of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways. Runway lengths are
now commonly given in meters worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly used.
 For fixed-wing aircraft, it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the
ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected
that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind. Compiling a
wind rose is in fact one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways.
 That wind direction is given as the direction the wind is coming from: a plane taking off from runway 09 faces east, into an "east wind" blowing
from 090°.
 Originally in the 1920s and 1930s, airports and air bases (particularly in the United Kingdom) were built in a triangle-like pattern of three
runways at 60° angles to each other. The reason was that back then aviation was only starting, and as a result although it was known that
winds affect runway distance required, etc. not much was known about wind behaviour. As a result, three runways in a triangle-like pattern
were built, and the runway with the heaviest traffic on it would eventually expand into an airport's main runway, while the other two runways
would be either abandoned or converted into taxiways.For example Bristol Airport has only one runway—09/27 (9/27)—and two taxiways that
form a 'V' which may have been runways on the original 1930s RAF Lulsgate Bottom airbase.
 Naming:-
 Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the
runway's heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the local magnetic declination. A
runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway
36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane is
heading around 90° (east). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each
direction separately: e.g., "runway 15" in one direction is "runway 33" when used in the other. The two
numbers differ by 18 (= 180°). For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is
pronounced individually: runway one-five, runway three-three, etc. (instead of "fifteen" or "thirty-three").
 A leading zero, for example in "runway zero-six" or "runway zero-one-left", is included for all ICAO and some
U.S. military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base). However, most U.S. civil aviation airports drop the
leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army
Airfield. This American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and
controllers in other countries. It is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to clear an
incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04, and the pilot read back the clearance as runway 4. In
flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For
example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05.
 Military airbases may include smaller paved runways known as "assault strips" for practice and training next
to larger primary runways.These strips eschew the standard numerical naming convention and instead
employ the runway's full three digit heading; examples include Dobbins Air Reserve Base's Runway 110/290
and Duke Field's Runway 180/360.
 Runways with non-hard surfaces, such as small turf airfields and waterways for seaplanes, may use the standard numerical scheme or may use
traditional compass point naming, examples include Ketchikan Harbor Seaplane Base's Waterway E/W.
 Airports with unpredictable or chaotic water currents, such as Santa Catalina Island's Pebbly Beach Seaplane Base, may designate their landing
area as Waterway ALL/WAY to denote the lack of designated landing direction.

 Letter suffix:-
 If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending left (L), center (C)
and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L),
one-five-center (15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-one-right (21R) when used in the opposite
direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180° difference when approaching from the opposite direction). In some
countries, regulations mandate that where parallel runways are too close to each other, only one may be used at a time under certain
conditions (usually adverse weather).

 At large airports with four or more parallel runways (for example, at Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County,
Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta, Denver, Dallas-Fort Worth and Orlando), some runway identifiers are shifted by 1 to avoid the ambiguity that would
result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all
four runways are actually parallel at approximately 69°. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L,
17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a heading of 175.4°. Occasionally, an airport with only three parallel runways may use different runway
identifiers, such as when a third parallel runway was opened at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in 2000 to the south of existing
8R/26L—rather than confusingly becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was instead designated 7R/25L, with the former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and
8L/26R becoming 8/26.

 Suffixes may also be used to denote special use runways. Airports that have seaplane waterways may chose to denote the waterway on charts
with the suffix W; such as Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu and Lake Hood Seaplane Base in Anchorage. Small airports that
host various forms of air traffic may employ additional suffixes to denote special runway types based on the type of aircraft expected to use
them, including STOL aircraft (S), gliders (G), rotorcraft (H), and ultralights (U).Runways that are numbered relative to true north rather than
magnetic north will use the suffix T; this is advantageous for certain airfields in the far north such as Thule Air Base.
 Declared distances:-
 Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft)
long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets, to the huge 11,917 m × 274 m (39,098 ft ×
899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – developed as a landing site for the Space Shuttle.
 Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms:

 TORA:-Takeoff Run Available – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.

 TODA:-Takeoff Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if clearway is provided.
(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint
Aviation Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

 ASDA:-Accelerate-Stop Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.

 LDA:-Landing Distance Available – The length of runway that is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.

