Phonetics and Phonology

Prepared by
Ahsan Habib
Lecturer
Dept. of Humanities, RUET
 Phonetics
• Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, and how they
are produced. Phonetics has come from the word
„phone‟ that means sound or voice. So sound or voice
is closely related to phonetics. Phonetics is a branch of
linguistics that deals with the characteristics of speech
sounds. It helps us both to recognize and to produce
different sounds.
 Phonology
• Phonology is the study of how speech sounds are
selected, organized and used in a particular language.
Different languages select different sounds out of the
total inventory of sounds that can possibly be
articulated by man. And different languages organize
the selected sounds in different systematic ways. The
selection and organization of sounds in a particular
language constitute the phonology of that language.
Differences between Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds and how they are produced.
It deals with the characteristics of different speech sounds. On the other
hand, phonology is the study of how speech sounds are organized and used
in particular languages. It involves the consideration of meanings.
Phonetics is concerned with the actual physical production of speech
sounds, while phonology concerns the mental or abstract aspect of the
sounds in a language.
In phonetics there can be a sound between a / p / and a / b /. It means that
the sound can have certain characteristics of each—such as voicelessness of
an initial / p / and the relatively weak aspiration of an initial / b /. But in
phonology there are no such gradations. A sound is assigned to one
phoneme or another, and there are no in-between stages.
The techniques used by phonetics include the use of phonetic symbols
given by the International Phonetic Association [IPA]. On the other
hand, the phonemic symbols of English are based on the Received
Pronunciation [RP] to represent different sounds.
A phonetic symbol is enclosed in square brackets like [ t ] and
phonemic symbols is enclosed in slashed marks like / t /.
Phonetic units are called phones, whereas phonological units are
called phonemes.
Phonetics has its own symbols to represent sounds. But phonology
uses the symbols given by phonetics.
Phonetics deals with a large number of sound units, while phonology
deals with a limited number of sound units.
 Branches of Phonetics
• Phonetics is divided into three main branches:
i) Articulatory phonetics
ii) Acoustic Phonetics
iii)Auditory Phonetics

• Articulatory Phonetics: Articulatory phonetics may be defined as the general study of the
characteristics of speech sounds. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation of speech
sounds. This branch of phonetics tries to study how the various organs of speech—the lungs,
the larynx, the soft palate, the tongue and the lips—operate in the production of speech. It also
tries to give articulatory accounts of various sounds by describing the air-stream mechanisms as
well as the phonetory and articulatory processes involved.

• Acoustic Phonetics: It refers to the study of the physical properties or nature of sounds and
analysis of the speech wave with the help of instruments.

• Auditory Phonetics: This branch deals with the perception, via the air, of speech sounds.
 Classification of Speech Sounds
Speech sounds are classified, first and foremost, into vowels and consonants.

Vowel: A vowel is a speech sound for whose production the oral passage of air is
unobstructed—so that the air current can flow from the lungs to the lips and beyond,
without being stopped, without having to squeeze through a narrow construction,
without being deflected from the median line of its channel, and without causing any
of the supraglottal organs to vibrate. In other words, vowels are defined, in terms of
phonetics, as the speech sounds in the production of which there is—in the pharynx
and the mouth—no obstruction or narrowing of a degree that would cause audible
friction. Vowels are typically, but not necessarily, voiced.

In terms of their function in a given language, however, some of the sounds

determined in phonetic terms as vowels may be regarded as consonants. Such is the
case with the initial sounds in the English words „yes‟ and „wet‟, for example.
Consonant: A consonant, conversely, is a sound for
whose production the air current is completely stopped
by an occlusion of the larynx or the oral passage, or is
forced to squeeze through a narrow construction, or is
deflected from the median line of its channel through a
lateral opening, or causes any of the supraglottal organs
to vibrate. Consonants are either voiced or voiceless.
 Monophthongs/Pure Vowels

• The vowels—during the production of which the

position of the tongue remains unchanged—are called a
pure vowel or monophthong. There are twelve
monophthongs in English.
 Words
Vowel Sound Example Words
/i:/ Me, these, need, be, keep, deep, sheep, Jeep, beep, eat, feel, see, meet, deal, read, beat

/ɪ/ With, this, if, think, link, wink, rink, sink, big, six, live, since, miss, wrist, lift, pit, sit, pick, bill, fill, till, him

/ʊ/ Put, Would, Look, Woman, Hook, Nook, Food, Fool, Cool, Hue, Ooze, Moose, Boot, Cook, Rook, Took

/u:/ To, You, New, Who

/e/ Get, When, Well, Very, Bed, Said, Leg, Hell, Hem, Ben, Pen, Den, Ten, Men, Bend, Lend, Send, Bet

/ə/ The, About, Could, Us

/ɜ:/ Her, Work, Learn, Word, Burn, Turn, Firm, Bird, Curd, Curse, Curt, Shirt, Turk, Curl, Hurl, Earl, Pearl, Sir

