A ,MACROSCOPIC DETERMINATION CPTHE

-- -.~-- - ­ - -

IMPACT OF-LR~O-COAL QUALITY

.·UPON:THE.' OPl1MUK , ­

C9MBU~ION '~~ QU~NTrrY -~~'~

.c

1­
 A MACROSCOPIC DETERMINATION OF THE

IMPACT OF LETHABO COAL QUALITY

UPON THE OPTIMUM

COMBUSTION AIR QUANTITY

Christoffel Philippus Storm

B.Eng (Mech) Hons. (Pretoria)

M.Eng (Mech) (PU for CHE)

A thesis submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the

University of Potchefstroom for Christian Higher Education, in

fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. Eng.

(Mechanical)

Mentor: Prof. J. P. van der Walt

Potchefstroom
1998

i
DECLARATION

DECLARATION

I declare that this thesis is my own, unaided work. The deficiencies

in the concerned processes and plant were identified by myself, as

also the formulation of the philosophies and methodology of testing,
as explained in the script. The project leadership throughout and

major decision making was exercised by myself. It is being submitted

for the degree of Doctor of Science in Engineering (Mechanical) at the
University of Potchefstroom for Christian Higher Education,
Potchefstroom. It has not been submitted for any degree or
examination to any other university before.

~.

C P Storm

9 t..
f
___________ day of

ii
---ABS-TRACT

IJ
ABSTRACT

Lethabo Power Station burns a unique low grade coal with low volatile

content. This merits the optimisation of the total combustion air

quantity with efficiency as main criterion to produce an air flow­

steam flow curve as a function of load as well as coal quality. This

project demonstrates the optimisation exercise of the unit as a

whole, including the boiler as well as the turbine (a 600 MW

turbo-alternator set) , therefore producing optimum air flow
quantities different to the conventional wisdom. Ninety tests were
performed with varying total air flow, at five loads ranging from

full load to lowest load with three different coal qualities.

The application of the Station Thermal Efficiency Program (STEP) as

optimising tool employs a simultaneous direct and indirect calculation

method (opposed to the traditional indirect only methods and

programs) . The test results were used to customise the targets of

the STEP program for Lethabo as well as to introduce new philosophies

in the formulae.

The expected trend of higher unit efficiencies with resulting improved

total emissions were confirmed. In the process, operational

enhancements such as new milling plant settings and sootblowing
philosophies were also confirmed to contribute to the improved
efficiencies. The findings were operationally implemented which
included statutory procedurisation.

iii
b
 To my wife

Annamie

and children

Karina

Chris

Andre

iv
f P
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gratitude is extended to the University of Potchefstroom for Christian

Higher Education and specifically the Department of Mechanical
Engineering for accommodating this project. The high level academic
influence through the guidance given did justice to the required

standard of this thesis.

The support of the Lethabo Power Station manager concerning the

provision of the project funds is highly appreciated. His vision and
creative long term thinking regarding this project's role in the

overall Performance Growth Project of the power station is reassuring

for the future standard of power generation.

Appreciation goes to Mr. B. L. Pitman and Dr. M. Van der Riet

(Corporate Consultants) for their advice and assistance. Their
knowledge and support contributed greatly to the standard of this
project.

Special acknowledgement goes to my colleagues, Mr. C. A. Els (STEP

program customisation and software calculation) and Mr. A. M.

Hattingh (unit outage preparation and pulverised fuel sampling and

calculations) in the Plant Efficiency and Optimisation section, for

their innovation and hard work.

v
A word of thanks is extended to all the other departments in ESKOM,

Lethabo Power Station and New Vaal Mine for their services in the
execution of the test and compiling of the thesis:

- The mining and supply of the coal batches for testing.

- The expert panel operating skills during the tests.

- The preparation of the unit during the preceding general overhaul,

as well as the control and instrumentation optimisation.

- All the production and loading arrangements during the tests.

