PHOTO ELECTRICITY

REF – OPEN UNIVERSITY NOTE – PART II

Similar Questions

1. Explain briefly the following terms using appropriate diagrams. (2021 1. a & 2015 3.b)

(i) Birefringence
Birefringence is formally defined as the double refraction of light in a transparent,
molecularly ordered material, which is manifested by the existence of orientation-
dependent differences in refractive index. Many transparent solids are optically
isotropic, meaning that the index of refraction is equal in all directions throughout the
crystalline lattice. Examples of isotropic solids are glass, table salt

(ii) Polarisation
Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that
specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the
direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.

(iii) Isochromatics
Isochromatics are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first and second
principal stress remains the same. Thus, they are the lines which join the points with
equal maximum shear stress magnitude.

(iv) Isoclinics
Isoclinics are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are
in the same direction

2.Discuss the photoelastic method and the elastic strain gauge technique of stress analysis
considering the suitability of each method for a particular application. (2021 1. B & 2015 3.c)
Photoelasticity
Photoelasticity describes changes in the optical properties of a material under mechanical
deformation. It is a property of all dielectric media and is often used to experimentally determine the
stress distribution in a material, where it gives a picture of stress distributions around discontinuities in
materials. the photo elastic method of stress analysis if based on the fact that certain transparent isentropic
material becomes optically anisotropic under stress. This method has now developed in to a very
powerful and accurate technique for stress analysis. It is the best suited for two dimensional problems,
although the method has been extended to three dimensional problems. The method consists of loading
and viewing a geometrically similar model of the prototype made up of a transparent material. In the case
of plane stress problems with constant body forces, the stress field is independent of the material
properties. Therefore, the stress pattern observed for the model will be the same as that of the prototype.
 provides reliable full-field values of the difference between the principal normal stresses in
the plane of the model
 provides uniquely the value of the nonvanishing principal normal stress along the
perimeter(s) of the model, where stresses are generally the largest.
 furnishes full-field values of the principalstress directions.
 is adaptable to both static and dynamic investigations.
 requires only a modest investment in equipment and materials for ordinary work.
 is fairly simple to use
but on the other hand, photo- elasticity
 requires that a model of the actual part be made (unless photoelastic coatings are used).
 requires rather tedious calculations in order to separate the values of principal stresses at a
general interior point.
 can require expensive equipment for precise analysis of large components.
 is very tedious and time-consuming for three-dimensional work
strain gauge

The strain gage is the most frequently used device in stress analysis work throughout the world
today. Precise results of surface strains can be obtained quickly using relatively inexpensive methods and
instrumentation. Stress information can be read in real time or collected and analyzed over extended
periods of time.

When a structural or a mechanical element is subjected to deformation, the extension or

contraction between two points on a surface can be measured by the use of a strain gauge. This enables us
to find the linear strain in any desired direction. However, to find a surface stress pattern, we need to
know the linear strains and the shear strain between two mutually perpendicular direction as a minimum
together with elastic constant. These three valves can also we calculated either the two principle linear
strains or linear strain in any three directions at the point of interest

Strain gauges presently in use can be mechanical, optical, acoustical, pneumatic or electrical and
have the following main characteristics.

1. Gauge length
2. Sensitivity
3. Range
4. Accuracy
Some of the optimal characteristics commonly used to judge the adequacy of a strain gauge system for a
particular application are following.
 a) Small in size and mass
b) Easy to attach to the component being analysed
c) Very sensitive and accurate
d) Unaffected by temperature and humidity changes
e) Capable of measuring static and dynamic strain
f) Capable of measuring indication and recording
g) Economical
No single strain gauge system satisfies all these optimum characteristics. The selection of a strain gauge
for a particular application sis generally based on two fundamental requirements.

a) Small gauge length

b) High sensitivity
3. Describe the difference between isoclinic and isochromatic (2019 1.b & 2, 2018 3.b & 2017 8.b)

Isoclinic are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in the
same direction. Isochromatic are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first and second
principal stress remains the same.

