Chapter 1: Set and Relations 1 Set 12 1.3 Functions and Their Properties. 1.4 Number Theoretic Functions .... 15 Some of the Tests of Divisibility .. Chapter 2: Basic Algebraic Structure 21 Self Contained System ... 22 Status Quo and Inverse Element... 2.3 Basic Properties of Group G Chapter 3: Groups Within Groups 31 Subgroup ....... 3.2. Subgroup Generated by an Element ... 3.3 Cosets and its Properties... 3.4 First Milestone of Modern Algebra .... Chapter 4: Some Important Groups of Finite Order 4.1 Cyclic Group and its Properties .. 4.2 Klein’s Four-Group ... Chapter 5: Symmetric Group or Permutation Group SA Symmetric Group .. 5.2. Definitions and Properties of Permutation Group «. 5.3 Alternating Group (4,) 5.4 Dihedral Group .... 5.5 Group under Multiplication Modulo 1,(x,) ... Chapter 6: Some Important Groups of Infinite Order 6.1 Infinite Cyclic Group of Integers under Addition.. 62 Power Set of Natural NUMbETS wnmmnnnnmmnnnrnnnn 63 Group of Non-Zero Complex Numbers Under Multiplication .. 64 — Group of Nou-Zero Real Numbers Under Multiplication ... 65 Group of p"—th Root of Unity in C” where p is a Prime Number 66 Group of Matrices under Matrix Multiplication .. So1 12 73 81 82 83 84 84 94 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 10.1 10.2 10.3 Chapter 7: Conjugate Classes and Class Equation Chapter 8: Invariant / Normal Subgroup Chapter 9: Homomorphism and their Counting Chapter 10: Sylow Theorems Assignment Sheet = 1 .snrmnnnnnn Assignment Sheet - 2 Assignment Sheet - 3 Assignment Sheet - 4 Assignment Sheet - 5 Assignment Sheet - 6 Defimition. enn Some Important Results ... Class Equation for some important Groups rnmenmme Conjugacy of Subgroups .... Tavariant/Normal Subgroups Simple Group .. Quotient Group ... Maximal Subgroups... Definition .. Elementary Properties of Homomorphism Some Important Theorems ....» Fundamental theorem of homomorphism «vm Important Propositions of Homomorphism/Isomorphism Counting of Homomorphism .... Internal Direct Product Definition .... Structure of Some Important GroupsCHAPTER 1 SET AND RELATIONS empty bt Mu suk: Li. Set A collection of well-defined objects or things is called set. By well-defined ‘we mean there is no ambiguity / confusion regarding the inclusion or t exclusion of any object. Note: ~ (@) “This is widely accepted definition for the set but not Ro (b) Generally, sets are denoted by Capital letters Sieh the objects collected in the set are called elements and denoted by Small letters. (©) When a set is formed by collecting”objects).a"new. object is created different from the objects in that collection > (@ No set can be a member of itself ie.sif Aig any'set then AeA but AGA Cardinality of Set: The number of elemiis iveset is called cardinality of the set. The cardinality of any set 4 is: dendted by y |4jor card (4) Subset: A set 4 is called a subset oFuhe 30-2, if each element of A is also an element of B ~ OR Any sub-collection of elements from a set is called subset of that set. Symbolically, we write itas ACB or Ac B. Note: If 4 Wiac sont oor ceaned netiere Relations and Counting of Relations (rtesian Product: Let xX and Y be two sets. Then set XxY=((a,0):aeX,beY} , is called Cartesian product of X andy. If [x|=n]y|=m then)x x7 Properties on Cartesian Product: AT XxVeYxX oN #Y, where X44, Yeo it Kar eba (er) nlrax)=6 A. Te | £O¥ |= ral(Xx¥)A(Y