- ESKOM Technology Research and Investigations for the provision and

expert service concerning the flue gas measurement with the
mobile analytical facility.
- The personnel of the Plant Efficiency and Optimisation section for
logistic and administrative support.

vi
All praise goes to Jesus Christ, our Lord and Saviour, without Who's
blessing and grace nothing is possible.

vii

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

page

VOLUME I

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEME!'.'TS v

CONTENTS viii

LIST OF FIGURES xviii

LI ST OF TABLES xxiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxvi

NOMENCLATURE xxxi

1. INTRODUCTION 1 - 1

1.1 Background and Deficiency Identification 1 - 1

1.2 Status prior to test programme 1 - 4

1.3 The Need of Air Flow Optimisation relative

to Coal Quality 1 - 8

1.4 New Approach and Hypothesis 1 - 10

1.5 Limi ts of the Study 1 - 12

1.6 Thesis Structure 1 - 13

viii
 page

2. LITERATURE SURVEY AND EXISTING TECHNOLOGY 2 - 1

2.1 Literature Survey 2 - 1

2 . 1. 1 Germany 2 - 2

2.1.2 United Kingdom 2 - 4

2.1.3 United States of America 2 - 5

2.1.4 Australia 2 - 6

2.1.5 Japan 2 - 7

2.1.6 South Africa 2 - 7

2.2 Optimum Combustion Air Flow Criteria 2 - 8

2.3 Thermal Efficiency Computer Programs 2 - 10

2.4 Coal Quality and Characterisation 2 - 11

2.5 Previous avaiable Test Results 2 - 12

3. RESEARCH FACILITIES 3 - 1

3.1 General Technical Information 3 - 1

3.2 Unit and Cycle Description 3 - 5

3.3 Turbine Plant Description 3 - 11

3.4 Boiler Plant Description 3 - 17

3.4.1 Boiler and Steam Generation 3 - 17

3.4.2 Furnace and Combustion 3 - 23

3.5 Control System 3 40

3.6 Instrumentation and Monitoring Equipment 3 - 54

3.7 Computer software and Efficiency Programs 3 - 62

3.8 Coal and the Blending Stockyard 3 - 66

ix
 page
3.9 Electrostatic Precipitators 3 - 73

4. TEST PREPARATION 4 - 1
4.1 Test Coal selection 4 - 1

4.1.1 Combustion variables 4 - 1

4.1.2 General Mechanism of Coal Quality Calculation 4 - 5

4.1.3 Calculating the Lowest and Highest possible coal

qualities 4 - 11

4.1.4 Calculating the qualities of Coal to be Ordered 4 - 15

4.1.5 Evaluating the actual Test coal received 4 - 20

4.2 Unit 1 pre-test outage and repairs 4 - 21

4.2.1 Condenser 4 - 22

4.2.2 High pressure orifice plate (Feed water flow) 4 - 22

4.2.3 Mills 4 - 23

4.2.4 Burners 4 - 24

4.2.5 Air heaters 4 - 25

4.2.6 Gas passes 4 - 25

4.2.7 Air passes 4 - 27

4.2.8 Furnace 4 - 27

4.3 Milling plant optimisation 4 - 28

4.3.1 Load line and bypass damper setting 4 - 28

4.3.2 pf sampling 4 - 35

4.3.3 Mill power and ball charge 4 - 39

4.4 Unit Optimisation 4 - 43

x
 page

4.5 Monitoring and general arrangements 4 - 44

4.6 Unit ~oading and Control setup 4 - 51

4.6.1 Unit loading 4 - 51

4.6.2 Coal supply 4 - 54

4.6.3 Control setup 4 - 57

4.7 Special calibrations and settings 4 - 61

4.7.1 Condenser 4 - 61

4.7.2 Feed water flow 4 - 61

4.7.3 Coal feeders 4 - 62

4.7.4 Air heaters 4 - 62

