The mobility of electrically charged particles causes electrical conductivity in metals.

The existence of
valence electrons, which are electrons in an atom's outer shell that are free to move around,
distinguishes the atoms of metal elements. Metals may conduct an electric current because of these
"free electrons."

Valence electrons can go through the lattice that defines the physical structure of metal because they
are free to move. Free electrons flow through metal like billiard balls knocking against one other in an
electric field, passing an electric charge as they go.

Metals with a single valence electron that is free to travel and creates a strong repelling reaction in
other electrons are the most effective conductors of electricity. Silver, gold, and copper, for example,
are the most conductive metals. Each has a single valence electron that travels quickly and produces a
strong repulsive response.

The number of valence electrons in semiconductor metals (or metalloids) is higher (usually four or
more). As a result, even though they can conduct electricity, they are inefficient at it. Semiconductors
like silicon and germanium, on the other hand, can become extraordinarily efficient conductors of
electricity when heated or doped with other elements.

Electrical conductivity is the polar opposite of resistivity, which measures how well a metal resists the
flow of electric current. An ohm meter (m) is a unit of measurement that is used to measure the
resistance between the opposite faces of a one-meter cube of material. The Greek letter rho (ρ) is
frequently used to indicate resistance.

The Greek letter sigma (σ) is used to signify electrical conductivity, which is generally measured in
siemens per meter (Sm1). One siemens is equivalent to one ohm multiplied by its reciprocal. (Terence
Ball, 2020)

https://www.thoughtco.com/electrical-conductivity-in-metals-2340117

Metals and nonmetals are a convenient, but arbitrary, division of the elements. Nonmetals have large
ionization potentials, are not ductile, do not have a complicated refractive index, and do not conduct
electricity well. The physical characteristics of nonmetals vary greatly. Hydrogen is a colorless, inert
gas; bromine is a dark-red, volatile liquid; and carbon, in the form of diamond, is a hard, high-
refractive-index solid. All nonmetals are on the right-hand side of the periodic table when divided
diagonally from upper left to lower right. Tin, which exists in two allotropic forms, one clearly metallic
and the other with many attributes of a nonmetal, as well as tellurium and antimony, are examples of
elements that do not fit well into this useful but arbitrary classification. Metalloids are the name given
to such elements. (Waddington, 2020)

https://www.accessscience.com/content/nonmetal/455800

Abstract
Advanced electrical conductors that surpass copper and aluminum have the potential to transform
our lives by saving billions of dollars in energy and easing the transition to a future of electric mobility.
Nano carbons (carbon nanotubes and graphene) offer a once-in-a-lifetime chance for the defense,
energy, and automotive industries to build superior conductors for electrical power, communications,
electronics, and electric machines. The key research achievements in the field of advanced
nanocarbon-based and metal–nanocarbon conductors are summarized in this report. The advantages
and disadvantages of advanced conductors in comparison to conventional conductors are also
examined, as well as their materials science, mechanical and physical properties, and characterization.
Finally, prospective study areas for better electrical conductors are suggested.
1 Introduction
Aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) are the most electrically conductive metals,
hence they're employed as conductors in a variety of applications. Choosing the proper conductor for
an application necessitates cost and performance studies, which necessitate a thorough
understanding of electrical and thermal conductivities, mechanical performance, low- and high-
temperature behavior, thermal expansion, corrosion resistance, and other factors. Cu and Al are the
most commonly utilized electrical conductors in power generation, transmission, distribution,
electrical equipment, electronics, and communications. Because of their unparalleled combination of
electrical conductivity, physical and mechanical qualities, and affordability, Cu and Al are widely used.
In terms of conductivity, silver, for example, beats both Cu and Al; but, its high cost and poor
mechanical performance have limited its usage. Gold is less conductive than copper, but because of
its superior corrosion resistance, it is employed in very corrosive situations. Electrical conductivity
may be impaired in some applications for reasons such as strength, corrosion resistance, thermal
expansion, and so on. The demand for power-dense and high-efficiency electrical systems has
resulted in the development of sophisticated electrical conductors with distinct features over the last
two decades.