xX) er a XO Ifeither x =§,¥=$. Then XxY =p and¥xY So «_ Relation: A subset of XxY is called a relation Ss) a bina, relation from X toY. — Number of Relations: Total oumbes of Felationt a equal to the number of subsets of XxY ic, |P(XxY) or Ai Nil element in the power set of Xxyie, 27-20 foary Relation: A subset S of Ax oe binary relation on 4 or ~ simply a relation on 4 if fora,b eA, wore en We write aSb and say a is related to b Number of binary relations on a & Abe a set such that | A=» ‘Then Ax have n? elements. So, every subset of Ax is a relation implies total number of relations on 4 is 4 P(4xA)E 2" Types of Relations: Empty relation: As ¢ is subset of every set hence ¢c Ax is also a relation on 4 called Empty relation. ic:, no any pair of element satisfies the given condition. _ entity Relation: A subset [ of 4x4 is called Identity relation on 4 if aeA then (a,ayetand (a,b)€! ifaeb. Let A={aja;,04,) be a set of m elements. Then a subset 1 = {(4,,4))s(@,4)n(@qs2)} Of Ax A is called identity relation. Note: 290m a seta relation is said tobe identity ifevery element of 4 is related to itself only. \ by Identity relation is unique for cach set Reflexive relation: A relation S on a set A is called Reflexive relation if Every element of A must related to itself i.e. a subset S of Ax A is called reflexive relation on A, if Vae A (a,a)eS "HAI, Fir iw) Sa Sara Hour Khas, Neat LUT, New DAME-IGO16 Ps (OH) ROSS707, Cal VHT 9O99IGTTI, ESHBGITIN ema nf academy com: Webs Wr dlostadem.comme fins NG i [34 of Reflexive! Relation vd Example: Number of reflexive relations on a set A= {1,2,3} is 64 #4 ftbe yoke A Total number of reflexive relation on A=2""", where 1A 45 Empty relation on non-empty set is never Reflexive relation. \GiiJEmpty relation on empty set is always Reflexive relation. <9) The least cardinality of a Reflexive relation on a set with m elements is IR. Cieicea.a, ne eae | ; reflexive Relation: A subset S of AxA is irreflexive if x, Vaed=(a,a)¢5 , ic. § is lireflexive relation on ¥-if no,element of | > SML= A is related to itselt. \ Properti Gi Total number of ireflexive relations on A Example: Number of ireflexive velations on a Set ™ =(2,3) is 64 SS (i Irreflexive relation is not an exact negation of Yeflexive relation ie., there exist some relations on set 4 which are-reflexive as well as ly Ineflexive. ‘=| @iJEmpty relation on an empty set ‘is Reflexive relation a well as Inreflexive relation (yy There Does not exist any non-empty relation which is reflexive as well as Irreflexive relation a 17,002), There are relations, which are neither reflexive nor Irreflexive. Example: If A= {a,b}, then relation S={(a,a),(a,b)} is neither reflexive nor Irreflexive _-Symmidiric Relation: A relation Son a set A is called symmetric if | (b,a)€S whenever (a,b) eS for a,b€ A i.e. a relation is symmetric if and _ only if a is related to b implies that b is related to a Propertic <5 @-Number of Symmetic relations = 25" Examplé: Number of Symmetric relations on a set 4 = (1,2,3} is 64 (ii) Baipty relation is always symmetric relation on any set A as Bany £ (a,b)e8 such that (b,a)¢ S. a | (iiiyldentity relation is symmetric relation but'3 some relations which are symmetric but not identity. Example: Let R={1,2,3} and R={(1,2),(2,1)} be a relation on A. Then R is symmetric relation on A but not identity relation. _ Asymmetric