4.7.5 Air flow to furnace 4 - 62

4.7.6 Economiser outlet oxygen 4 - 63

4.7.7 Air heater outlet oxygen and temperature 4 - 63

4.7.8 CO, NO x and S02 4 - 63

4.8 Special operational routines and precautions 4 - 64

5. TEST EXECUT ION 5 - 1

5.1 Pre-test actions, principles and commom

routine activities 5 - 1

5.1.1 Mill load lines and grinding media level 5 - 2

5.1.2 Pf sampl ing 5 - 3

5.1.3 Total air flow and oxygen corrections 5 - 4

5.1.4 Sootblowing 5 - 9

5.1.5 Control system setting 5 - 19

xi
 page
5.1.6 Air flow variation 5 - 21
5.1.7 Operational Aspects during Testing 5 - 25
5.2 The Low Grade Coal Tests: 5 - 26
5.2.1 The Low Grade Coal 630 MW Tests 5 - 27
5.2.2 The Low Grade Coal 550 MW Tests 5 - 29
5.2.3 The Low Grade Coal 500 MW Tests 5 - 30
5.2.4 The Low Grade Coal 450 MW Tests 5 - 32

5.2.5 The Low Grade Coal 400 MW Tests 5 - 33

5.3 The Spec. Grade Coal Tests: 5 - 35
5.3.1 The Spec. Grade Coal 630 MW Tests 5 - 36
5.3.2 The Spec. Grade Coal 550 )l;lW Tests 5 - 37
5.3.3 The Spec. Grade Coal 500 IvfW Tests 5 - 39
5.3.4 The Spec. Grade Coal 450 MW Tests 5 - 41

5.3.5 The Spec. Grade Coal 400 IvfW Tes t s 5 - 42

5.4 The High Grade Coal Tests: 5 - 44
5.4.1 The High Grade Coal 630 MW Tests 5 - 44

5.4.2 The High Grade Coal 550 MW Tests 5 - 46

5.4.3 The High Grade Coal 500 MW Tests 5 - 47

5.4.4 The High Grade Coal 450 MW Tests 5 - 48

5.4.5 The High Grade Coal 400 lVlW Tests 5 - 49

6. CALCULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 6 - 1

6.1 Direct Efficiency calculation method 6 - 4

6.1.1 Revision 0 data files 6 - 6

xii
 page

6.1.2 Revision 1 data files 6 - 26

6.1. 3 Revision 2 data files 6 - 30
6.2 Multi-dimensional val idation and curve-fitting 6 - 44
6.3 Additional observations and interpretations 6 - 53
6.4 Result Evaluation and Coal Characterisation 6 - 67
6.5 STEP Program Customisation 6 - 79

7. IMPLEMENTATION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7 - 1

7.1 Implementation Phase 7 - 1

7.2 Conclusions and Retrospection 7 - 12

7.3 Recommendations 7 - 20

VOLUME II

APPENDIX A: Sample calculations: A-I

A.l: Stoichiometric air, Flue gas and percentage

excess air A-I

A.2: Total air flow measuring Aerofoil calibration A- 8

A.3: Air heater leakage compensation and flue gas

properties A 16
A.3.1: Flue gas properties A - 16

xiii
 page

A.3.2: Air in-leakage compensation on dfg temperature A - 20

A.J.J: Theoretical air vs. Stoichiometric air A - 26

A.3.4: Air heater leakage iteration A - 30

A.4: Boiler feed water flow A - 37

A.S: Coal volumetric feeder integrator A - 44

A.6: Revised Ostwald diagram for maximum

theoretical C02++ A - 46

A. 7: Back-end gas analysis and mass flow reconciliation A-51

A.S: Calculated calorific value of coal A-56

A.9: Moisture in flue gas A - 63

APPENDIX B: Back-end Oxygen and Temperature monitoring: B-1

B.1 : Economiser outlet oxygen corrections B-1
B. 2: Air heater outlet sampling points B-2
B.3: ID fan outlet sampling points B - 4