4. How do you identify isoclinic and isochromatic separately using a plane polariscope? (2019 1.c
& 2, 2018 3.c & 2017 8.c)
When a stressed photo elastic model is introduced in a plane poloriscope, the monochromatic light
coming out of the analyzer will be resolved into two plane waves travelling in the Principle plane at the
point of incident. The components of these two waves, in the analyzer axis will be transmitted, through
the analyzer.

If the fast axis is inclined at an angle α to the axis of the polarizer, the emerging rays from the model are
of the form.
'
A1=acos α sin ( ωt+ Δ )

A'1 a sin α sin ( ωt )

If the amplitude of the incident vector is ‘a’. when these waves hit the analyzer, only the components in
the direction of the analyzer axis will be transmitted. Therefore, the light leaving the analyzer will be,
' '
A A = A2 cos α − A1 sin α
¿ a sin α cos α [ sin ωt−sin ( ωt+ Δ ) ]

¿−asin2 α sin
Δ
2 ( )
cos t+
Δ
2

¿ A cos ( ωt + )
Δ
2
Where,
A = Amplitude of the light receved at the screen.
Δ
¿−asin2 α sin
2
We see extinction of light when A =0
π 3π
When α =0 , ,π , ∨¿ Δ=2 n π ,n=0 , 1,2 ,… .
2 2
When α =0 , π /2 , π , 3 π /2
The rays which pass through points on the model, where the principal directions are parallel to the
polarizer (P) or analyzer (A) axis, are extinguished and these points will form dark bands on the screen
irrespective of the wave length of the light. These bands (or fringes) are called ISOCLINCS. Isoclinics
are therefore the loci of points in the model at which the direction.

If P and A are rotated together keeping their axes crossed, Isoclinics shift from point to point. Conversely,
the principal directions at a point can be found by rotating P and A together

When Δ=2 n π ,n=0 , 1,2 ,…

Points at which Δ = 2nd appear dark and form bands or fringes called Isochromatics Therefore,
Isochromatics are the loci of points having the same fringe order.
5.List the main components of a plane polariscope and describe the functions of each of them.(2018
8.a & 2017 8.a & 2016 1.a)
1. Light source – The light intensity I perceived by the observer is zero if there is no
stressed model in the working field.
2. The planes – the plane polariscope is used for observing isochromatic and isoclinic
fringes.

2021 Question 01
(c) Illustrate and describe the reflective coating techniques used in stress analysis.

(04 Marks)
In surface coating methods, the surface of the components on which the stresses are to be found is coated
with same material and the change in that material is observed when the component is stressed. There are
two basis surface coating methods used in experimental stress analysis.

In the first method, the coating is done by a photo elastic material. The optical effects brought about in it
are then observed in polarized light using a reflection polariscope. These effects are then used as in photo
elasticity method, to find the desired stress pattern

The second method is called the Brittle lacquer coating technique. This method provides a simple and
direct approach for solving large class of industrial design problems where extreme accuracy is not
required. The method is based on a perfect adhesion of a coating with Brittle characteristics to the
component being studied. When loads are applied to the component, the strains which develop are
transmitted to the coating. The system of coating stresses produced by this causes the coating to crack. By
observing the extent of cracking at various load increments it will be possible to plot lines along which
the tensile strains have about the same magnitude. The cracks may be made more visible for photography
if employed, by painting a red dye over the surface.