Relation: 4 relation § defined on is called asymmetric ~ whenever (a,b) €5 = (ba)eS 8 2AAL, Frat lor ia Sara Haz Khas, Neat LET, Now Do-1016, Ph (1) 2650507, Cel: 9999180434 & 999 161734, BERET smal afodsaatenycom: Website wr dipaeade- aRb \GiifTotal umber of equivalence relations on 4 = Total number of partitions of A Leff P(r) denotes the number of equivalence relations on a set with 7 elements. Then P()=1,P()=1, P(2)=2,P)=5,P(4) =15 Say in general, P(n +1) SCP) «<_Pabular Form for Number of Partitions of a Set“ P@= [i . PQ)= 19 [2 PQ)= 2933/5 P(4)= 5710 >f15 P(S)= 154520 27-337) P(6)= 52°567-487 4114-151 [203 PQ) = 203 -» 255 + 322 + 409 + 523 > 674 [877 Congruence Relation of Z (The set of integers): Let a,b¢ Zand m be a positive integer. Then we say a is congruent to 6 modulo m iff m|(a—b), symbolically a = b(modm) and read as a is congruent to b modulo m Properties: iy Congruence relation is an equivalence relation Gil If a= 6(modm) then « & 6 both leave the same remainder when divided by m . Gi) If ca = eb(modm) =a = b(modm/ d), where d = ged(c,m) Als) If a=b(modm) and c=d(modm) then ate=b+d(modm) & ‘ac = bd(mod m) (WV) If a =b(modm) =>a* = 6 (modm) for any positive integer k.. Converse need not be true. Note: a? =57(modm) need not imply that a = (mod m) . For example =2? mod 5 but 3 « 2mod5 Ne If ca umber. wit -b(mod p)& p fc then (mod p) where p is prime (mod m) => ged(a,m)= g.cd(b,m) che) deeCh ioe ec caes REED aka 4 Rb | a Re preRbh (5 by, teu hi g Erm nffaipncademcom: Website: WW diosacaden come "HAD, at lw) Bia Sarak oz Khas Near LL New Deir 11016, Ps i) 26537507, Ca SOOIRM & 90916179, SHOOTS BBPuipsauadmy dirtsg 9001 2008 Corned inte ‘Some Important Theorems: srmat’s Theorem: If p is prime, then a? = a(mod p) Va eZ, ~ Fermat's Little Theorem: If p is prime, then a’~' = 1(mod p) and point | @ VaeZ. Converse of Fermat's theorem need not be true, Wilson’s Theorem: If p is a prime number , then (p~1){=—I(mod p) ox (p=I)# 1 = O(mod p) B Converse of Wilson's Theorema: If (m-1)!+1 is divisible by m,then m isa prime number. j Pséudo Prime: A composite integer n is called pseudo rie Sf it satisfies | the congruence equation 2" = 2(mod n) ~ _Note: Upto 340, integers which satisfies above quit wre rine only) ‘and “341 is the first composite which satisfies the eatin and i he smallest pseudo prime. Few next peeuo primes ae G16 Congruence Equation: Let a,be2 and hs dave integer. Then ‘ax = b(mod n) is congruence Equation, \\ \ | Rule/ ‘The linear congruence ax = (Goin) Mis a solution iff gcd(a,n)=d |b; and it has exactly, d-thutually” incongruent solutions modulo n. Some important Properties: SS ; (@) Let P@)=Sax',a,¢Z be a polynomial and P(a) = P(b)(mod n) Gi) If p is prime number and d\(p-1). Then the congruence equation (mod p) or x“ -1=0(mod p) has exactly d_ solutions. x (Gil) Let @ be an odd integer. Then (a) x’ =a(mod 2} always has a solution (b) x? =a(mod4) has a solution iff @ = 1(mod 4) (© # sa(mod2"), forn>3 has a solution iff a =1(mod8) i phantine Equation: Let a,b,c Z such that a+ 0,60. An equation of ‘the form “ar +by+e =0 is called Diophantine equation. The integers 2.7» is said to be solution of equation ax+by+c=0 if ax +byy+e=0 Note: ax+by+e=0 has solution (a#0,b+0) if and only if d|c where d=gcd(a,b). If x,y is any particular solution of ax+by+e=0 then all other solution of this equation are given by rene'r and » a Gf varying over integers ¢ 284, a lw) Sia Sarl Haz Khas Near LT, New Dei 10016 Ph (ID}36257627, Cals IPOUSH ke SOMTTS4 SETI ‘emul iflnencndemy com: Website: wwe dssendcmy.comTy Sino seer taooe coveted maces / Exgihple: Find the remainder when 2° divided by 7. 