APPENDIX C: Low Grade Coal Limits C- 1

APPENDIX D: High Grade Coal Limits D- 1

APPENDIX E: Intermediate Grade Coal selection E - 1

APPENDIX F: Low Grade Coal Test data F - 1

630 MW test data F - 1

xiv
 page
550 MW test data F - 8

500 MW test data F - 15

450 MW test data F - 22

400 MW test data F - 29

APPENDIX G: Spec. Grade Coal Test data G- 1

630 MW test data G- 1
550 r.W1 test data G- 8
500 MW test data G - 15
450 MW test data G - 22
400 MW test data G - 29

APPENDIX H: High Grade Coal Test data H- 1

630 MW test data H- 1
550 MW test data H- 8
500 MW test data H - 15
450 MW test data H - 22
400 MW test data H - 29

APPENDIX I: STEP Program Philosophy and CUstomisation I-I

1. 1: Introduction 1-1

1. 2: Philosophy on Targets and Correction factors 1-1

I.2.1: Design considerations, criteria and constraints I - 2

I.2.2: Controllable factors I 3

xv
 page
1.2.3: Uncontrollable factors 1-6

1.3: STEP system,attributes I - 7

1.3.1 Sliding targets 1-7

1.3.2 Reconciliation of direct and indirect sides I - 7

1.3.3 Historical data, trends and overall station

indicators I - 8

1.4: The STEP mechanism I - 8

1.4.1 STEP factor formulae I - 10

1.4.2 Total accounted STEP loss I - 12

I.4.3 Unaccounted STEP loss I - 16

1.4.4 STEP factor (indirect) I - 17

I.S STEP system shortcomimgs I - 17

1.5.1 Average of targets vs target of averages I - 17

1.5.2 On-line Coal and Ash analysis I - 17

1.5.3 STEP is not modelling (mass/enrgy balance) I - 18

1.6 Customisation of the STEP system I - 18

1.6.1 Discrepancies I - 18

1.6.2 Modifications I - 19

I.6.3 Fine tuning of the process I - 25

APPENDIX J: Evaluation of Mill Performance J - 1

Section 1: Mills A, B, C, D and E pre-test

Pf fineness at 28 kg/s PA flow J - 1

xvi
 page

Section 2: D Mill pre-test pf fineness

at 24 - 32 kg/s PA flow J - 7
Section 3: D Mill Pf sampling at actual

air flow test PA flows: J - 13

Low grade coal, 630 MW tests J - 14
Low grade coal, 550 MW tests J - 20
Low grade coal, 500 MW tests J - 26
Low grade coal, 450 MW tests J - 32
Low grade coal, 400 MW tests J - 38
Spec grade coal, 630 MW tests J - 44
Spec grade coal, 550 MW tests J - 50
Spec grade coal, 500 MW tests J - 56

Spec grade coal, 450 MW tests J - 62

Spec grade coal, 400 MW tests J - 68
High grade coal, 630 MW tests J - 73
High grade coal, 550 MW tests J - 79

High grade coal, 500 MW tests J - 85

High grade coal, 450 MW tests J - 91
High grade coal, 400 MW tests J - 97

APPEND IX K: REFERENCES K- 1
BIBLlOORAPHY K-ll

xvii
 ·LISt OP-FIGURES~
L 2
) -.
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure no. Figure title page

==================================================================
VOLUME I
3.1 Rankine Cycle on T-s diagram 3 - 6

3.2 Turbine heat rate 3 - 9

Sankey diagram 3 - 10

3.4 Turbine cycle flow diagram - 100% load 3 - 13

3.5 Turbine cycle flow diagram - 80% load 3 - 14

3.6 Turbine cycle flow diagram - 60% load 3 - 15

3.7 Water flow through boiler 3 - 18

3.8 Sectional view of Steam Drum 3 - 19

3.9 Boiler steam side superheat flow diagram 3 - 20

3.10 Boiler steam side reheat flow diagram 3 - 22

3.11 Diagrammatic furnace arrangement 3 - 24

3.12 Secondary air flow diagram 3 - 26

3.13 Primary air flow diagram 3 - 27

3.14 Mill and burner pipe arrangement 3 - 29

3.15 Milling plant arrangement 3 - 30

3.16 Mill classi fier 3 - 31

3.17 PF burner 3 - 33

3.18 Secondary air heater 3 35

3.19 Secondary air heater seals 3 36

3.20 Primary air heater 3 - 38

3.21 Soot blower location diagram 3 - 39

xviii
Figure no. Figure title page
------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------~-------------- ------------