2019 Question 01
(a) list main components of the plane polariscope and describe Plane Polariscope Dark
(PPD) field arraignment.
1. Light source – The light intensity I perceived by the observer is zero if there is no stressed
model in the working field.
2. The planes – the plane polariscope is used for observing isochromatic and isoclinic fringes.
Plane polariscope dark field arrangement.
It consists of two linear polarizer’s and a light source as shown in the figure. The linear polarizer
nearest to the light source is called polarizer. It transmits the plane polarized light in there axis. While
the second linear polarizer is away from the light source called analyser. Here the two axes of the
polarizer’s always cross. Hence no light is transmitted through the analyser and produce dark field.
The model is inserted and viewed through analyser. The polarizer is kept perpendicular to the axes of
light propagation it transmits the light wave comes only in their axes. The analyser is kept 90 deg to
the polarizer and it transmit the light waves in their axes.
The component of light vector transmitted by the polarizer is

A1 = a COSωt

The light vector when incident on the model is resolved into two components along principal stress
direction.

A2 = a cosωt cosф

A3 = a cosωt sinф

A2 and A3 are incident on the side of photo-elastic model. These two components of the light vector
propagate through the stressed model at different velocities. As a result, when these two components
emerge from the model, these are out of phase. Upon leavening the model, the two vibrating
components acquire a relative phase difference of Δ. We shall assume that A 2 leads A3. Hence, upon
leavening the model, the vibrating components are

A4 = a cos(ωt + Δ) cosф

A5 = a cosωt sinф
On entering analyser, only the components along A6 are allowed to emerge

A6 = A4sinф – A5cosф

A6 = a cos(ωt + Δ) cosфsinф – a cos ωt sinфcosф

A6 = a cosфsinф [cos(ωt + Δ) – a cos ωt ]

a
A6 = sin2ф [cosωt cos Δ – sin ωt sin Δ- cos ωt]
2

a
A6 = sin2ф [cosωt (cos Δ – 1) - sin ωt sin Δ
2

a Δ Δ Δ
A6 = sin2ф [-2cosωt sin2 – 2sinωt sin cos ]
2 2 2 2

Δ Δ Δ
A6 = -a sin2ф sin [cosωt sin + sinωt cos ]
2 2 2

Δ Δ
A6 = -a sin2ф sin (ωt + )
2 2

Δ
A6 = -b sin (ωt + )
2

Δ
b=a sin2ф sin is the amplitude of engineering light vector. A measure of intensity of light is given
2
by the square of amplitude. In our case, the intensity is

Δ
I = b2 = a2 sin22ф sin2
2

Intensity of light coming out of analyser is zero under two conditions

(1) When ф = 0 or 90
(2) When Δ = 2mπ(m=0,1,2,3…)

First condition tells that light extinction occur at a point when direction of principal stresses coincide
with the direction of polarizer and analyser. The locus of point when this happens is called the
Isoclinic’s.

Second condition tells that light extinction occur at a point when the relative phase difference is equal
to 2mπ. The locus of point where this occurs is called Isochromatics.
(d) Write down the Stress Optic Law of Photoelasticity.
The idea of using polarized light in obtaining stress distribution in a model are based on two basic
principles.

1. Almost all transparent materials (glass, celluloid, epoxy resins. araldite) exhibit Birefringence
when stressed.
2. The incident light splits into two orthogonally polarized components, each
parallel to a direction of principal stress in the plane of the wave.

The principal stress of σ1> σ2, we call the principal direction op as the fast axis and the direction
σ2 as the slow axis. The transmission of light follows two laws.

First Law: -
The light is polarized in the direction of principal stress axis and is transmitted only in principal planes.

Second Law: -
The velocity of transmission is proportional to the magnitude of the principal stress lying in the plane.

Therefore, the relative retardation between the two emergent waves is

δ = cd (σ1- σ2)

Where

d= thickness of photo elastic model and

C= a constant for the material known as the Stress Optic Constant.

This constant has a new unit called "Brewster', which is equal to 10 -13 cm2/dyne.

If wave length of the light used, we have

 λ∆
δ= and hence,
2π

∆ λ
( σ 1−σ 2 )= .
2 π cd

Where

f
σ 1−σ 2=N =NF
d

λ
The relative retardation in terms of a complete cycle, called the "fringe order" f= = "material fringe
c
f
value", a constant for the material. And F= = "model fringe value", a constant for the model. From the
d
Mohr's circle, we have,

( σ 1−σ 2 )=2 τ

σ1 - σ2 = N x F = τ max at the point of incident where τ max is the maximum shear stress.