2! = 2{w0d 7) => 2° = 4(mod 7) => 2* =8(mod7) => 2° = 1(mod7) = (28) =1(mod7) 92 a1(mod7) = 2.2? = 4(mod 7) (mod?) Thus, 4 i remainder when 2° is divided by 7. / ie divi Example! Find the remainder if 3* is divided by 23. => 3° =-5(mod 23) 53!" 2 2(mod23) = 3° = 4(mod23) 2 3 = (0423) \_ => 36.3 =16(mod23) = 3” = 16(mod23) i SS ~ Exgimple: Find the remainder obtained by dividing. weaidht. +100! by 12. Solution: Since HaAYS-6.0.k 2056 124-344... +1001 remainder. Linear Congruence: A polynomial congruence vf degree | is a linear congruence. Any linear congruence can be Written in the form ax=D(modm) where ais not congruent t0-0.ctod mice. « is not divisible by m - Solution of Linear Congruence: An integer x, is said to be a solution of the linear congruence ax =b(smodm)i€ ax, =b(mod m) ie. ifm| (ax, ~b) “a for k24 ‘this way, we get, 9 is the required yperties: 9) Alina congenc my or may ot hav asolation (ii) The linear congruence ax=6(modm) has a solution if and only if ge.d (a,m) divides 6 Gii) If gcd (a,m)=1, the congruence ax = b(mod m) has a unique solution. Example} Find the number of solutions of 3x =5(mod7) Solution: The given congruence is 3x=5(moa7) . On comparing with ax#6(modm) we have @=3,6=5 and m=7 Since d= ged(a,m)=ged(3,7)=1, which divides b=5 Hence the congruence (mod 7) has one and only one incongruent solution (moulo 7) 3x Chinese Remainder Theorem: If (m,n)=1 then we can find integers w andy such that mu-+nv=i and then x= bmu-+anv(mod mn) is solution of this system. Important Result Let p be a prime number. The least value of m such the p™ divide n!but p™" does not divide n!, where n is natural number greater than 1, is “ih TUCO 324A, (iat Pow) Sa Sarl Haz Kas, Near LET, New DAMELIOOTG, Ph: (OD) 2ES37S7, Cale 9991KS4 & SPATOLT4, ASECTAD Ell lfoitdoencadeuy.con Wate: we dinecaden comTy Kaisa s00t 2008 certed neues 33. Fanetions and Their Properties : vain Let A and B be non-empty sets, Then a function f from 4 to 4 is a rule which assigns ‘each element of Ato a unique element of B. © We write f(a)=5, if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the element a of A. b is called image of a under f and ais called a pre-image of b. Note: A is called domain of f ; Bis called co-domain of f and the collection of all images is called range of . Clearly range fc B ‘Types of Function: Let f:A—>B bea function, Then f is saidtobe ‘One-one (injectiv A have same images. Band f is a bijection. Then f~': B—> A such that if f(@)=b= f(b) =a is called Inverse map of f . Note: A function f: A> Bis invertible <> f is bijective. 1.4, Number Theoretic Functions Euler's ¢— Function: It is a function from Z* to Z* , denoted by 4:2" 9 2* and defined as 4(n than or equal to n and co-prime to » ‘number of natural number which are less Properties on Euler’s ¢— function: row are primes and a,b,ceZ* then integer n, 6(n)=(n—1) € nis prime number. \ ii If p is prime and &> 0, then Ho=2'(1-4) P (iv) ¢2n) = 6(7) if n is odd positive integer ((___ AR Wate Sea ss Kay Nea LE, New DaBLIOOG Ps AGEN, Ca PPG & ATCT ASSLT? ‘email nfiiomcadem\ oa: Webi wwmalonsendemcon.