3.22 Initial Pressure Set Point Formation 3 - 42

3.23 Boiler Master control diagram 3 - 43

3.24 Coal feeder control diagram 3 - 46

3.25 Mill Load line 3 - 48

3.26 Mill bypass flow control diagram 3 - 49

3.27 Mill PA flow control diagram 3 - 50

3.28 PA / SA flow relationship 3 - 52

3.29 SA flow control diagram 3 - 53

3.30 Flue gas and fly ash Sampling Matrix 3 - 57

3.31 Cross - section of measuring aerofoil 3 - 59

3.32 Feed flow high pressure Orifice Plate 3 - 61

3.33 Coal Blending Stockyard in plan 3 - 69

3.34 Stockyard coal flow diagram 3 - 71

3.35 General precipitator construction 3 - 75

3.36 Side view of precipitator casings 3 - 76

3.37 Arrangement of electrodes and rappers 3 - 77

3.38 Precipitator correlation curve - unit 1 3 - 79

4.1 Mill performance: Pf fineness vs PA flow 4 - 7

4.2 Mill PA flow vs Coal Feeder output 4 - 9

4.3 Feeder volumetric/gravimetric relationship 4 - 10

4.4 Burner Stability diagram 4 - 12

4.5 Graphic layout: Coal Limits, Orders & Actuals 4 - 16

4.6 Initial Load Line and Bypass damper setting 4 - 31

4.7 Revised Load Line and Bypass damper setting 4 33

xix
 Figure no. Figure t it Ie page
==================================================================

4.8 Mill power curve 4 - 41

5.1 Sootblowing sequence 5 - 15

5.2 Forecast for Maxima and Minima of Air Flows 5 - 24

6.1 Air Flow (Rev. 0) 6 - 11

6.2 Three-Criteria Back-end Gas balance technique 6 - 15

6.3 Gas Flow (Rev. 0) 6 - 19

6.4 Efficiency (Rev. 0) 6 - 24

6.5 Air Flow (Rev. 1) 6 - 29

6.6 Gas Flow (Rev. 1) 6 - 31

6.7 Efficiency (Rev. 1) 6 - 32

6.8 Coal Analysis 6 - 34

6.9 Air Flow (Rev. 2) 6 - 35

6.10 Gas Flow (Rev. 2) 6 - 36

6.11 Excess Air and Leakages 6 - 37

6.12 Flue Gas Oxygen content 6 - 39

6.13 Efficiency (Rev. 2) 6 - 41

6.14 Back-end C02 and 02 content 6 42

6.15 Coal moisture and density 6 - 43

6.16 Efficiency vs Air Flow: Spec. Coal 6 - 45

6.17 Efficiency vs Air Flow: Low grade Coal 6 - 46

6.18 Efficiency vs Air Flow: High grade Coal 6 - 47

6.19 Air Flow vs Units Generated: Curve-fit 6 - 49

6.20 Flue Gas Oxygen vs Units Generated: Curve-fit 6 - 50

6.21 Efficiency vs Units Generated: Curve-fit 6 - 52

xx
Figure no. Figure title page
------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------~-------------------~----------- ------------

6.22 Units Generated, Feed Flow and Auxiliary power 6 - 54

6.23 Steam and Feed water temperatures 6 - 57

6.24 Unburnt Carbon in Ash 6 - 60

6.25 CO, NOx and S02 6 - 63

6.26 Air and Gas temperatures 6 - 66

6.27 Maximum Efficiencies vs Units Generated 6 - 68

6.28 Maximum Efficiencies vs Optimum Air Flows 6 - 69

6.29 Calorific Value vs Total Carbon: Dry ash free 6 - 73

6.30 Hydrogen vs Total Carbon: Dry ash free 6 - 74

6.31 Total Volatiles vs Total Carbon: Dry ash free 6 - 76

6.32 Total Volatiles vs Fixed Carbon 6 - 77

6.33 Active Volatiles vs Fixed Carbon 6 - 78

6.34 STEP factor and Total accounted losses 6 - 82

6.35 Boiler STEP losses 6 - 83

6.36 Turbine and Unit STEP losses 6 - 84

7.1 Air Flow vs Steam Flow 7 - 4

7.2 Oxygen vs Air Flow 7 - 5

7.3 Coal Contamination limits 7 - 21

7.4 Fixed Carbon to Total Volatiles ratio 7 - 22

7.5 Coal Reactivity limits 7 - 23

VOLUME II
A.1 Periodic table of elements A - 2

xxi
Figure no. Figure t it Ie page
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
A.2 Psychrometric chart for 1500 m.a.s.l. A - 10