It is clear that there is no difficulty in calculating F, the "model fringe value" for a particular model and
particular wave of light. Therefore, the principal stress difference (or maximum shear stress) at a point in
a 2-D model can be determined if the fringe order N at the point can be found. In the photo elastic method
of stress analysis, we use what are called "polariscope" to find out the fringe order N at points of a given
specimen.

marks)
2018 Question 03

(d) What are the possible arrangements for a circular polariscope to produce either a light field or
a dark field?
(20 Marks)
We can analyze the changes that will occur in a light vector when passing through a circular
polariscope. The quarter wave plates (QWP) are placed so that their axes are inclined at 45ᵒ to the axis of
the polarizer. They are also crossed. There are two basic arrangements in the ‘circular polariscope’. In
dark field arrangement, the axes of the polarize and analyzer are crossed as in the plane polariscope. In
the light field arrangement, the axes of the P and A are kept parallel to each other.
Dark field arrangement

We can analyse the light vector as following passing P asin ωt

Passing first quarter wave plate (QWP1)

π
Δ= (quarter wave plate)
2
a
√2 ( π
2
a
A'1= sin ωt + = cos ωt
√2 )
' a
A2= sin ( ωt )
√2

'' ' ''

A1 = A1 cos ( π ∕ 4−α ) + A2 cos ( π ∕ 4 +α )
 a ❑
¿ cos ωt cos ( π ∕ 4−α ) +sin ωt ❑ sin ( π ∕ 4 −α )
√2
a
¿ cos ¿ ¿
√2
a
A'1' = sin ¿ ¿
√2
Leaving the model – a retardation Δ will be introduced

''' a
A1 = cos ¿¿
√2
''' a
A1 = sin ¿ ¿
√2

Entering second quarter wave plate (QWP2)

A f = A ''2 ' cos ( π4 )+ A ' ''

1 cos ( π ∕ 4 +α )

A S= A'1' ' cos ( π4 −α )+ A ' ''

2 cos ( π ∕ 4 + α )

Or

Af=
a
√2 [ ( π
)
cos ωt +α − sin ( π ∕ 4 −α ) +sin ( ωt +α −π /4−Δ ) cos ( π ∕ 4 −α )
4 ]
And

A s=
a
√2 [ ( π
)
cos ωt +α − cos ( π ∕ 4 −α )−sin ( ωt +α −π / 4− Δ ) sin ( π ∕ 4 −α )
4 ]
Finally, when the light passes through the analyser, only the components in the direction of the analyser
axis will survive. Therefore, the light wave leaving at analyser will be

1 '
A= ( A −A 'f )
2 s

¿ a sin Δ/cos ( ωt +2 α −Δ ∕ 2 )

Extinction of light will occur only for

Δ Δ
sin =0 ,ie . =nπ
2 2

Therefore, when extinction of light occurs,

Δ
Fringe order, N= =n ,
2π

n = 0,1, 2…etc

Isoclinic do not appear and Isochromatic with integer fringe orders can be identified on the screen.

Light field arrangement

This arrangement is similar to the dark field arrangement except that the analyser is rotated by 90ᵒ so that
the axes of the polarizer are parallel, therefore, the light wave leaving the analyser will be,

1 '
A= ( A −A 'f )
2 s

¿ 2 a cos Δ /2cos ( ωt−Δ ∕ 2 )

Extinction of light will occur only for

 Δ Δ
cos =0 ,ie . =( 2 n+1 ) π /2
2 2

Δ
Fringe order, N= =n+1/2 ,
2π

n = 0,1, 2…etc

therefore, in the light field arrangement we will again have Isochromatic only and with half fringe orders
(1/2, 3/2,5/2…etc)

2017 Question 08

Write shorts notes on the following.

