Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Definitions 1.1 Basic Properties of Rings ism 1.2 Definitions Chapter 2: Some Important Structures 21 (Zp ®Bm+Om) is a Commutative Ring with Unity 2.2 V = {Set of All Functions from R to R} ... 2.3 V, = {Set of All Continuous Functions from R to R} 2.4 Lets Combine Several Rings into One Large Product: Cartesian Product 2.8 C[0, 1] = {Set of all Continuous Functions from (0,1] to R} ... Chapter 3: Subring and Ideals 3. Subring 3.1.1 Subring Test... 3.2 Subfield 3.2.1 Subfield Test ... 323 Left Ideal 3.3.1 Right Ideal 3.3.2 Ideal ennrncnns 19 3.3.3 Ideal Test... 3.3.4 Ideal generated by a set3.3.5 Co-maximal Ideals .. 3.4 Simple Ring .. 3.4.1 Maximal Ideal .. 3.4.2 Prime Ideal... Chapter 4: Ring of Polynomials 4.1 Polynomial Ring 4.2 Degree of a Polynomial 4.3 Division Algorithm 4.3.1 The Remainder Theorem 43.2 The Factor Theorem .. 4.3.3 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) .. 4.3.4 Least Common Multiple (LCM) 4.4 Irreducible Polynomial and Reducible Polyzss7aial 4.5 Irreducibility Tests 4.6 Some Important Theorem .. 4.7 Construction of Such Fields Chapter 5: ED, PID, UFD 5.1 Square Free Number 5.1.1 Quadratic Field 5.2 Principal Ideal 5.2.1 Principal Ideal Ring 5.2.2 Principal Ideal Domain 5.2.3 Norm on an Integral Domain .. Jean Domain nnn 5.2.5 Unique Factorization Domain (UF.D.) 5.3 Observations Over ED, PID, UFD 5.4 Content of a Polynomial . 34.1 Primitive Polynomial Chapter 6: Ring Homomorphism 6.1 Definition ..6.2 Kernel of Homomorphism... 6.3 Isomorphism 6.3.1 Isomorphism Rings $A Quotient Rings 6.5 Some Important Theorems 6.6 Applications of Ring Homomorphism .. 6.7 Embedding of Ring... 6.8 Prime Field ... 6.9 Field of Quotients Assignment Sheet ~1 . Assignment Sheet ~2 . Assignment Sheet — 3 ..CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS Ring: A ring R #6 isa set together with two binary operation + and + (called addition and multiplication) satisfying the following axioms: (@) (R,+) is an abelian group, (b) * is associative: (a+b)+c=a+(b +c): forall a,b,ceR (©) The distributive laws hold in R : For ati a,b,ce R @ @+b)e=G@r0)+(b+0) Gi) a+@+e)=(4+b)+(ar0). ‘Then we denote it by (R,+,*) 1. _ Basic Properties of Rings Let (R,++) bea ring As (2,+) isa group, the identity of this group is called the zero of the ring and denoted by 0 and a+0=0+a=a WaeR Let a,b,ceR, then (@ @+b=a+0= b= (cancellation law w. r.t.+) (b) -(-a)=a(where -a denotes the additive inverse of a) (©) The zero etement of R is unique. (@) The additive inverse of any element in R is unique. © a0=0a=0, () a(-b)=(~a).b = -(a.b) (g) (-a)-)=ab Table To Be Remembered Nameof | Addition | Multipti- | Unity |Commutativel Ring | operation | cation Operation (C+) JOrdinary [Ordinary laddition —_|Multipli- lcation |Ordinary ern[Multipli- cation B |(as,) jordinary Ordinary 1 Yes laddition | Multipii- |cation 4 (z,+,.) JOrdinary - Ordinary {1 lYes laddition — |muttipli- cation Is |(mz,+,.) JOrdinary Ordinary no ‘es laddition, | multipli- lwhere m #1 lcation ew fla) "|, {{ 4] |Component |Componeiit [ | lYes lwise |wise a jaddition |multipli- abo eZ | ation \s : ‘ lordinary {Ordinary 1.17 {Yes matrix |matrix 3 Roda aly laddition —_|multipli- Ne) acR ae cation 22 | lo |Ziij={a+ib: |Ordinary {Ordinary fi Ives ben} laddition of |multipli- a,b 2) lcomplex. 5 a a ication of i jcomplex, i jnumbers w |, fees JOrdinary Ordinary [1 INo = addition of fmultipti- 04,03, complex |eation anjtayk:) — foumbers R is commutative. Proof: We've (xy) =x"? WxyeR Replacing y by y-+1e in (I) where tis unity2 (xy) + (xy) x( ay) 427 = 229? 42x? yh? (2) Using (1) and cancellation laws of (R,+) in (2) We get wyxtx?y=2x?y or yx=x*y WxER (3) Replacing x by (x+1) in (3) (xt t)y(x+t)=(e4I)y 3 (e4)(onty) (x4 1)('») > yxtaytyxty=x*ytaytayty (4) Using (3) & cancellation laws of (R, +) in (4) We get me a Hence, R is a commutative ring. (©) IE R is commutative ring ‘Then for a,b R (a+b) =a" + "Ca" "b+ "Cpa" 2b? ++" for every positive integer » . (@ R is commutative ifand only if (a~5)(a+b)=a" 6? Va,beR (©) Any ring of prime order is commutative 3 (® Aring of order p* may not be commutative. 