A• .J
.~
Cd-Factor of total air measuring aerofoi I A - 14

A.4 Air flow and air heater leakage A - 29

A.5 Corrected Ostwald diagram A - 47

B.1 Left hand outer gas duct traverse B - 6

B.2 Left hand inner gas duct traverse B - 8

B.3 Right hand inner gas duct traverse B - 10

B.4 Right hand outer gas duct traverse B - 12

I.1 Diagram of STEP mechanism I - 9

xxii
LIST OPTABLES

LIST OF TABLES

Table no. Table title page

======================================================================

VOLUME I

3.1 Unit attributes for testing purposes 3 - 4

3.2 Comparative air dried coal properties 3 - 67

4.1 Qualities of Coal to be Ordered 4 - 18

4.2 Qualities of Actual Test Coal Received 4 - 20

4.3 Pf fineness: Mills A - E, prior to testing 4 - 38

4.4 Pf fineness: Mill D, prior to testing 4 - 38

4.5 Test measuring points 4 - 45

5.1 Total air flow Correction Factors 5 - 8

7.1 Cost benefit: Project Optimum vs Current Practice 7 - 14

7.2 Cost benefit: Project Optimum vs Least Air Flow 7 - 17

VOLUME II

A.1 Iteration for determining air heater leakage A - 32

A.2 Calibration certificate: Gauge pressure transmitter A - 38

A.3 Calibration table: Differential pressure transducer A - 40

A.4 Coal feeder calibration A - 45

A.S Back-end gas analysis A-52

A.6 Iteration for flue gas, CO and C02 A-54

A.7 Moisture in flue gas A - 66

B.1 Left hand outer gas duct traverse B - 5

xxiii
Table no. Table title page

----------------------------------------------------------------------
----------~------------------------------------------- ----------------

B.2 Left hand inner gas duct traverse B - 7

B.3 Right hand inner gas duct traverse B - 9

B.4 Right hand outer gas duct traverse B - 11

C.1 Iteration for Lowest Possible Limit of Coal Quality C - 10

C.2 Iteration for Lower Limit of Coal to be Ordered C - 11

C.3 Iteration for Lower Limit of Actual Test Coal C - 12

D.1 Iteration for Highest Possible Limit of Coal Quality D - 10

...
D '; Iteration for High Limit of Coal to be Ordered D - 11

D.3 Iteration for High Limit of Actual Test Coal D - 12

E.l Iteration for High Limit of the Spec Grade Test Coal E - 14

E.2 Iteration for Low Limit of the Spec Grade Test Coal E - 15

F.l Low Grade Coal 630 ~m Tests F - 1

F.2 Low Grade Coal 550 MW Tests F - 8

F.) Low Grade Coal 500 MW Tests F - 15

F.4 Low Grade Coal 450 MW Tests F - 22

F.5 Low Grade Coal 400 MW Tests F - 29

G.1 Spec. Grade Coal 630 ~m Tests G - I

G.2 Spec. Grade Coal 550 MW Tests G - 8

G.3 Spec. Grade Coal 500 MW Tests G - 15

G.4 Spec. Grade Coal 450 ~m Tests G - 22

G.5 Spec. Grade Coal 400 ~m Tests G - 29

H.I High Grade Coal 630 MW Tests H- 1

H.2 High Grade Coal 550 MW Tests H - 8

H.3 High Grade Coal 500 MW Tests H - 15

xxiv
Table no. Table title page
----------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------~-~~----------------------------- ----------------

H.4 High Grade Coal 450 MW Tests H - 22

H.5 High Grade Coal 400 MW Tests H - 29

xxv
LI ST OF SYMBOLS

Quantity Symbol
------------------------------------------------------------
Absolute humidity
Acceleration, metres per second squared