(a) Main components of the plane polariscope
Light source – The light intensity I perceived by the observer is zero if there is no stressed model in
the working field.
The planes – the plane polariscope is used for observing isochromatic and isoclinic fringes.

(b) Differences between isoclinic lines and isochromatics

Isoclinic are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in the same
direction. Isochromatic are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first and second
principal stress remains the same.

(c) Identification of isoclinic lines and isochromatics distinguishably using plane polariscope
When a stressed photo elastic model is introduced in a plane poloriscope, the monochromatic light
coming out of the analyzer will be resolved into two plane waves travelling in the Principle plane at
the point of incident. The components of these two waves, in the analyzer axis will be transmitted,
through the analyzer.

If the fast axis is inclined at an angle α to the axis of the polarizer, the emerging rays from the
model are of the form.
 '
A1=acos α sin ( ωt+ Δ )

A'1 asin α sin ( ωt )

If the amplitude of the incident vector is ‘a’. when these waves hit the analyzer, only the
components in the direction of the analyzer axis will be transmitted. Therefore, the light leaving the
analyzer will be,

A A = A'2 cos α − A'1 sin α

¿ a sin α cos α [ sin ωt−sin ( ωt+ Δ ) ]

¿−asin2 α sin
Δ
2 ( )
cos t+
Δ
2

¿ A cos ( ωt + )
Δ
2
Where,
A = Amplitude of the light receved at the screen.
Δ
¿−asin2 α sin
2
We see extinction of light when A =0
π 3π
When α =0 , ,π , ∨¿ Δ=2 n π ,n=0 , 1,2 ,… .
2 2
When α =0 , π /2 , π , 3 π /2
The rays which pass through points on the model, where the principal directions are parallel to the
polarizer (P) or analyzer (A) axis, are extinguished and these points will form dark bands on the
screen irrespective of the wave length of the light. These bands (or fringes) are called ISOCLINCS.
Isoclinics are therefore the loci of points in the model at which the direction.

If P and A are rotated together keeping their axes crossed, Isoclinics shift from point to point.
Conversely, the principal directions at a point can be found by rotating P and A together
 When Δ=2 n π ,n=0 , 1,2 ,…

Points at which Δ = 2nd appear dark and form bands or fringes called Isochromatics Therefore,
Isochromatics are the loci of points having the same fringe order.

(d) Main differences between plane polariscope and circular polariscope.

The basic difference of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in a circular
polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics

(20 marks)
2016 Question 01
(b) What is the difference between a plane polariscope and a circular polariscope?
The basic difference of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in a circular
polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics
(C) Briefly describe the two basic arrangements in circular polariscopes.
We can analyze the changes that will occur in a light vector when passing through a circular
polariscope. The quarter wave plates (QWP) are placed so that their axes are inclined at 45ᵒ to the axis of
the polarizer. They are also crossed. There are two basic arrangements in the ‘circular polariscope’. In
dark field arrangement, the axes of the polarize and analyzer are crossed as in the plane polariscope. In
the light field arrangement, the axes of the P and A are kept parallel to each other.

(d) Describe how you would use a polariscope to determine the principal stresses and the
principal directions at different points in a given specimen.
Experiments show that principal-stress directions can be found from isochromatic observations of
a perforated embedded layer; also, the full-field isochromatic pattern is little disturbed by the presence of
small-diameter perforations.

2015 QUESTION 03
(a) Write down the Stress Optic Law of Photo Elasticity.
(02 Marks)

The idea of using polarized light in obtaining stress distribution in a model are based on two basic
principles.

1. Almost all transparent materials (glass, celluloid, epoxy resins. araldite) exhibit Birefringence
when stressed.
2. The incident light splits into two orthogonally polarized components, each
parallel to a direction of principal stress in the plane of the wave.
First Law: -
The light is polarized in the direction of principal stress axis and is transmitted only in principal planes.

Second Law: -
The velocity of transmission is proportional to the magnitude of the principal stress lying in the plane.