1 J A forms ring with matrix addition & matrix multiplication & entries are from Zy. Example: 2 Ring A has order 4 [ole ele a] mf als ote ol ‘HAI, Forfa Sara ouz Khas, Near LT, New Debb-T1006 Fh: 1) 255757, Ces 999143404 SHPOLCIG, ROH Li ers nn Fst: Wat re aa(®). The smallest non-commutative ring is of order 4 (b) Aring with unity & of order p (p is prime) is commutative. 5. Unit: Let (R,+,) bearing with unity and ae R. Then a is said to be unit element of R if 3 be R such that a-b=b-a=1 Examples: (a) The units of Z are 1 and —1 (b) In Ring numbers 1, 2, 3 defined in Table of rings, each non-zero clement is a unit. (©) The wnits in a ring (Z,+4,%6) are I and 5. Results: (i) Let R be a ring with unity. Then the set of all units of R forms a ‘group under multiplication, (il) Let R bea CRU , then group of units of Rig an abelian group. 6. Associate: Let R bearing with unity and a,b¢R. Then a is called associate of b if J a unit u in R such that-a = bie. Example: (@ 12 (Z,+, +), associate of 2 are 2 and -2:* (b) In (R,+,-), associates of 3 are all noh-2et real numbers. Observation: Let us define a relation a~be>a andb are associates. Then ring R ‘on ring with unity R as: is an equivalence relation on Hence, it partitions the ring R into equivalence classes 7. Zero-divisors: Let R be a cing and 0# ae R.. Then a is said to be zero divisor from left if 30b¢ R such that a-b=0 and here we call * right zero divisor. a &b arecalled zero-ditisor if they are zero divisors from right as well as from left. Examples: (@) 4s zero divisor in Z,2 as there exist3 in Z» such that 432125 o1 ©) [° A is zero divisor from left in ing of 22 matrices over Bas oe ol ool aut itis not zero divisor from right as lo ojfo of lo o 1 Oyo 1_fo 1 0 ojo o} lo 3 (© Inring (P(N),4,9), each element is zero divisor except Nas for each X € P(N) we have ¥=N-X ¢ P(N) such that XY = Sone aR OP DE SOObservations: (i) Let & be ring with unity. Let U(R) denote the set ofall units of R and Z(R) denote the set of all zero divisors of R. Then Z(R)AU(R)=$ (ii) In Z,,,, each non-zero element is either a unit or zero divisor. Gii)In Zy, 04a cZp isa unit iff « & m are co-prime. Example: in Zsunits are!,2,3,4 (iv) There exist ings having infinite elements which are neither units nor zero divisors. 8. Cancellation Law: A ring 2 is said to satisfy the left cancellation law if for all a,6,ceR 240, “ab=ac > b=e A similar definition can be given for right cancellation law, 9. Integral Domain: A commutative ring with unity without zero divisors, is called an Integral domain, Examples examples |,2,3,4 defined in table of rings are Integral ‘Domain. We some time denote Integral domain by 1D ‘Note: Many books do not take ring to be commutative with unity. They consider only ting without zero divisors. For exam point of view to check a ring is JD or not we should only check availability of zero divisors. 10, Skew Field: A ring with unity (R,+,-) is said to be skew-field if each non-zero element has multiplicative inverse ive. (R,-) forms a group. It is also known as division ring Examples: (a) Ring numbers 1,2,3 defined in table of rings ate skew-fields, () (© examples 9,17 defined in table are not skew fields, 2g isa skew-field, where p is prime. Observations: (i) Every skew-field is an integral domain if commutative. ii) fina ring R the equation ax =6 W a,b has a unique solution, then 2 is a division ring. 11. Field: A commutative skew-field is defined as field. In other words, A CRU is a field if each non-zero clement posses multiplicative inverse, Example: (a) examples 1, 2, 3 defined in table of rings'pre Fields. (b) Zp isa field, where p is prime. Ai, at Por Sia Sarak He Res, Near LT New Dei 10016 PR: (O11) 2857527, Clk SOUS & STDIGLTIG HBB EBResults: (@_ Every field is an integral domain, (ii) Every finite integral domain isa field. (ii) Z , . the ring of integers modulo p, isa field iff p is prime (WE 12, Nilpotent Element: Let R be aring and a © R. Then a is said to be nilpotent element if 3 meV such that a"=0 ie, @-a-a-..a=0 times ‘The smallest such 7 is defined as the index of nilpotence. inite skew-field is a field. Examples: (8) 0 isonly nilpotent element of index Lin every ring, (b) 6 is nilpotent element of index 2 in Z2 13, Idempotent Element: Let R be aringand ac R. Then a is said co be idempotent element if a? =a Examples: (2) O and unity are always idempotent (b) Sand 6 are idempotent in Zio (c) Each element of (P(N),A,9) is idempotent. Results on Nilpotent and ldempotent elements: (Iman Integral Domain 0 and.1 areihe only idempotent elements. Gi) An Inte element. Domain does not possess any non-zero nilpotent (iii) Let R be a commutative ring and a,b are nilpotent elements of R Then (a) a+b is also nilpotent element. (b) a:b is also nilpotent element. (©) a-c is also nilpotent element ¥ non-zero ¢ in R (d) If a-b is nilpotent in R, then b-a is also nilpotent in R (iv) If 'a" isan idempotent element in R thea 1a is also an idempotent element in & (v) Orthogonal Idempotent: Let R be a ring and ¢,e) are idempotent elements. Then ¢, and e, are cailed orthogonal if ¢; «ey In general, if ¢,e),..,¢, are idempotent elements in ring R. Then 4 s€2,.-5€ are called orthogonal if ¢; ¢; 0 vie; (vi) If ‘a’ is a nilpotent element of index r in a ring with unity. Then (1-4) is unit Since, 1= ~ a! =(1-a)(tea+2 = (tray =(l+a+a? +401) 14, Unipotent Element: Let R be a ring with unity then a € R is said to be unipotent if 1-a nilpotent. Also is nilpctentiie., a is unipotent <> b=(I~a) is -aca=i-b Thus, if 6 is a nilpotent element in R, then (1-5) is unipotent element, Example: 7 is unipotent element in Zyy as 7 nilpotent element in Z>. +6, where 6 is Factors: Let R be a commutative ring with unity and a,b ¢R. Then b is said to be factor of a if 3. ce R such that b= ac Note: For a¢ R the associates of 'a" and units in that ring are always factors of ‘a’ and called improper factors, the other factors are called proper factors. Irreducible Element: A non-zero, on-unit element ‘a" ina commutative ring with unity R is said to be irreducible element if it has no proper factor in R ie, whenever abe ; then either b is unit or c is unit, An element which is not ireducible.is called xeducible element. Example: 1+ is an irreducible element in 24, ; Prime Element: Let R be a commutative ring with unity then a non- zero, non-nit element pe R is called prime element if p|ab implies either pla or p|b, where abe R Example: 2 is prime element in Zs Observations: ( _ Iemay be observed that p ¢ Ris not irreducible, if there exists a pair of element a,beR.such that p=ab where a and b are both non-unit element of It may be observed that pe R is not prime, if there exists a pair of elements, a,b such that p|ab, but p/a & p[b Irreducible and prime elements in a commutative ring with unity are always non-zero and non-unit elements. ‘There may exist elements in ring R which are prime elements of R but not imeducible elements. Example: tn Zg,2 is prime clement but not irreducible element. ‘There may exist elements in ring R which are irreducible elements of R but not prime elements. Example: in 2[V-5] not prime element, a+bJ-3:a,b¢Z} , 3 is irreducible but ‘There may exist elements ining R which are both prime and irreducible. : Example: In ring of integers 2, element 3 is both prime as well as irreducible element.(vii) Thefe may exist elements in ring R which are neither prime nor irreducible. Example: In ring of integers Z, element 4 is neither prime nor irreducible element. - (viii) In an LD. every prime element is irreducible element. « (x). Set of Units of Zfi] is {1 (x) Set of Units of Z is {1,1} (xi) Let F be any field, Then set of units of F is F -{0} ie. every \ non-zero element of a field is a unit (xii), Set of Units of Myuy(F) is GL(n,F) (xiii) For deZ, 2[Vd]={a +bVd:a,beZ} is an integral domain, (xiv) For deZ*, Q[va]={a+oya a,b Q} isa field. (xv) Let R be an Integral Domain and a,b be tivo non-zero elements of R.Then @ and are associate iff @|b and b|a of a Ring: The smallest positive integer n is said to be characteristic of a ring R 0 VaeRi a+e+..¢a=0.1f ON times no such positive integer exists, then characteristic of ring is 0. It is denoted by char R. Properties: () Let R bearing with unity 1. Then characteristic of R is equal to the order of | under addition provided itis finite if it is not finite then char R= 0. (ii) The characteristic of an integral domain is either zero or prime number (ii) ‘The cardinality of a finite integral domain is of the form p” for some prime p and reZ* ' (iv) The cardinality of a finite field is ofthe form p" for some prime pand reZ* (0) The characteristic of a field i either zero ora prime number (0) The characteristic of a non-zero Boolean ring is always 2 (vil) Let R be a commutative ring with characteristic p, where p isa prime number then, (@+8)? =a? +b? VabeR (viii) Let R be a ring with characteristic n and suppose that i j ma=0 VaeR and for some meZ* then n divides m i.e. m is multiple of n :age CHAPTER 2 SOME IMPORTANT STRUCTURES 2, (Zs ®m Om is a Commutative Ring with Unity w.r.t ©q.: addition modulo m Om: multiplication modulo m Properties: Number of units = $(m) (i) Let U(Z,,) be set of units of Z_, then U(Zm) will form the group U(Zm {x¢ Zp |g.c.d.