 EMDA:-Emergency Distance Available – LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.

Figure 3: RWY 28 declared distances.

Table 1: Dublin Airport Declared Distances.

 The figures show the runway in grey, stopway in blue, and clearway Figure 4: RWY 16 Declared Distances.
in green. All declared distances are illustrated for operations from
left to right.

Figure 5: RWY 34 Declared Distances.

Figure 2: RWY 10 declared distances.
 Runway re-carpeting:-
• Airport runways are built to exacting, internationally mandated standards. But frequent landing and take-
off of flights lead to wear and tear of runways. Natural weather phenomena like rain and sun also affect
the runway surface.
• Therefore, depending on the volume of traffic and the variety of aircraft, the runway needs to be ‘re-
carpeted’ every few years. How often this is done depends on how busy the airport is and the variety of
aircraft that it handles.
• Re-carpeting is essential for the safety of flights. All re-carpeting activities on runways are likely to lead to
flights being rescheduled though they are not always cancelled or disrupted.
• Airport runways at all times need to be of a specified strength or Load Classification Number (LCN), which
is a system of classification of the supporting capacity of pavements without cracking or becoming
permanently deformed. LCN varies from 60 for heavy aircraft like a Boeing 747 or Airbus A-380 to 15 for
smaller Bombardier Q 400 aircraft.
• The runway also needs to accommodate weight, length and safety margins for various varieties of aircraft.
For example, an Airbus A-319 has a wing span of 34.1 meters and a wing area of 122.4 square meters
while a Boeing 777-300 Extended Range aircraft has a wing span of 212.6 feet and a wing area of 4,605
square feet.
• An airport like Mumbai which operates all these aircraft has to ensure that the runway is safe enough to
ensure that the aircraft engines remain on the concrete area. Otherwise there is a risk of foreign objects
getting sucked into the aircraft which could lead to an accident.
 Important:-Re-carpeting is important as it ensures that the runway is in top condition to receive the
aircraft. The process involves examining the runway for a variety of issues including whether the aircraft
is having a smooth ride as it lands.
 Load testing is usually done every four to five years to check the condition of the runway to see if there
are undulations or if its weighing capacity is erratic in some places. If this is found to be so, emergency
action is taken otherwise re-carpeting is done in the normal course. Very often when an aircraft lands on
the runway some amount of rubber from the tyres can peel off which can be a risk. Sometimes water too
accumulates or the runway surface breaks which leaves stones lying around that could get sucked into
the aircraft engine and become a safety issue.
 Care:-Re-carpeting of a runway normally sees operations at the airport being rescheduled. Normally
airport operators set aside eight hours daily for re-carpeting work — one hour for preparing, six hours of
work and another hour for currying. While this can delay flight schedules, it is important for the safety of
operations.
 Problems With Lifeline Recovery and Public Transportation
 In The Fukushima and Tohoku Disaster, 2018
 A runway, the basic facility for an airport, is built sturdy enough to withstand landing and takeoff of large
passenger aircrafts that weigh hundreds of tons. In the case of asphalt coating, at the bottom is the
subbase layer under the base layer and on top of it are the 2–3 m thick asphalt base and surface layers.
 Earthquake:-This structure would hardly be damaged even in the case of a megathrust earthquake. The airport building, though not as
strong as the runway, has aseismic design and construction in place.
 During the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, Itami and Kansai International Airports hardly suffered any damage, and the same for
Niigata Airport during the 2004 Niigata Chuetsu earthquake.
 after 2007, a report by the Best Form of Earthquake-proof Airports Committee led to enhancing earthquake resistance of runways and
taxiways and preparing for soil liquefaction.