Aluminium oxide
Area A

Atmospheric or barometric pressure Patm

Calcium oxide CaO

Carbon C

Carbon dioxide

Carbon monoxide CO
Chromium Cr
Coefficient of discharge (or diffusion)
Condenser cooling water inlet temperature Tl

Condenser cooling water outlet temperature

Condenser hotwell condensate temperature Tc

Condenser vacuum saturation pressure Ps

Cubic meters
Degrees Celsius
Degrees latitude or longitude o

Densi ty kg/m 3
Dry bulb temperature
Dynamic, velocity or differential pressure
Efficiency n

xxvi
 Quantity Symbol
------------------------------------------------------------
------~----------------------------------------------- ------

Electric current, Ampere I

Electric resistance, Ohm (where applicable) R

Entropy s
Gravitational acceleration (ms- 2 ) g

Greater or equal than

Greater than >

Heat flow (when applicable) Q

Hertz (frequency, cycles per second) Hz

Hour (when applicable) h

Hydro-Carbon (type of volatile matter) CxH y

Hydrogen - elemental H

Hydrogen gas H2

Iron oxide
Kelvin (Absolute temperature) K

Ki logram kg

Ki lojoule kJ

Kilolitre kl

Ki lopascal kPa
Kilowatt kW

Lesser or equal than

Lesser than <

Lower temperature
Magnesium oxide MgO

Manganese oxide MnO

xxvii
 Quantity Symbol
------------------------------------------------------------
--------~--------~--------~--------------------------- ------

Mass flow of the mixture, actual ffim

Mass flow of the mixture, theoretical (ideal) ffim t

Mass [kg] or mass flow [kg/s] (when applicable) m

Megajoules per kilogram (Heating value) MJ/kg
Megapascal MFa
Megavolt-amperes reactive power MVAr

Megawatt MW
Megawatt-hour MWh

Metre (when applicable) m

Micrometre /lm

Mi 11 i ampere rnA

Mi 11 igram mg

Milligrams per standard cubic metre mg/sm 3

Mi 11 imetre mm
Minutes latitude or longitude

Molecular mass (kg/mole) M

Nitrogen - elemental N

Ni trogen gas

Nitrous oxides NOx

Oxygen - elemental o
Oxygen gas

Partial pressure of dry air Pa i r

Partial pressure of the water vapour Pw

Parts per million (volumetric) ppm

xxviii
 Quantity Symbol

------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------
Pascal Pa
Phosphorus penta-oxide

Polytropic expansion coefficient n

Potassium oxide

Pressure p

Relative humidity
saturation pressure (in general) Ps

Seconds (when applicable) s

Seconds latitude or longitude

Silicon dioxide Si02

Silicon oxide SiO

Sodium oxide
Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) h

Specific entropy (kJ/kgK) s

Specific gas constant (= 287,1 kJ/kgK for air) R

Specific heat capacity (J/kgK) c

Specific heat capacity @ constant pressure (J/kgK) cp

Specific heat capacity @ constant pressure for air Cpa

Specific heat capacity @ constant pressure for gas Cpg

Specific heat capacity @ constant volume (J/kgK) Cv

Specific volume v

Specific volume of dry air Vair

Specific volume of water liquid Vf

Specific volume of water vapour Vs

xxix
 Quantity Symbol
------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------~--------~---- ------

Square meters

Stagnation or total pressure Pstagn

Static pressure Pstat

Sulphur S

Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur tri-oxide
Temperature T

Time or tons (metric) when applicable t

Titanium dioxide

Tons per hour t/h

Universal gas constant (= 8,314 kJ/moleK)

Upper (high) temperature

Velocity (when applicable) V

Velocity proportional factor V-fact

Volume (in e.g. gas equation) V

Volume flow (when applicable) (m 3 s- 1 ) Q

Wet-bulb temperature Twb

xxx
NOMENCLATURE

Abbreviation Description
--------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------
A/F Air to fuel ratio

A/HTR Air heater

Aerofoi 1 Rectangular venturi-type flow measuring device

AFT Ash fusion temperature

AGC Automatic generation control

avg Average

AVR Automatic voltage regulator

BEC Babcock Engineering Contractors

BFPT Boiler feed pump turbine

BMI Buro vir Meganiese Ingenieurswese

BS British Standard no.