As indicated in Figure 1, room-temperature advanced conductors can be divided into two categories:
nanocarbon-based conductors and metal–nanocarbon conductors. Both nanocarbon-based and
metal–nanocarbon conductors are made up of allotropes of carbon such as graphite, graphene (Gr),
and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Nanocarbon-based conductors are mostly made of CNT or Gr, with
minor amounts of other elements and compounds added to improve conductivity. Metal–nanocarbon
conductors are metals with a small number of carbon allotropes such as CNT, Gr, or other carbon
allotropes. Advanced conductors have advantages over pure metal conductors, such as being lighter,
having a larger current carrying capability, and being able to withstand mechanical and chemical
abuse.

Figure 1
Metal–nanocarbon (left figure: metal matrix improved with
nanocarbons) and nanocarbon-based (right figure: nanocarbon matrix
boosted with dopants such as metal nanoparticles, metal halides, and
acids) conductors are shown schematically.

From sensor wires to motor windings and power transmission lines, and from
electromagnetic interference (EMI) meshes to high-voltage bus bars, electrical
conductors are necessary for many sectors of technology that touch our lives. There
have been numerous articles and patents on enhanced electrical conductors over
the last two decades. This article gathers the most important findings of these
materials and places them in the context of industrial relevance, i.e., whether the
measured properties, which are typically laboratory-scale, are reliable and can be
achieved at the industrial scale, and whether these new conductors can be
manufactured in a scalable and cost-effective manner. In addition, this study
examines the competitiveness and consequences of advanced conductors with
respect to Cu and Al, as well as the interrelationships between the microstructure
and a variety of advanced conductor qualities of relevance.

Because advanced conductors are currently more expensive than traditional metal
conductors, their performance must be significantly better to justify their use.
Advance conductors have established a place in aerospace and defense applications,
despite their high cost. It's worth noting that copper conductors took almost a
century and multiple scientific advances to develop. Given the market demand for
better conductors, it's only a matter of time before advances in materials science
and manufacturing lower the cost and improve the performance of advanced
electrical conductors, making them widespread by replacing Cu and Al.

2 Electrical Conductors
Before going any further, it's important to remember the basic properties of
conventional conductors (Cu and Al) (see Table 1). Copper wires have a yield
strength of 300 MPa and a density of 8.9 g cm-1 when cold pulled. The International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), which has an electrical conductivity of 58.1 MS m -1
at 20 oC, is used to normalize conductor performance. The conductivity of aluminum
alloy 1350, which is frequently used in electrical applications, is 62% IACS, while
most commercial copper wires have a conductivity of 101% IACS. The yield strength
of aluminum conductors is 110 MPa, and their density is 2.8 g cm -1. Aluminum has a
larger coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than copper (23 vs17/ μK-1), creeps at
connections where the temperature may rise locally, and is susceptible to Galvanic
corrosion in humid situations. Aluminum is prone to oxidation and corrosion at
connections in general. High electrical resistance caused by oxidation/corrosion
results in local hot spots, melting the insulation or fixture, and, in rare situations,
triggering fires. Copper has better-bending properties, which makes it easier to
install and handle. Despite having a 50% poorer conductivity per weight than
aluminum, copper is more widely accepted and employed in weight-critical
applications. Finally, copper has a higher ampacity (current-carrying capacity) than
the aluminum wire of the same diameter, making it the material of choice for
generators, transformers, and electric motors, where a compact design is often
required; ampacity is the maximum current a conductor can carry without exceeding
its temperature rating.
Table 1. For traditional and advanced electrical conductors, the best documented
characteristics (ambient condition). The information in this table is provided solely
for comparative purposes. The term "IACS" refers to conductivity in terms of the
international annealed copper standard.
IACS [%] Thermal Conductivity Strength Density [g
[W mK] [GPa] cm-3]
Individual CNT or 33-172 > 3000 20-100 1.4
graphene
Doped CNT fiber 15 625 3 1.5
Doped graphene 2 1575 2 -
fiber
Doped carbon 24 > 1000 1 2.5
fiber
Cu-CNT 47 - - 5.2
nanocomposite
Ultraconductive 117 - - 8.9
copper
Copper 101 390 0.3 8.9
Aluminum 62 200 0.1 2.7
Silver 105 400 0.1 10.5
a) A potassium-doped (tested in inert atmospheres) graphene fiber has been
reported to have an electrical conductivity of 38 % IACS;
b) Above 80 °C, it has a higher electrical conductivity than copper.
c)
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pssa.202000704