 Tsunami waves attacked the airport, reaching an inundation depth of 3.4 m, taking down the fences that surrounded the airport, and left
soil, debris, automobiles and other objects on the runways and their surroundings.
 The tsunami inundated the emergency electricity-generating facilities and the internal power supply was lost as well as the external.
 The access railway and roadway tunnel were submerged and access to the airport became difficult .
 The Great East Japan Earthquake revealed the vulnerability of airports against tsunami. MLIT in October 2011 set the “Guideline for tsunami
measures at Airports .”
 The ministry pointed out seven airports along the coast of the Pacific at risk of flooding: Tokyo International, Chubu Centrair International,
Kansai International, Kochi, Oita, and Miyagi.
 “Guideline for tsunami measures at Airports” set the two main actions: (1) Construct an emergency evacuation system for protecting human
lives, and (2) construct quick recovery plans to recover the airport function after a tsunami attack.
 Besides, runway must support the use of aircraft support disaster type, the facilities and equipment in the airport should be available as
follows:
 a) portable runway lighting;
 b) portable generator set portable 75 Kva;
 c) telephone satellite;
 d) portable water processing; and
 e) forklift, and other necessary mobile equipment.
 Operational Procedure: When crisis comes, everyone might be panicking and not know what they have to do. Procedures need to be in
place at all times, and up-to-date. The operational procedure to handle surge capacity should consist of procedures for airside and landside.
The airside procedure should cover the following areas:
 a) assessment on airport facility;
 b) outsourcing personnel from other airports, if needed;
 c) coordination with local government, local BNPB and other related agencies;
 d) open/add operational hours at airport in the vicinity as an alternate airport;
 e) apron capacity management; slot time tight arrangement, faster ground time, priority for evacuation and logistic aids aircraft, no remain
overnight aircraft; and
 f) all the cargo aircraft should bring their own equipment and personnel for unloading.
 The landside/terminal procedure covers the following areas:
 a) establishment of coordination center, including appointing qualified personnel;
 b) coordination with Customs, Immigration, Quarantine (CIQ); and
 c) adding capacity for terminal (temporary terminal), water supply, electricity, if needed.
 Types of runway safety incidents include:-
 Runway excursion – an incident involving only a single aircraft, where it makes an inappropriate exit from the runway ( Thai Airways Flight 679).
 Runway overrun (also known as an overshoot) – a type of excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the runway (e.g. Air
France Flight 358, TAM Airlines Flight 3054).
 Runway incursion – an incident involving incorrect presence of a vehicle, person or another aircraft on the runway (e.g. Aeroflot Flight 3352)
 Runway confusion – an aircraft makes use of the wrong runway for landing or takeoff (e.g. Singapore Airlines Flight 006)
 Runway undershoot – an aircraft that lands short of the runway (e.g. British Airways Flight 38, Asiana Airlines Flight 214).

 Pavement:-
 The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground
conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of
pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete. Although certain airports have used
reinforcement in concrete pavements, this is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of
expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the
concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated that major settlements of the
runway will occur over the years because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install
asphaltic concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on a periodic basis. Fields with very low traffic of light
planes may use a sod surface. Some runways make use of salt flats.
 For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the
relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty
commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 in (250
mm) to 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.
 Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic
plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value. Experience has shown that the K values on
which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.
 The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It is an extrapolation of the original test results,
which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were made by a mixture of these two
design theories. A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design
parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the construction, and,
especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area.
 Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of
the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to
the characteristics of the landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a
pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-
tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer
concrete pavement life. Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is generally applicable only where there
is no appreciable frost action.
 Pavement surface:-
 A Mahan Air Airbus A310 using reverse thrust in rainy weather at Düsseldorf Airport Runway pavement
surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning
following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the
grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires. To maintain the
macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal
or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA friction levels.