<9) The sum of positive integers which are less than n and co-prime to n is b(n) 3 > forn> 1 «(vi 6(n) tends to infinity as n tends to infinity (vii) If wand dare two positive integers such that d divides », (4(n} then $(d) divides 4(n) i.4(4)|4(n) (viii) ¢(mn) = $(m)8(n) if god(m,n)=1i.e. if m and n are co-prime C8) (re) = O02) HO) HE MMos AEE Rome number i.e. ged.(n.nj)=1¥ ij ™ (x) (n)is an even number V n23. ~~ \ ~~ YSS \. (xi) @(») function is neither one-one nor onto, ~ YO \ \_Biller’s Theorem: Let abe any integer aglaeeey pisisve integer such that a and » are co-prime then a%") = I(mody) ~~ myc? Kea oe Theorem: For each ne Za =Wei+¢(d,)+..+d,) where disd,..d, are positive divisors of » =~ ‘Tau- function r(n): It is a function from 2Z*to 2* denoted by ¢:Z' > 2* and defined as +(n) = number of positive divisors of Properties on Tau- function r(n): \ 4 If n= ptg’r!. ate prime numbers and ,6,¢,.. are natural numbers. Then x(n) =(a+1)(6-+3){c+!)...= number of positive divisors of n i) If (mn)=Lie., mand nate co-prime. Then (m2) < Gii) If ne Z* then «(n) =2.¢2 nis prime (ivy For neZtand n> 1. Then <(n) is odd < n is perfect square ic. n=m? forsomem eZ" (v) If n>1be an integer, then product of all positive divisors of nis 7") a (Wi) 22 viol, mez? (Vii) (1) -» cas n> ©, ‘BAI Fa lor Sia Sara Haut Khas, Near LT, New ben 11006, Ph (1) 2657327, Cele 9p) DIGITS, BSURITIS email infodipancadenycom: Webi: rrstipacademy camPascoe ‘Rniso S008 2000 caratied nets Sigma-function_o() : It is a function from z* to z* denoted by Suu 9:2" +" and defined as a(n) = sum of positive divisors of » Properties on Sigma-function o(n) (i) If n= p*q’r®.. where p,g,r,... are primes and a,b,c,..¢Z* . Then ("=i (ei) @ (i) If (mn)=Li.e., m and n are co-prime, Then o(m) = o(m).0(n) o(n) (ii) For integer n>1, 6(n)=odd number < nis a perfect square ortwice of a perfect square Avy o(n) > 0 a8 nr 1.5. Some of the Tests of Divisibility: \ 1. For every N be any positive integer NV is.of the-form ayay_,ay_2-.2204 where 4; € {01.2.9} i= Olio Example: N =20691 then ay = 2,43 = 0,03 6,0) = 9,49 =1 WN is divisible by 2¢9 ay is divisible by. 2 =last terms is divisible by 2. 3° N is divisible by 35 sum of agate is divisible by 3 ie. ay +4, ++ a4 is divisible by 3. 4. N is divisible by 42 aay is divisible by 4 ie. last two terms are divisible by 4. 5. N is divisible by Se>either ay =00r a =5 <8: N isdivisible by 6 <> Nis divisible by 2 and 3 both 7._N is divisible by 7 <> (a,ajay)~(as2423)-+(a92p46)...is divisible by 7. Example: If N=258732256§)03 As 103-568+322~87+2=-128, which is divisible by 7. So 1 is divisible by 7. 8. WN is divisible by 8 <> a,a,a9 is divisible by 8 ie. last three digits must be divisible by 8. N is divisible by 92 sum of a9,0,,03,..,4, is divisible by 9 ic. dy +4, +. 94 is divisible by 9. MO. NV is divisible by 10 <> ay = 0 "HADI, rt lo) a Seas Haus Kis Nar ULE, New Dai 016; Ph 11) 368)7597, Cle 991K & 909161756, RENT nwa aftionen deny am, Web: we dipendTy Aniso b008 2008 Geriied nates UCN is divisible by 11 <1 1divide (@ a, +a... ay) Example: If N=1571427 As 1-$47-1+4-247 = 11, which is divisible _12. N is divisible by 12¢9.N is divisible by 4 and 3 both, 13. N is divisible by 13 <> (ayaa) ~(asayas)+(aga)..18 divisible by 13. 