(x,m) =I} (iv) Every non-zero element is either unit of zerd-divisor. (%) Number of zero-divisors = m—(¢(m)+1) (vi) List of zero-divisors = Z(Z,,) ={x¢Zn\g-c.d.(x,m) #1} Zq is integral domain if and only if m is prime. Zp is field if and only if m is prime. (ix) Number of associates of ‘ae Z,, ate (o(a)). Where order of a is * calculated with respect to addition, () List of associates ate)= rete cacy 2} (xi) Number of nilpotent elements in 2. = p"™* eZ ,|k= \ fi Zalk=12, (aii) List of nilpotent elements in Z,,, | (iil) TF m= ppl. pl ‘Then number of nilpotent'elements in nee Eq =O pe pe aoe22. 2.3, (aiv) List of nilpotent elements in Zig m= PE pI? BP? = (K.P, Pz oP) Z| =12,--} (av) a2, isnilpotent if and only if every prime divisor of m divides « Where k is number of (xvi) Number of idempotent elements in Z.,, distinct prime divisor of m (vit) Number of idempotent elements in Z_, areswo ie. 0,1} Examples: Consider the ring (Zyp.®0. 0) (a) Number of units = 6(20) =8 List of units = {1,3,7,9,11,13,17,19} (b) Number of zero divisors =20-(8-+1)=11 List of zero divisors = {2,4,5,6,8,10,12,14,15,16,18) (c) Number of associates of elements ‘2’ ¢ Z,, 6(2) with respect to addition is 10 $(0(2)) = (10) =4 List of associates of *2”€ Z, = (2,6,14,18} (d) Number of idempotent elements = 2? = 4, Note: $(n) used above was the Euler's @ function. V = {Set of All Functions From R to R} Where R jis a ing. Then define addition operation as follows W ABEVi(F+8)(x)= f(x) a(x) V xe R & define multiplication as, follows: Vv LgeVs f-e(s)=f(x)Og(x) VER Where ® & © are addition & multiplication of ring R Then (7, +,+) isang. Properties: ()V bas unity if R has unity Gi) Vis commutative R is commutative ring, (ii) V is never integral domain even if R is integral domain, (iv) V always have infinite zero-divisors even if R (infinite) is integral domain, (¥) V is finite ring if and only if R is finite ring (vi) There exists elements in V . Which are neither zero-divisor nor units. (vii) Any function which is aot zero anywhere is unit hence there are infinite units in V if R is infinite. e V, = {Set of All Continuous Functions from R to’ R} Where R is ring SS Some Important StructuresSee re nn ‘Then define addition operation as, Viger. (Sta)(x)=F(x)@a(x) VxeR & definé multiplication as Vfgev, Fa(x)=s(x)Og(x) VreR Where © & © are addition & multiplication respectively of ring R ‘Properties: (® V, has unity if R has unity (i) V, is commutative if R is commutative (lif), is never integral domain even if R is integral domain iv) Y, is finite if and only if R is finite ring (©) Any function which has countable zero’s is neither zero-divisor nor unit if it has atleast one zero, (vi) Any function which does not have zero is a unit, 2.4. Lets Combine Several Rings into One Large Product: Cartesian Product Let Ri & Ry are two rings Then R= Rix Ry ={(a,)|aeR, be Ra} is a ring with respect to componentwise addition & componentwise multiplication. ile, (a,b) +(c.d)=(a®c, b&, d) (a,b)+(c,d)=(aQ,¢, BO; d) Where ©, & Q are addition and multiplication of R, i=1,2 respectively. Properties: @ 2 is commutative ifand only if both Rj & Ry are commutative. Gi) R has unity ifand only if both R, & Ry have unity. (ily Let U(R) be the group of units of R & U(R)) is group of units for iat Then U(R)=U(R)xU (Ro) Gv) If R's are non-trival rings then is never integra) domain ie. always has zero-divisors. (¥) Char(R)=k =0 if either Char R; =0 or Char Ry =0 ‘m{Char(R,), Char(Rp)} If both char (R,) & Char (Ry) are non-zero, & (vi) & is never integral domain if Ry & R, are non-trivial 2.5. Boolean Ring 5 Aring R is said to be Boolear. ing ifall of its element ar idempotent.XZ, with respect to componentwise addition & ‘componentwise multiplication. (ii) Zp x Zp X-... Le. infinite Cartesian produet with respect to ‘componentwise addition & componentwise multiplication. Properties: (@_ Boolean ring is always commutative (i) a+a=0 Va (iv) Char (R)=2 a+b=0 => a=b (v) Cartesian product of Boolean rings is Boolean ring. 2.6. Group Rings Fix a commutative ring R with identity 1#0 and let G={g1,82,..