 Pavement Subsurface Drainage, and Underdrains:-

 Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At
the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches 18 inches wide and 48 inches
deep from the top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube (15 cm in diameter) is placed at the bottom
of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete
pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure.
 Air Operator Certificate (AOC):-
 An AOC, sometimes alternatively described as an Air Operator Permit, is the approval granted from a
national aviation authority (National Aviation Authority (NAA)) to an aircraft operator to allow it to use
aircraft for commercial purposes. This requires the operator to have personnel, assets and systems in
place to ensure the safety of its employees and the general public. This document will as a minimum detail
the aircraft types which may be used, for what purpose and in what geographic region.
 the general rules for Air Operator Certification.
 An AOC specifies the:
 (a) Name and location (principal place of business) of the operator;
 (b) Date of issue and period of validity;
 (c) Description of the type of operations authorised;
 (d) Type(s) of aeroplane(s) authorised for use;
 (e) Registration markings of the authorised aeroplane(s) except that operators may obtain approval for a
system to inform the Authority about the registration markings for aeroplanes operated under its AOC;
 (f) Authorised areas of operation;
 (g) Special limitations; and
 (h) Special authorisations/approvals
 AOCs can be granted for one or more of the following activities:
 Aerial surveying  Fire fighting
 Aerial spotting  Air ambulance or aeromedical
 Agricultural operations  Flight Training
 Aerial photography  Charter
 Aerial advertising  Public transport
 Airport Marking Aids and Signs:-
a. Airport pavement markings and signs provide information that is useful to a pilot
during takeoff, landing, and taxiing.
b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from one airport to another enhances
safety and improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the operators of
the airports they use to achieve the marking and sign standards described in this
section.
c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or confusing markings or signs on an
airport should make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. These
situations may also be reported under the Aviation Safety Reporting Program as
described in paragraph 7-6-1, Aviation Safety Reporting Program. Pilots may also
report these situations to the FAA regional airports division.
d. The markings and signs described in this section of the AIM reflect the current FAA
recommended standards.
 Airport Markings & Signs
 Like roads, which take us from our home to our destination, airports have taxiways which takes us to and from our runway
 Along those roads (taxiways) exist a variety of markings and signs provide guidance to pilots operating on the airport surface during arrival and
departure
 These airport markings and signs, both in the United States and internationally, are standardized by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) to enhance safety and improve efficiency
 Markings break down as:
 Runway Markings  Mandatory Instruction Signs
 Taxiway Markings  Direction Signs
 Holding Position Markings  Destination Signs
 Other Markings  Location Signs

 Marking Colors:
 Runway Marking Elements
 Markings on runways are white
 Markings defining the landing area on a heliport are also white except for hospital heliports which use a red "H" on a white cross
 Markings for taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions (even if they are on a runway)
are yellow

 Runway Markings:
 Runways Classification:
 There are three types of runways, each with an associated level of markings: [Figure 1]
1.Visual Runways:
 Visual runways are runways without an existing or planned instrument approach procedure
 Visual runways are marked with the runway number and a dashed runway centerline [Figure 2]
 Visual runways may also include threshold markings if intended for international operations
 Aiming points may be included on runways 4,000' or longer used by jet aircraft
2.Non-Precision Runways:
 Non-precision runways are runways with at least one end having a non-precision approach procedure
 Non-precision runways do not incorporate an electric glide slope and the corresponding runway markings vary accordingly [Figure 3]
 In many cases however, non-precision runways will look similar to visual runways
3.Precision Runways:
 Precision runways are used when at least one of the runways are served by non-visual precision approach aids such as an Instrument Landing
System (ILS) or Precision Approach Radar (PAR) [Figure 4]
 These types of runways typically provide some type of glide slope information, including what can be found on the non-precision runway the
side stripes, touchdown zone markings, and fixed distance markings
 Runway Designators:
 Since aircraft are affected by the wind during takeoffs and landings, runways are laid out according to the local prevailing winds
 Runways are numbered (designated) to the nearest 10° in relation to magnetic north based on approach direction [Figure 5]
 Example: 084° is marked 8
 Example: 085° is marked 8 or 9
 Example: 086° is marked 9
 Example: 210° is marked 21
 This number becomes the runway's name, and is how it is referenced by Air Traffic Control (ATC) and other pilots
 The opposite end of the runway is then marked with the reciprocal heading
 Reciprocal heading is determined by adding or subtracting 180° from the runway heading
 You must therefore add 180 to any runway 180 or below, and subtract 180 to anything 180 or above
 Example: (using runway 26) 260° - 180° = 080° (runway 8)
 Example: (using runway 8) 080° + 180° = 260° (runway 260)
 If your answer comes out to be greater than 360, or negative, then you added when you should have subtracted or vice versa
 Parallel runways are designated with numbers but also as "L," "C," and/or "R" which stand for left, center, and/or right
 Example: 21L, 21C, and/or 21R
 When there are only 2 parallel runways, the "center" is omitted and only "left" and "right" is used
 Note wind directions are reported in degrees magnetic, to provide an applicable reference to the runway direction

 Runway Centerline Marking:

 Runway centerline markings identify the center of the runway for guidance on takeoff and landing [Figure 6]
 Painted white in color
 One centerline marking is 120' in length and the gap between
markings is 80' giving 200' for a full set
 Runway Aiming Point:
 Aiming point markers serve as a visual target for landing aircraft [Figure 7]
 Consists of two broad white stripes located on each side of
the runway, about 1,000' from the landing threshold
 Runway Touchdown Zone Markings:
 Thin white stripes identifying the touchdown zone for landing operations and are spaced in 500' (150m) increments [Figure 8]
 Three, two and then one thin striped symmetrical bars arranged in pairs on each side of runway centerline
 For runways having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to within 900' (270m) of the midpoint
between the thresholds are eliminated
 Runway Side Stripe Markings:
 White lines identifying the edges of the runway provide visual contrast between runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders [Figure 9]
 Runway Shoulder Markings:
 Yellow lines may supplement runway side stripes to identify pavement areas adjacent to the runway sides that are not intended for use by
aircraft.
 Runway Threshold Markings:
 Runway threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing and come in two configurations:
 They either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline, or the number of
stripes is related to the runway width [Figure 10]
 When the stripes that correspond to the width of the runway:
 4 stripes = 60' wide
 6 stripes = 75' wide
 8 stripes = 100' wide
 12 stripes = 150' wide
 16 stripes = 200' wide
 In some instances the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced
 Displaced Threshold:
 A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway [Figure 11]
 Displacement of a threshold usually exists because of obstructions
 Displacement of a threshold therefore reduces the length of runway available for landings
 The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for taxi, takeoff, and landing rollout however, it may not be used for runway
touchdown
 Exists usually because of obstructions
 On runways with a displaced threshold, the beginning of the landing zone is marked by a 10' solid white line
 White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and displaced threshold
 Demarcation bar separates the displaced threshold area from a blast pad, stop way, or taxiway that precedes the runway.

 Relocated Runway Threshold:

 Due to construction, maintenance, or other activities, a threshold may be closed/moved for a varied amount of time
 When the threshold is relocated, the closed portion of the runway is not available for use by aircraft for takeoff or landing, but it is available
for taxi
 When a threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length of the opposite
direction runway
 Closure will be noted via Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) (for example, 10/28 W 900 CLSD), but the method of marking may vary
 Methods of identifying the new threshold may vary with one common practice is to use a ten feet wide white threshold bar
across the width of the runway
 Although the runway lights in the area between the old threshold and new threshold will not be illuminated, the runway
markings in this area may or may not be obliterated, removed, or covered
 Yellow arrow heads are placed across the width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar [Figure 12]
 Demarcation Bar:
 Delineates a runway with a displayed threshold from a blast pad, stop-way or taxiway that precedes the runway
 The demarcation bar is 3' (1m) wide and yellow, since it is not located on the runway
 Chevrons:
 Used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that are usable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing
 Chevrons are yellow
 Runway Threshold Bar:
 Delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing when the threshold has been displayed or relocated
 A 10' (3M) wide bar extends across the width of the runway.
 Blast-pad/Stop-way:
 Referred to as an overrun and may be used as such [Figure 13]
 Cannot be used for normal operation
 Allows propeller or jet blasts to safely dissipate
 Runway Safety Area:
 The runway safety area (RSA) is a defined surface surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in
the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway
 The dimensions of the RSA vary and can be determined by using the criteria contained within AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design, Chapter 3
 Figure 3-1 in AC 150/5300-13 depicts the RSA
 Additionally, it provides greater accessibility for firefighting and rescue equipment in emergency situations
 The RSA is typically graded and mowed
 The lateral boundaries are usually identified by the presence of the runway holding position signs and markings on the adjoining taxiway stubs
 Aircraft should not enter the RSA without making sure of adequate separation from other aircraft during operations at uncontrolled airports
 Taxiway Markings:
 Centerline Markings:
 Continuous Centerline
 Enhanced Taxiway Centerline
 Centerline markings provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
 Ideally, pilots should maintain centerline but be aware, this does not guarantee wingtip clearance of obstacles on either side
 Two Types of Taxiway Centerline Markings:
 Normal Taxiway Centerline:
 Normal taxiway centerlines consist of a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to 12 inches (30 cm) in width [Figure 14]
 Enhanced Taxiway Centerline:
 At some airports, mostly the larger commercial service airports, an enhanced taxiway centerline will be used
 The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway
centerline
 Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a runway holding position marking as a warning to
pilots that he/she is approaching a runway holding position marking and should prepare to stop unless he/she has been
cleared onto or across the runway by ATC [Figure 15]
 Taxiway Edge Markings:
 Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway; used primarily when the edge of the pavement and taxiway do not
correspond
 Two Types of Taxiway Edge Markings:
 Continuous Markings:
 Consist of a double yellow line, each 6 inches (15cm) in width, separated by 6 inches [Figure 16]
 These continuous markings delineate areas where aircraft operation is not intended
 Dashed Markings:
 These markings are used when there is an operational need to define the edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface
where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron
 Consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm)
apart (edge to edge)
 These lines are 15' (4.5m) in length with 25' (7.5m) gaps [Figure 16]
 Taxi Shoulder Markings:
 Although shoulders may have the appearance of full strength pavement they are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to
support an aircraft
 In these areas, taxiway shoulder markings are used to indicate the pavement is unusable
 Examples: taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water
erosion which are not intended for use by aircraft
 Used where conditions exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge
stripe is for use by aircraft [Figure 17]
 Consists of yellow lines perpendicular to the taxiway edge markings
 Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs:
 Written with yellow background with black inscription
 Provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when necessary
to supplement
 Located adjacent to the centerline on the side the turn is to be executed to [Figure 18]
 Turns to the left being on the left side of the taxiway centerline, right being on the right side
 Surface Painted Location Signs:
 Written with a black background and yellow inscription
 Supplement location signs, located along side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is
located, on the right side of centerline [Figure 18]
 Geographic Position Markings:
 Located at points along low visibility taxi routes designated in the airport's Surface Movement Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan [Figure 19]
 Identifies the location of taxiing aircraft when Runway Visual Range (RVR) is below 1200' (360m)
 Positioned to the left of the centerline in the direction of taxi
 Comprise of a black circle contiguous to a white ring with a pink circle in the middle
 The white and black ring are reversed when painted on blacktop to make it easy to read
 Designated with a number or a number and letter to correspond to the consecutive position of the marking
on the route.
 Hold Position Markings:
 Runway Holding Position Markings:
 Runway hold positions signs denote the designation of an intersecting runway
 For runways, these markings indicate where aircraft MUST STOP when approaching a runway
 They may also be placed where a runway intersects a runway for Land and Hold Short operations (LAHSO)
 Generally placed between 125-250' from the runway centerline
 Consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, spaced 6 to 12 inches apart, and extending across the width of the taxiway or runway
 The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold
 There are three locations where runway holding position markings are encountered
 Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways:
 These markings identify the locations on a taxiway where aircraft MUST STOP when a clearance has not been issued
to proceed onto the runway [Figure 20/21]
 Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
 Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
 Generally, runway holding position markings also identify the boundary of the runway safety area (RSA) for aircraft
exiting the runway
 When instructed by ATC, "Hold short of [Runway]," the pilot MUST STOP so that no part of the aircraft extends beyon
-d the runway holding position marking
 ATC will state "Cleared to cross [Runway]" when approved to proceed beyond the hold line
 When approaching runways at airports with an operating control tower, pilots must not cross the runway holding
position marking without ATC clearance
 Pilots approaching runways at airports without an operating control tower must ensure adequate separation from
other aircraft, vehicles, and pedestrians prior to crossing the holding position markings
 An aircraft exiting a runway is not clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holding position marking
 Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways:
 These markings identify the locations on runways where aircraft MUST STOP
 These markings are located on runways used by ATC for Land And Hold Short Operations
and Taxiing operations
 For taxiing operations, the pilot MUST STOP prior to the holding position markings unless
explicitly authorized to cross by ATC
 A sign with a white inscription on a red background is located adjacent to these holding position
markings [Figure 22]
 The holding position markings are placed on runways prior to the intersection with another runway,
or some designated point
 Pilots receiving instructions "cleared to land, [Runway]" from ATC are authorized to use the entire
landing length of the runway and should disregard any holding position markings located on the
runway
 Pilots receiving and accepting instructions "cleared to land [Runway], hold short of [Runway]" from
ATC must either exit [Runway] or stop at the holding position prior to the specific runway