14, W is divisible by 14 ¢> Nis divisible by 2 and 7 both 15, N is divisible by 15 <> Nis divisible by 3 and 5 both 16. N is divisible by 37 if (a,a,a9)+(asagay) +. is SN SY Example: If N =22125744515 As SiS 744 RR Os whichis | AS divisible by 37, then N is divisible by 37. "HADI, a Plow) Sa Sarl, a Khas, Near ELT, New DaBFIIOO16, Ph: (11SEC 999185034 & DPPI6IT4 SEERA Ean lfoadonesdom.cu: Website: ww dotcademy comCHAPTER 2 BASIC ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE 2a. Self Contained System Binary Operation and Algebraic Structure: Binary Operation: Let G be a non-empty set. Any mapping or function from GxG to G itself is called binary operation on a set G i., a function F£:GxG >G isabinary operation on set G ‘Nuthber of binary operations: Number of binary operation oh.a non-empty finite set G with cardinality » : Algebraic Structure: A non-empty set equipped witli one oF more binary "| operations is called algebraic structure. The algebraic structure consisting of aset G and binary operations + , © ‘on Gis-denoted by (G, *;») Notations: . + = Ordinary addition of complex numbers Ordinary multiplication of complex nunibers Ordinary subtraction of complex numbers Examples of Binary operation and algebraic structures: 1. Let us consider G = N( set of natural’ numbers). If va,b ¢N, we define ‘son Nas ()” a*b=a+8, then (N,+) is algebraic structure since sum of two natural numbers is again natural number. (ii) a* (iil) a+ = max{a,6y then (Nis algebraic structure. nin{a,b}. then (N,*)is algebraic structure (iv) a*6= LCM {a,) then (Nis algebraic structure. () a*b=HCF (a,b) then (N,*)is algebraic structure. (vi) @*6=a—b. Then '+' is not binary operation on N as for 2&1 N but 1-2=-1eN (vil) a*b= at most 5 more than a+b. Then '+' is not binary operation on N as for 1,2€N 1*2=3or4 or 5 or 6, which not unique 2. For G = (set of real numbers). If v a,b ¢ R, we define '**on Ras (0%) =a+b then (R,+)is algebraic structure. Gi) a*b = min{a,6} (&.*) is algebraic structure. (iii) a*b =a" then ™' is not binary operation on G as for a then a*h=(-1)!? =1¢R (iv) a*b=a-b then (R,~)is algebraic structure. 84/3, rat Flor a Sara Maus Khas, Near ELT, New Dei11006, Ph (11) 26597597, Clr 999183054 & 899161734, HERAT "smal faftzdoees deny com Webake: www ipneade.om3. G= P(N) (Power set of natural numbers). If v_4,Be P(N), define "+ as iy” 4* B= AUB, as union of two subset of Nis again subset of N = A*Be P(N) =(P(N),U)is algebraic structure (i)“4*B= ANB, then ANB, is again subset of N = (P(N),M) is “algebraic structure Gif) 4° B= (4—B)UB—A) then (P(N).A) algebraic structure and this binary operation is calied sywmetric difference of two sets and \ denoted as MB =(4UB)-(4118) 4. G=Myen(R) (© set of all nxn matrices over set of real numbers). For A=[aj]},8 =[by), define '# as x | GY A*B La; *bj]=Ley] (= component wise nivligicaifon). Clearly, [cj]is nn matrix over R => (G,*)is an algebraic stricture Gif A*B=[a, +by) (component “wise addin), hen (G4) is an algebraic structure (ii) A*B=[ej] matrix obtained by ordinary matrix’multiplication then (6) in an algebraic structure, 5._For G=2 ( Set of integers). For everva,h< 2. Define '#' as G@) a*b=a+b then (2,+) is an algebraic Structure =b then (Z,~) is an algebraic Structure .b= ordinary multiplication of integer. Then (Z.) is an algebraic structure Associative binary Operation: Let * be a binary operation * on a set G Then if two or more elements operated together, we get a