-»8n} ‘be any finite group with group operation written multiplicatively. Define the group ring, RG,of G with coefficients in-R to,be the set of all formal sums. —_ 4g) + 098) Ft Oy x eR, 1sisn If g, is the identity of G we shall write ag; simply as a, . Similarly, we shall write the element 1g for geG simply as g Addition is defined “component wise” (arg1 + 4282 +--+ ann) (B81 +282 +--+ 2p) =(a +81) 81+ (a2 +2) 82 +--+ (dy +bn) Bn Multiplication is performed by first defining (ag; )(bg j ab) gp, where the product ab is taken in Rand g,g; = gy is the product in the group G This product is then extended to all formal sums by the distributive laws 50 that coefficient of g, in the product (agi tot dun) (481 + * Onn) is Dab B88 Its straightforward to check that these operations make RG into a ring (again, commutativity of R is not needed). The associativity of multiplication follows from the associativity of the group operation in G. The ting RGis commutative if and only if G is a commutative group. Example: Let G= Dg, the dihedral group of order-8 with usual generators ns :and let R=Z the elements @=r+r° and B=~3r* rs are typical members of Their sum and product are then at B=r—2r? 20475 oB=(r47? 2s)(-37? +15) 1? brs) +r2(-a7 are)as P4534 s46r7s—3 3-57 41Psers ‘Note: Definition of addition and multiplication i, RG restricted to the elements of 2 is just the addition arid multiplication itt R. Properties: ( —Thering R appears in RG as the “Constant” formal sums ie. the R multiples of the identity of G (ii) Elements of R commute with all elements of RG, Unity of R is the unity of RG. (iv) The group G also appears in RG ie. g;'s will appear as 1g; (¥) Multiplication in the ring RG restricted to G is just the group operation. (vi) G is subgroup of group of units of RG (vil) If |G]>1, then RG always has zero-divisors Explanation: Let g@@ & o(g)=m>1 a(I-g)(legente' 90 1~g is a zero divisor. Matrix Ring M,(R) the set of all nx matrices with entries from ring R forms a ring With respect to ordinary matrix addition & ordinary matrix multiplication. Properties:A Sen @ If R is any non-trivial ring (even a commutative one) & m2 then M,,(R) is not commutative with unity. (iM, (A) has zero-divisors forall non-trivial ring R whenever 22 (ii) If R is infinite ring M, (R) has infinite zero-divisors whenever n22. (iv) Center of ring M,,(R) is set of all scalar matrices if R is commutative. () If n&2 then if A is strictly upper tiangular matrix or strictly lower triangular matrix then 4” (vi) Property (v) implies that if 2 is infinite then M,,(R) has infinite nilpotent elements. 2.8. — C[0,1]= {Set of All Continuous Functions from [0,1] to R} ‘Then C[0,1] is a ring with respect to componentwise addition & componentwise multiplication. ie, (f+ 8)(2)=F(x)+ a(x) ¥xe[0] foe (s)= F(x) 9() Vere] Properties: © Cfo.t] iscru (ii) There are infinite number of units. (iii) Every function which are not zero at any point is unit, wy There are functions which are neither zero divisor nor units. (¥) The functions which have finite or countable number of zero’s in [0,1] and have atleast one zero are neither zeto-divisors nor units (vi) There are infinite zero divisors. Example: f(x)={ °° |x-a; asxsl x-a; OSxSa 0; asxsi & e6s)={ There are infinite choices for a ¢[0,1]>." eee] CHAPTER 3 3A. 34d. 3.2. 321. BRING AND IDEALS Subring Let (R,+,) be aring. Then non-empty subset S of R is called a subring of R, if (S,+.) is ating. Subring Test S#§ & SCR then 5 is suring of R ifasd only if vabes @ abes (i) a-bes Similarly we can define subfield of a field & savin of a Division cing. Subfield \ Anon-empty subset § of field F is said totes subfield of F if $ forms a field under the binary operation of F. Subfield Test S49, SCF is said to be subfield iff V a,b,e5 & b#0 @ a-bes Gi) abtes Examples: (@) Qissubring of R (b) Z issubsingof C. (©) The set E of even integers is a subring ofthe ring Z of integers, (@ The intersection of two subrings of a ring R is @subring of R Remark: The union of ty subrings of R need not be a subring of R ©) {0,2,4) is subsing of (Zp, @, O6) © Bi=(a+dila,b eZ} is subring of (C++) (@) S= (The set of all nx Diagonal matrices over R } is subring of M,,(R) under matrix addition & matrix multiplication.