C&I Control & Instrumentation (Dept)

CAPCO Chief Air Pollution Control Officer

CEGB Central Electricity Generating Board (uX)
Cegrit CEGB grit sampler, Unburnt carbon in grit (%)
CET Classifier exit temperature (mill)
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CT Current transformer
CV Calorific value (see MJ/kg)
CW Cool ing water
DAF Dry ash free
db Decibel

xxxi
Abbreviation Description

====================================================================

DE Drive end (of a mill)

Dfg Dry flue gas

DIN Deutche Industrie Norm

DMS Dense media separation

DRACAS Deficiency recording & corrective action system
DSC Differential scanning calorimeter
DTF Drop tube furnace
EFP Electric feed pump

EHC Electro-hydraulic control (turbine governor valves)

EID Engineering Investigations Division (now TRI)

EN European Norm
ENCOR ESKOM National Control Computer Replacement

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute (USA)

ESKOM Electricity utility in South Africa

ESP Electrostatic precipitators

FD Forced draught (fan)

FTIR Fourier transform infra-red retroscopy
GCV Gross calorific value
GCV v Gross calorific value at constant volume
GO General Overhaul

HIV Heat in volatiles (percentage)

IfF High pressure (turbine)
HR Heat rate

i/s In service

xxxii
Abbreviation Description
--------------------------------------------------------------------
--------~--------------------------------------------- --------------

ID Induced draught (fan)

IDT Initial deformation temperature (ash)

IP Intermediate pressure (turbine cylinder)

IR Interim refurbishment (type of unit outage)

ISO International Standard Organisation

LH Left hand (casing)

LHI Left hand inner (casing)

LHO Left hand outer (casing)

LP Low pressure (turbine cylinder)

m.a.s.l. Metres above sea level

Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Ntlrnberg (Turbine supplier)

MCR Maximum continuous rating

MHC Mechanical-hydraulic control (turbine governor valves)

MIDAS On line computer logging electrical energy

NCV Nett calorific value

NCVp Nett calorific value at constant pressure

NDE Non-drive end (of ami 11)

Nuclear magnetic resonance

NTP Normal temperature and pressure (25 oC, 1 atmosphere)

olc Out of commission

OPCR Outside plant control room

OPS Log Operational log kept by unit shift supervisor

P/A/HTR Primary air heater

PA Primary air: that portion of total air transporting pf

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Abbreviation Description

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PC Personal computer

PEO Plant Efficiency and Optimisation (section)

PEPSE Performance Evaluation of Power Station Efficiencies

pf Pulverised fuel (coal)

PGP Performance Growth Project (Management System)

ppm Parts per million

RC Reactivity cell

Rev. Revision

RH Right hand (casing)

RHI Right hand inner (casing)

RHO Right hand outer (casing)

ROI Return on investment (financial)

ROM Run of Mine

rpm revolutions per minute

RWE Rheinisch WestfHlische Elektrizitatswerke

S/A/HTR Secondary air heater

SA Secondary air: with primary air, makes up total air

SFP Steam feed pump

Spec. Specified quality, contractual specification

SSC Submerged scraper conveyor (in ash hopper)

STEAG Steinkohlen Aktien - Gesellschaft

STEP Station Thermal Efficiency Performance

STP Standard temperature and pressure (0 oC, 1 atmosphere)

TGA Thermo-gravimetric analysis

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Abbreviation Description
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TH Transfer house (stockyard and coal supply)

TRI Technology Research and Investigations (previously EID)

UCI Utlility Consultants International GMBH

UG Units generated (electrical energy)

Uni t Boiler and turbogenerator combination

usa Units sent out (electrical energy)

UI Unit 1
Unit 2

VOU Visual Display Unit (screen in control room)

VGB Vereinigung der Grosskessel Betreiber

VT Voltage transformer
WA Work authorisation

xxxv