string. A binary operation is said to be associative if anywhere in the string brackets are inserted then the result is unchanged. It is property of binary operation alone not of the set. That is a binary operation * is called is associative if Va,b,ceG, a*(b*c)=(a*b)*e. Note: The associativity of a binary operation does not depend on the set. tis property of operation only i.e, once this holds, then will remain satisfy with every subset smmutative Binary Operation: Let *be a binary operation on G. Then is said be commutative if and only if a+9=btaVa,beG ic. each clement of G commutes with each other. ree cee eae eran norte ore binary operation on a set G, ordered pais (a, B) and (6, a) are mapped to the same element. So the total number of commutative binary operations on nD, lee) G of cardinality w is equal to # ? “=n 2, and number of non- ‘commutative binary operatio (At an a ag Na EE Ne DOING Fs HDRES, ca BON eae TD aml infddlopendon Webale: wn dloseadeay om22. ‘A non-empty set equipped with unique binary operations is called quasi group or groupoid. Example: (N, +),(Z,+), (Q,-),(2 -) are all Groupoid. | Semi-Group: A Quasi group in which binary operation is associative is called semi group, Examples: @ (AN (E4428 +.B, (RR) all are semi group (ii) (PCN), U),(PO%),),(PCN), 4) all are semi group. Gi (0°, +).(2, Status Quo and Inverse Element ) are not semi groups Identity Element: Let G be a non-empty set and *\be-a binary operation ‘on G. Then the element eG such that x*e=etx=x-vxeG. Then e is called identity element (neutral element) with respect io Mor element. Examples: 1. (1) is a monoid with identity element 1 A semi group (G,*) is said to be monoid if it has an identity 2. (2,+) is amonoid with identity element 0. 3. (PCN), U) is a monoid with identity elenient, the mull set @ A. (P(N), 1) is a monoid with identity element, the set IN. 5. (P(N),A) is a monoid with identity element, the null set @ 6. (B, -) is a monoid with identity element 1 S. | Examples | pinary [ Quasi | semi | Monota ne. operation | group | group 1. | (N9),a*b=LCM{ab} | Yes Yes | Yes | Ye=) 2. | (N#),a%b=HCF {a,b} Y Y Y No 3. | (N4),a*b=I less then | No No {No | No min {a,b} 4 | (N,*),a*b =a" Yy : y \N N 5. | (N*),a*b=at most a+b | N N N N 6 | (4),arb=at least N a N N N Erma infdipacadecom: Webi: wore dbtcadeny comLe sae uted Sless than a+b - | (poN).*), X*¥=xUY |Y Y Y Ye=@) 8 | (pq), xev=xny | Y yo oly ren % | (pay), xt¥=xay | Y Y Y e=4 10. | (n*),a*b=(a+b+ab) | ¥ Y Y N i. Uftinineny | N NIN [N (ordinary multiplication of N) Inverse Element: Let * be a binaty. dpétation oh a set Gand let « be the identity element in G for binary operation *sThéeléinant a’ eS is said to be an inverse of aeS if a*a’ \ 1. In (N, -), the identity element is only element which has inverse - 2. In(Z, +), every element has an inverse and for each €Z its inverse is (rn). 