(8) (2, % 06) isnotaubringot (Zn, Os) aa @ S={a+bi+e+dk; abd eZ}& R={a+birej+dk; a,b,e,deQ} = where S is set of integral quaternions & Ris set of rational quateraions then S is subring of R @_ S={(r,r)|reR} is subring of RxR where R is a ring. +5) © s-{| ‘, “ | nen & R=M;(R) then S is not a subring of (Centre of a ring R, denoted by Z(R), is a subring of R (m) Normalizer N(a) ofan element ‘a’ of a ring R is a subring of R where N(a)={x¢R|ax= xa} Observations: (Center ofa division ring is afield. Gi) Subring of a commutative ring is commutative. (iii) Subring of a ring without zero devisor is also without zero divisors. (i) There exist rings with unity 1 having a subring with unity nt equal to Example: consist) {(° Sebi ez| whichis aring J a vivaiy(} 9) nent ou so((S Qfoaah 1o subring of M3(Z) with unity e | sons Oe 9-6 ake IG 8) wms(> SoCo 9} (v) There exist rings with unity having a subring without unity. Example: The ring Z of integers is a ring with unity. But the set E of even integers isa subring of Z without unity (vi) There exist non commutative rings with commutative suring, Example: Consider the ring Mz(Z) of 2x2 matrices over integers is non commutative me OM IO dG de JC) Layo 4) (0 vy t) c onto, it a ale wy “But the set sof 4 }oe2| is a subring of Mz(Z) which is — itive, since 0 =| = mrss o)-Co al-6 ale 0)wii). There exist rings without unity having subring with unity a Beanpte: 8={(? *)-o.re2) isang wtch as no nity. The 1 0) (° fii) ooloatloo) that none of these is a unity of R and it can be verified possible uni of & ae | (a 0) 10) However, S15 oJ enea| isa subring of R, whos a as the unity of 5. Definition: If S$ and 7 are two subring of a ring R , then their sum is defined as S+T=(a+b:aeS,beT} (viii) Sum of two subring of a ring may not be a subring, ac) } (0 c & He: Let S= a,bceZ>, T= nceZ samp ( s)he {(¢ °\-c can have more than one solution, () If AG BUC = AGB or ACC-where 4,B & C are subring of ring R (xi) Subring of integral domain will be integral domain. (aii) Uf R bearing with charR =n then M2(R) has characteristic m (xii) If § is a subring of ating & then (a) Ifchar$ & char R are finite then charS < charR (b) If § & R have same unity, then char $= char K 3.3. Left Ideal Let R bearing and J bea subset of R then I is said to be left ideal of R if [ is subring of R and foreach reR and ae/,racl 33.1, Right Ideal Let R bearing and J be subset of K then J is said to be right ideal of K if 1 is subring of R and foreach ae/,reR, are! 33.2. Ideal ae I ofaring R is said to be ideal if J is both left ideal and right ideal. Ideal Test ANon- empty subset 4 ofaring R isan ideal of & if (@) a—b © A whenever a,b (Z)) is not anideal of M3 (Z). reef) 1 1)(2 0) (2 2) . se-(| ale a)(> a)e2(ea(2) ) <2(a (2), Webae Hence Z(3M; (Z)) is not an ideal of M;(Z:). Observations: (If Risa commutative ring then (R)={alaeR & a” =0 for some mi} isan ideal in R N(R) is called nil-radical of R (ii) If R is acommutative ring then V7 ={a e Ra" 1 for some n= } Note: If 1=0 , Then VI is the Nil-tadical. (iii) Any ideal of ZxZ is of the form m2xnZ; m,ne 2, (iv) If R is commutative ring , a, a2....a, €R then T= Ray + Ray +o Ray i8 a, ideal in R Explanation: If x,y ¢/, Then M1, to Deg DEM tot ny fay =p), +t (hg ~Hip) iy +> x-yel & axa ah tet Dhydy EL; GER => axel Hence J is ideal. ST eee 2A, (Fe Foo) Sl Sara Hue33.4. 33.5. R be commutative ring & ACR. Ann(A)={reRlra=0 Vae A} is an ideal (vi) N(Z,) ie. nil-adical of Z, is non-zero iff n is divisible by square of a prime. Reason: Let 1 is divisible by square of prime p.. ‘Then n= phm; 222; g.cd.(m,p)=1 Then a=pmeZ,;a70 & (a) Thus Z,, has non-zero element @ in the nil-radical. Conversely, assume that 3 a0 innilradical. Then (a)"=0 (422) If p is prime factor of a = pt divides m; 422 Remark: In Z,,,3 (non-zero) nilpotent element if and only if » is divisible by square of a prime. Ideal Generated by a Set Let § be any subset of aring R, An ideal 1 of R is said to be generated by Sif @) Scr (ii) If J is any ideal of R such that SCJ, then 1¢J. We write ideal 1 as 1 =(S). Indeed (S) is the smallest ideal containing $ Co-maximal Ideals ‘Two ideals 1 and J-ofaring R satisfying /+J=R are called co- ‘maximal ideals. Result (Let I and J-be any two ideals of axing R. Then J+J is an ideal of R generated by LUV. (ii) If J and J aretwo ideals of a ring R, then JUJ is anideal of R iff either FJ or Jel, ili) Let I and J be two ideals of a commutative ring R with unity such that 1+J=R. Then IJ =IevJ.