 Otherwise, pilots are authorized to use the entire landing length of the runway and disregard the
holding position markings.
 Holding Position Markings on Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Areas:
 These markings are used at some airports where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway
located in the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with
the operations on that runway [Figure 23]
 This marking is collocated with the runway approach area holding position sign
 When specifically instructed by ATC "Hold short of [Runway Approach Area]" the pilot MUST STOP
so that no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking.
 Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS):
 At airports equipped with an ILS, it is possible they will move the hold line back or create a ILS hold line for that
type of operation
 Holding position markings for ILS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected
by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the taxiway as shown [Figure 20]
 A sign with an inscription in white on a red background is located adjacent to these hold position markings [Figure
34]
 When instructed by ATC to hold short of the ILS critical area, pilots MUST STOP so that no part of the aircraft
extends beyond the holding position marking
 When approaching the holding position marking, pilots must not cross the marking without ATC clearance
 The ILS critical area is not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holding position marking
 Holding Position Markings for Intersecting Taxiways:
 Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single dashed line extending
across the width of the taxiway [Figure 24]
 They are located on taxiways where ATC holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection
 When instructed by ATC "hold short of [Taxiway]" the pilot MUST STOP so that no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position
marking
 When the marking is not present, the pilot MUST STOP the aircraft at a point which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft on the
intersecting taxiway
 Surface Painted Holding Position Signs:
 Surface painted holding position signs have a red background with a white inscription and supplement the signs located at the holding position
 This type of marking is normally used where the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200' (60m)
 It is located to the left side of the taxiway centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding position marking [Figure 18]
 Other Markings:
 Vehicle Roadway Markings:
 Used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft
 Markings consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes
within the edges of the roadway
 In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway [Figure 25]
 Details of the zipper markings are shown in [Figure 26]
 Very-High Omni-Directional Range (VOR) Receiver Checkpoint Markings:
 The VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
 Consists of a painted circle with an arrow in the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the checkpoint azimuth
 This marking, and an associated sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a point selected for easy access by aircraft but where other
airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed [Figure 27]
 The associated sign contains the VOR station identification letter and course selected (published) for the check, the words "VOR check course,"
and Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) data (when applicable) using black numerals on a yellow background
 The color of the letters and numerals are black on a yellow background
 These locations on the airfield and information about them can be found in the Chart Supplement U.S.
 Example:
 DCA 176-356
 VOR check course
 DME XXX
 Non-movement Area Boundary Markings:
 These markings delineate the movement area, i.e., area under ATC
 These markings are yellow and located on the boundary between the movement and non-movement area
 The non-movement area boundary markings consist of two yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in width
 The solid line is located on the non-movement area side while the dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side [Figure 28]
 Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways and Taxiways:
 For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed, the lighting circuits will be disconnected
 The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway
and at 1,000' intervals
 Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways:
 To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed, yellow "Xs" are placed on the runway only at each end of the
runway [Figure 29]
 A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each runway end in lieu of permanent markings to indicate the runway is closed
 A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for the closure, duration of the closure, airfield configuration and the
existence and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control tower
 Pilots should check NOTAMs and the Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for local runway and taxiway closure information
 Temporarily closed taxiways are usually treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades
 However, as an alternative a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway
 Depending on the reason for the closure, duration of closure, airfield configuration, and the existence and the hours of operation of an ATC
tower, a visual indication may not be present
 You must always check NOTAMs and ATIS for runway and taxiway closure information
 Special Purpose Areas:
 Closed or overrun stop way areas are special purpose areas
 Any surface or area which appears usable, but which, due to the nature of its structure, is unusable
 Short Takeoff and Landing:
 Short takeoff and landing (STOL) runways will have STOL painted on the approach end
 Helicopter Landing Areas:
 Used to identify the landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and hospital heliport [Figure 30]
 The letter "H" in the markings is oriented to align with the intended direction of approach
 Lighting:-A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes
also known as a flare path.
 Technical specifications
 Night runway view from A320 cockpit
 Ground light at Bremen Airport
 Runway lighting are used at airports for use at night and low visibility. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway.
 A runway may have some or all of the following:-
 Runway end identifier lights (REIL) – unidirectional (facing approach direction) or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed
at the runway threshold, one on each side.
 Runway end lights – a pair of four lights on each side of the runway on precision instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width
of the runway. These lights show green when viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway.
 Runway edge lights – white elevated lights that run the length of the runway on either side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-
lighting becomes amber in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway, or last third of the runway, whichever is less. Taxiways are differentiated by
being bordered by blue lights, or by having green centre lights, depending on the width of the taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi pattern.
 Runway centerline lighting system (RCLS) – lights embedded into the surface of the runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway
centerline on some precision instrument runways. White except the last 900 m (3,000 ft): alternate white and red for next 600 m (1,969 ft)
and red for last 300 m (984 ft).
 Touchdown zone lights (TDZL[16]) – rows of white light bars (with three in each row) at 30 or 60 m (98 or 197 ft) intervals on either side of the
centerline for 900 m (3,000 ft).
 Taxiway centerline lead-off lights – installed along lead-off markings, alternate green and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement.
It starts with green light at about the runway centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond the Hold-Short markings on the taxiway.
 Taxiway centerline lead-on lights – installed the same way as taxiway centerline lead-off Lights, but directing airplane traffic in the opposite
direction.
 Land and hold short lights – a row of white pulsating lights installed across the runway to indicate hold short position on some runways that
are facilitating land and hold short operations (LAHSO).
 Approach lighting system (ALS) – a lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars,
strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end.
 According to Transport Canada's regulations,the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of
advisory lighting, runway status lights, is currently being tested in the United States.