3. In (Z, -) only 1 and -1 have inverse elements 4,7 In (P(N),M), the identity element is N, and only one element N has inverse, $. In (R,+), every element has an inverse 6. In (R,-), every non zero element has an inverse. Group; A Monoid in which each element has inverse, that is 4 non-empty set G with a binary operation + is called a group if for every ,b,ceG, the Following properties hole: R(asb)*c=a(b4c) called (Associative law) P, : There exists e¢Gsuch that ate=era=a (Existence of identity element) P,: For each aeGthere exists a“ eG such that aa” (Existence of inverses) Order of Group: Let (G, *) be a group. The cardinality of G(finite or infinite) is defined as the order of group and it is denoted by O(G) =|Gi A, i Fora Sra Hous Khas Near LL, New DeBF-110016, Ph (1H) 26507527, Cale SHVIA34 K DHPIGITOGSSBEHTES J | | smal naisacaden com: Webste: wr dptcademy com |PEN Ce Ce eT iey Abelian Group: A group in which binary operation is commutative. That is a non-empty set G with a binary operation « is called a abelian group if for every a,b,c G, the following properties hold. R:(a*b)*e=a4(b4c) (Associative law) P, : There exists e€Gsuch that ate=e+a=a . (Existence of identity element) Py: For each aeGthere exists a“! eG such that ava"! (Existence of inverses) Py: Foreach abeG such that atb=bea (Commutative binary operation) Examples: 1. {(C,+)set of complex numbers under additions. ~ G 2, (R,+) set of real numbers under additions 3. (Q.+) set of rational numbers under additions 4. (Z,+) set of integers numbers under additions 5, (Ct+) set of non zero complex numbers ittider multiplication 6. (R%s) set of non zero real numbers tinder multiplication 7. (Qt+) set of non zero rational numbers under multiplication 8. (P(N),A) power set of natural numbers under symmetric difference 9. Gb(n,F) the group of nxn matrices with non-zero determinant with entries from the field F under matrix multiplication is group named as General linear group is a non abelian 10. 5L(n,F) the group of nxn matrices with determinant 1 entries from the field F under matrix multiplication is group named as special linear sroup is non abelian group levi 14+V3i areeene LL. The set fo . “4 of the cube roots of 1 2 forms abelian group with respect to multiplication of complex numbers € since a oy © oy oy o o o o oy o o oy o o o 238A, Pet Por a Sarak Haw Kis, Neat ELT, New Doi-10016, Ph (OI}268¥7S2, Ce 99918344 PO)916T734,ASERBETIO f Emil fafiadgrsendeny com: Website: ww dbiaeadeny om23. Basic Properties of Group G 1. Cancellation Law: () Leftcancellation law: If a,6,¢.¢G,then ab=ac implies b= (Gi) Right cancellation law: If a,b,c eG, thenba= ca implies b= 2. A finite semi-group in which both the cancellation law hold is a group 3. A finite semi-group G is a group if and only if G satisfies both the cancellation laws. 4. The identity element of a group is unique. _ 5 The inverse of each element in a group is unique 6 VabeG, cach of the equations ax=6 and :a=B%bad\a unique solution. a \ Je For every @€G, the inverse of the inverse of o isavie (a 8. (Reversal law) For every a,b8G; ()- shoes property) 9 For every aisdyyudy €G 5 (ayedgtoedy) “ai 10. Forany a€G,and meZ*, we define <® =oaa...a (m times), (otf =a" (oistimes) Note: The notation has been borrawed fiom the notation of usual ‘multiplication operation, Whenever the operation is addition, a” when ML. a” n>Ois to be interpreted as na=a+a+a+...ta(n times), and a" as n(-a) =(-a)+(~a)+(-a)+...(-a) (n times), Note that na is also shorthand and is not to be considered as the product of neZandaeG For any aeG, 12, For any aeG, 13. a" a" =a", where mneZ, 14. (a")' =a, wheremnez 15. If a! a",m#0,n20=3 a4 =¢ where d=g.c.d(m,n) 16. The integral power of an element commutes with each other i.e, Note: (a*b)* #6? *a? "HAA, rt lor a Sarat Haus Khas, Near LT, New DoB-HOO16 E-milinfdaioserdemy.com: We