@ wo Gil) «wy ) Observations: Let J be left ideal and J. is right ideal of a ring then LF is always an ideal of R but JJ may not be even one sided ideal. 20) Example: The set {5 ; a.be2| icatetideat and Ab 0) J - a bY {i ‘i rated] is a right ideal in the ring M(Z) of 2x2 {0 0) matrices over integers, \( ac+bd 0) Wesee tat (¢ 4/2 °) ooo. 0 0 10), fe. nid of * “Thus af H rea} We take -{i ‘Jee st-() Vea na ts-(! Jes a6 o) “uo Hence J is neither a left ideal nor a right ideal of M, (2) The intersection of two left (rightyidealsiofa ring R is a left (right) ideals of R ‘The intersection of a left ideal and right ideal of a ring R may not be even a one sided ideal of R. Example: The set I “(5 4 ava} isa left ideal and ab) J -( ol avez is a right ideal in the ring M,(Z) of 2x2 matrices over integers. [2 0 | (1 0 ross Path aaa () Seto mt () Femara) {o oft alo o)®27¥* 1 1y1 0 10 (ale fe gerne The sum of two left (ight) ideals ofa ring Fis left (right ideal of R The sum of a left ideal and a right ideal of a ring R may not ideal of(vi) (wii) (vii) (ix) @&) : @ () Example: The set f(t ) aez} isa left ideal and (ab) } Js a,beZ} isa right ideal inthe ring Mz(Z) of 2x2 (oo) matrices over integers. We have I+. a noetl - fly) jar Clearly, [1 Jefe and Jed (z) but Lo \ (le 2yfr 172.2) (1-a)(t=1) = T+ J ani Cole It eer G Thus 1+ is not even a one-sided ideal of M, (Z) ‘There exist ideals J and J ofaring R such that / Lo 00 {0 0 9) Then J is an ideal of J.J’ is an ideal of R. But J is not an ideal of R, since 1 01) (001 11 0 ol=|0 o ter. 0 0 ilo 0 0) loo 0 Let R bearing with unity and J be proper ideal of R then no element of J can have multiplicative inverse, Let J bean ideal of ring R such that /#R and R has unity 1 then lel Let I be an ideal of ring R and § be subring of R. Then FS is ideal of 5 Let Z be ring of integers and (m),(n) be ideals of Z. Then (m)+(n)=(a), where a is GCD of mn (m)v(u) = (0), where B is LOM of myn34. 3.41. 3.42. (xi) Every ideal of M, (A) ring of all (nxn) matrix over ring R, is of the form M,(J) where J is an ideal of R. Simple Ring Aring 2 is called a simple ring, if (@) There exist two element a, bth R such that ab #0. (b).R has no proper ideals i. the only ideals of R are {0} and R Results: . (Every division ring is simple ring Gi) Let R be a commutative simple ring with unity. Then R-is afield. ii). A commutative ring, R-with unity is a field iff ithits no proper ideals. (iv) The set of 2x2 matrices over rational numbers i. M,(Q {c Fhanede} isdeimple pe (%) Characteristic of simple ring is either zero or prime. (vi) 16 D is division ing M,, (D) is simple: Maximal Ideal ‘An ideal Mf in aring R is called maximal idealof R if M #2 and the only ideals containing M are M and R ive: if.3 ideal U of R such that MCUCR Theneither M=U or U=R Examples: (@) 4={(a%,y)) 2,» 2} is maximal ideal of ZxZ where p is prime (b) 4={(3x,y)|x,5€Z} is maximal ideal of ZxZ (© p& is maximal ideal of Z, where p is prime. (& {(0.0),(0,1)} & {(0,0),(1,0)} are the maximal ideal of Z> «Zz (©) 2Zx2Z is maximal ideal of ZxZ, o 4={rectoa) 1(3)- : i is not maximal ideal 3 (@ 4= {re cloals(5) =o} is maximal ideal. Prime Ideal Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal P is called a prime ideal if P+ R and whenever the product ab of two elements a,b n We say degree of f(x) is zero if ag #0 and a; =0.Vi>0 Im this case f(x) is called a constant polynomial, Remarks: (i) We do not define degree of the zero polynomial. (ii) 1f £(x)#0e R[x], then the degree of /((2) is a non-negative integer Note: Let R be a ring and f(x). and g(x) be two non-zero polynomials in R[x] then (ii) If f (x) + g(x) #0, then deg( f(x) +g(x)) 3 some by €R such that ayby Let f(x}=ay+0x+0x7 + & g(x)=by +0x40x? + then f(x).g(x)=agbo = F(x) isunitin R[x] Tf R is an integral domain then units of R and R[x] are same. If R is CRU and have zero-divisors then R[x] may have more units than R. If R is an integrai domain, then R[x] is also an integral domain, Prooft Let R be an integral domain Let f(x), g(x) be two non-zero elements of R| Fa)a(= |] such that(vi) (wit) (viii) @~ where f(x) =ay +a + a+ ay” g(x) by txt nt Byx™ Since both f(x) & g(x) can not be constant polynomials Hi constants then aq #0, by #0 So agby #0 S(x)a(x) 40 Since atleast one of them is non-constant polynomial its degree is 21 R being an integral domain dea( f(x) e(x))=degy (x) +dege(x)21 Which is a contradiction as f(x)g(x)=0 2 either f(x)=0 of g(x)= = R[x] is an integrat domain. Af R is a field then R[x] is an integral domain. Infact, R[x) can never be field. N Proof: Consider a non-zero polynoriil~ S(x)=04 1400? +. . Let g(x)=0y thx +bx” +.... be the multiplicative inverse of then f(x)g(x)=c +qxt+eqx7 should be unity e(x)=1+0x+0x? +... of R[x] => ah =0 Vi>0 where cy = agby = 0.b) =0#1 ; hence no g(x) can be inverse of f(x)=x = R[x] is nota field If R is a Gield, Then an element of R[x] is unit if and only if it is a non-zero constant polynomial over R.i.c., «] (xv) If F be an infinite field and f(x)eF [x], if S(a)=0 for infinitely many elements @ of F. Then /() is a zer0 polynomial Consequently, if f(x),e(x)eF [x] andi, f(a)=g(a) for infinitely many elements ‘a of F then. /(2)* (x) (xvi) TF Ris aring. Then R can be embedded in R[s]iLe,, every ting R is isomomphic to a subring of R[x] Proof: Define a mapping @: R~+ R[x] as o(a)=a+0x+0x +... VaeR this one-to-one since for any abe R 9(a)=0(b) => at 0x+0x? +..=b + 0x +03" +. > a=b Now, we show that § is a homomorphism, We have, (a +b) =(a+b)+0x+0x? + =(a+0x+0x" +..)+(6+0x+027 +.) =4(a)+4(b) and $(ab)= ab +0x+0x7 + = (04054007 +..)(6+00+087 +.) =0(2)-$(6) Hence @ is an isomorphism from R into R[x] i.e., R can be embedded in R[x] LF Bia ara nese LL, Ne a016 Ph IDDARY, Ca RBTODO E RTOTTN SORATOD cE ° -43. 43.1. 43.2. 43.3. (Qvii) If R & R’ are two isomorphi s R[x] and R’[x] are also isomorphic rings. hii (viii) Hf g:R-> Ri be 8 ting. jromomorphism then define w:k[x]> R[x] as (20+ aye. taqx") = 0ag)eAa)+..+0(an)2" Ys also a ring homomorphism. (xix) Foreach prime p, x?! -1=(z41)(x~2)..(x-(p-1)) in Z, [x]. (xx) Let R be a commutative ring if f(x) =p + a,x +... a,%” € R[x] is a zero-divisor, then 3 ah element b#0-in R such that bag = ba = ...= Bay =0 (xxi) Let f(x)=ap +a,x+...+4,x" 2 R[x] then (@) f(x) is unit in R[x] nilpotent in R day is unit>and 4\,a),..a, are (©) F(x) € R[x] is nilpotent. €5-dy,a)n,.date nilpotent in R (xxii) A polynomial f(x) ¢ F[x] (whete Fis, \ field) of degree m can have atmost n zeros counting mpity. > R[x] ib (xxiii) The quotient rin i jc to field of complex : * Ga) nel : numbers C. Division Algorithm Let R be a field and f(x),g(x)¢R[s] with g(x)#0. Then 3 unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) in R[x] sth that f(x) = g(x)q(x)+r(x)and or degr(x)0, 4 degree h(x) >0 O11) RGTTSE, Ce POTEGENN & 9OMAITH, SSBEREETISince degree of g & h is positive = g&k are not constant polynomials ogheR => g,h cannot be units in R => g,h cannot be units in R[x] = f(x) isnot irreducible element. i This contradiction proves out result. i (iv) If F isa field, then every irreducible polynomial of F [x] is imeducible element of F[x] and conversely. 45. - Irreducibility Tests 1. Ifa polynomial f(x) is of degree >1 and f(a)=0 for some ae F. ‘Then f(x) is reducible over F , where F isa field. | 2, Reducibility Test for degree 2 and 3: Let F be a field if i J(x)¢F[x] and deg /(x)=2 or 3 then f(x) is reducible over F if f and only if f(x) has azeroin F j ‘Example: (@ f(x)=2x*+4eR[x] Since f(x) has no zero in R = (x) is imeducible over R But, itis reducible over C. (b) f(x)=x*-2€Q[x] is irreducible over Q, since f(x) has no zero in Q. But itis reducible over R. (©) f(x)=x7 +1 is irreducible over Z,, but reducible over Zs 3. Let f(x) Q 4. Mod p irreducibility Test: Let p be a prime and suppose that S{xjeAfx] with deg f21. Let f,(x) be the polynomial in Zp [x] obtained from f(x) by reducing all the co-efficients of f(x) modulo P if f(x) is imeducible over Zy and deg f(x)=deg f,(x) , then F(x) is ireducible over Q. Z[x] if (x) is reducible over Z, then itis reducible over Remark: Be careful, do not use the converse of above statement if. F(x)eZ]x] and J, (x) is reducible over Z_, for some p, f(x) may still be irreducible over Q. 8 For example, consider f(x)=21x3 3x? +3448 "HAIL, rat lr) Sa Sra Hu Ka, Near LL-T New Dat 0016, Ph (01) 2657597, Cle SPIGA4 90916734, ASRAATIO Ema: nnncadey com: Web: rw ead om. === —— ; 5