 The edge lights must be arranged such that:

 the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft (61 m);
 the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft (61 m);
 the minimum length of parallel lines is 1,400 ft (427 m);
 the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.
 Approach lighting system at Berlin Tegel Airport

 Control of lighting system:-

 Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower, a flight service station or another designated authority.
 Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with pilot-controlled lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the
lights when the relevant authority is not available.
 This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations.
 This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods.
 Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more
than a windsock beside a landing strip.
Light The Way: Understanding the Complex Language of Runway Lights

https://bookmarkcontent.com/public/uploads/2017/05/23-copy.-APEX_v5e1_Runways.jpeg
 References
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_(India)
 https://dgca.gov.in/digigov-portal/
 https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Runway_Lighting
 https://www.atgairports.com/lighting-solutions/runway-lighting
 https://www.icao.int/APAC/Meetings/2015%20VisualAids/AIRFIELD%20LIGHTING%20SYSTEM.pdf
 https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/aviation-laws-in-india-and-world/story-r5hPoQeW2YCzpuBMy1E4nJ_amp.html
 https://www.civilaviation.gov.in/en/aboutus/orgsetup
 https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=c1856642-5358-432a-a956-
b6bcffda941f#:~:text=The%20following%20legislation%20applies%3A,safety%20of%20all%20civil%20aircraft
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accidents_and_incidents_involving_commercial_aircraft
 http://airplanegroundschools.com/Airport-Operations/
 https://tfmlearning.faa.gov/publications/atpubs/AIM/Chap2/aim0203.html#:~:text=a.-
,General.,nonprecision%20instrument%2C%20and%20precision%20instrument.
 https://www.icao.int/Meetings/a40/Documents/WP/wp_318_en.pdf
 https://bookmarkcontent.com/public/uploads/2017/05/23-copy.-APEX_v5e1_Runways.jpeg
 https://www.cfinotebook.net/notebook/aircraft-operations/terminal/airport-markings-and-signs

 Video
 https://youtu.be/FSl8iIpeHEk
 https://youtu.be/sDD9aZ_jxZo
 https://youtu.be/2lMxSdFkYzo
 https://youtu.be/_w6OnK-Djns
 https://youtu.be/rw07R5Pj_eo
 https://youtu.be/2lMxSdFkYzo
 https://youtu.be/ghz8FaJYuZ8
 https://youtu.be/V-ZPnpyvBPQ
 https://youtu.be/a5bohE7A8-M
THANK YOU