/ɔ:/ Or, Also, More, Call, All, Mall, Hall, Shall, Fall, Tall, Wall, Paul, War, Ward, Warm

/æ/ Have, That, As, Can, Sad, bad, Bag, Lag, Hal, Ham, Ban, Pan, Dan, Tan, Man, Band

/ʌ/ But, Up, One, Much

/ɑ:/ Start, Ask, Large, After

/ɒ/ Of, On, From, Not

 Diphthongs
Diphthong signifies the combination of two vowel sounds. The word
„dipthong‟ takes its origin from Greek „di‟ meaning two, and „phthong‟
meaning sound. When a cluster of two vowels—being pronounced side by
side—produces one vowel sound, it is called a diphthong. In other words,
the sounds that consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another
are called diphthongs. In a diphthong, the first part of the combined vowel
sound is much longer and stronger than the later. And a diphthong
occupies a single syllable. There are eight diphthongs in English.
/aɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /i/, /igh/, and /y/ to form sounds similar to “eye.” Here are a few more examples:
Cry, My, Like, Bright, Lime
/eɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ey/, /ay/, /ai/ and /a/ to form sounds similar to “great.” Here are a few more
examples: Bake, Rain, Lay, Eight, Break
/əʊ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ow/, /oa/ and /o/ to form sounds similar to “boat.” Here are a few more
examples: Go, Oh, Slow, Loan, Though
/aʊ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ou/ and /ow/ to form sounds similar to “ow!” Here are a few more examples:
Bound, House, Brown, How, Now
/eə/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ai/, /a/, and /ea/ to form sounds similar to “air.” Here are a few more examples:
Pair, Lair, Stare, Care, Bear
/ɪə/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ee/, /ie/ and /ea/ to form sounds similar to “ear.” Here are a few more examples:
Career, Here, Near, Year, Pier
/ɔɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /oy/ and /oi/ to form sounds similar to “oil.” Here are a few more examples: Boy,
Coy, Toy, Foil, Coin
/ʊə/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /oo/, /ou/, /u/, and /ue/ to form sounds similar to “cure.” Here are a few more
examples: Fur, Sure, Lure, Pure, Manure
 Triphthongs
• The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are the triphthongs
• Very difficult to pronounce
• Very difficult to recognize
• Triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and
without interruption
• Triphthongs can be looked on as being composed of the following five diphthongs (/eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/,
/əʊ/, /aʊ/) with ə added on the end. Thus we get:

eɪ + ə = eɪə player, layer

aɪ + ə = aɪə liar, fire
ɔɪ + ə = ɔɪə loyal, royal
əʊ + ə = əʊə lower, mower
aʊ + ə = aʊə power, hour
 Consonants
A consonant sound can be described, with the help of the following details regarding production:
The air stream mechanism;
The state of the glosttis;
The position of the soft palate;
The place of articulation, and
The manner of articulation
The air stream mechanism: For all sounds of English, the air-stream is provided by the lungs, and the air is forced out—that is
all English sounds (vowels and consonants) are produced with a Pulmonic egressive air-stream mechanism.
[Note: Pulmonic egressive: In human speech, egressive sounds are those in which the air stream is created by pushing air out
through the mouth or nose. There are three types egressive sounds and they are Pulmonic egressive (exhaled), Glottalic
egressive and Lingual egressive]
The state of the glottis: The state of the glottis determines whether the vocal cords will vibrate or not. If it is closed, the vocal
cords vibrate and the sound produced is voiced. And if it is opened, the vocal cords do not vibrate and the sound produced is
voiceless. So speech sounds can thus be classified as „voiceless‟ and „voiced‟ in terms of the state of the glottis.
The position of the soft palate: Speech sounds can be classified as oral or nasal, depending upon whether the soft palate is
raised or lowered. If it is raised—thereby shutting off the nasal passage of air, there is a velic closure—during which only oral
sounds can be produced. If it is lowered, there is no such closure, and therefore either nasal or nasalized sounds can be produced.
Place of articulation: Consonants can be described according to the place of articulation. A sound is produced by using both
active articulators and passive articulators. According to the position of articulators consonants are described as bilabial, labio-
dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal.
Manner of articulation: A sound is also described in accordance with the movement of the air—whether the air is coming
suddenly, slowly, or between suddenly and slowly from lungs; whether the air is going out through the nose or the mouth. All
these different ways of producing sounds are together called the manner of articulation. And according to the manner of
articulation consonants are described as plosive, fricative, affricates, nasal, lateral, semi-vowels, etc.
Classification of English Sounds According to the
Places of Articulation
• The places of articulation refer to the various positions of articulators involved in
the production of consonant sounds. The place of articulation of a consonant is
determined by the passive articulator involved in the production of it, and
therefore the sound is also named after the passive articulator. So consonants can
be classified according to their places of articulation. The chief places of
articulation of consonants are the following:
• i) Bilabial: These are sounds made by using both the two lips. Examples of such sounds are the
initial sounds in the following English words: wait, mat, bat and pat. They can be represented
respectively by the symbols [w], [m], [b]—which are voiced—and [p] which is voiceless.
• ii) Labio-dental: These sounds are produced by placing the upper teeth against the lower lip. The lower lip
functions as the active articulator and the upper row of teeth, as the passive articulator. Examples of such
sounds are the initial sounds in the English words „fat‟ and „vat‟ and the final sounds in the words „safe‟ and
„save‟. They are represented by the symbols [f]—which is voiceless, and [v]—which is voiced.
• iii) Dental: These are sounds produced by the tongue-tip against the upper front teeth. The active
articulator is the tip of the tongue, and the passive articulator is the upper row of teeth. Examples of such
sounds are the initial sound of „thin‟ and the final sound of „both‟ and they are both voiceless dentals.
This sound is represented by the symbol [θ]. The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð] and is
found in the initial sound of „thus‟ and the final sound of „bathe‟. The term „interdental‟ is sometimes
used to describe a manner of pronunciation with the tongue-tip between the upper teeth and the lower
teeth.
• iv) Alveolar: These sounds are formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge—which is
the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper front teeth. The active articulator is the blade, or tip
and blade, of the tongue, and the passive articulator is the alveolar or teeth ridge. The initial sounds in
the words: sit, zoo, top, dip, and nut—are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are: [s], [z], [t], [d]
and [n] respectively. Among them [s] [t] are voiceless and the rest are voiced.
• v) Post-alveolar: The active articulator is the tongue and the passive articulator is the rear part of the
teeth ridge. The sound represented by the letter „r‟ in the words „rail‟ and „tree‟ is an example of post-
alveolar sound.
• vi) Palato-alveolar: Palato-alveolar sounds are produced by two simultaneous articulations: (1) the
blade of the tongue (active articulator) articulates against the teeth ridge (passive articulator), and (2) the
front of the tongue (active articulator) is raised towards the hard palate (passive articulator). The initial
sounds in the English words „shoot‟ and „chalk‟ are palato-alveolars which are voiceless and are
represented by the symbols: [ ∫ ] and [ t∫ ]. The sounds in the words „judge‟ and „pleasure‟ are also
palato-alveolars which are voiced and are represented by the symbols [ ] and [ ] .
• vii) Palatal: These sounds are produced by placing the tongue against or near the hard palate—the
hard, bony and concave surface lying immediately behind the teeth ridge. The active articulator is
the front of the tongue, and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The initial sound in the
English word „yes‟ represented by the symbol [ j ] is an example of the palatal sound.
• viii) Velar: These are sounds produced by placing the back of the tongue against or near the soft
palate or velum—the soft portion of the roof of the mouth lying immediately beyond the hard
palate. The active articulator is the back of the tongue, and the passive articulator is the soft palate.
Examples of such sounds are the initial sounds in the words „cool‟ and „go‟ represented by [k]
which is voiceless, and [ ] which is voiced. There is another voiced velar sound represented by [ ŋ
] which is found in the end of the English words „king‟, „sing‟, „song‟, etc.
• ix) Glottal: The opening between the two vocal cords in the larynx is called the glottis. Glottal
sounds are produced by the glottis. The articulators for the glottal sounds are the two vocal cords.
The sounds are produced by an obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction, but not by vibration,
between the vocal cords. The initial sound in the English word „hen‟ represented by [h] is an
example of the voiceless glottal sound.
• x) Retroflex: These sounds are produced with the end of the tongue turned up against the hard
palate. The active articulator is the underside of the tip of the tongue, and the passive articulator is
the front of the hard palate. The tip of the tongue is curled back in such a way that only its
underside articulates. The „r‟ sound—found in the General American pronunciation of words such
as rain, rat, and right—is an example of retroflex sound.
Classification of English Sounds According to the
Manners of Articulation
• The manner of articulation specifies the kind of closure or narrowing involved in the production of a sound.
No consonant is fully identified, or described, without stating the manner of its articulation. Depending on
whether there is a complete closure, a partial closure, or only a narrowing that causes audible friction,
consonants are classified into plosive or stop, affricate, nasal, roll, flap or tap, lateral, and fricative. Then there
are consonants in the production of which there is no noise and no audible friction. These are called
frictionless constituents and semi-vowels.
• i) Plosive or Stop: The sounds, which are produced with a stricture of complete closure and sudden release of
the air, are called plosives. During the production of these sounds, there is, first, a complete closure of the
passage of air at some point in the vocal tract. The active and passive articulators come into firm contact with
each other, thereby preventing the lung air from escaping through the mouth. Simultaneously, there is a „velic
closure‟—namely the soft palate is raised towards the back wall of the pharynx, thereby shutting off the nasal
passage of air. Thus, the lung air is blocked in the mouth. As a result, air pressure is built up behind the
closure. The oral closure is then suddenly removed—thus causing, in the process, a sudden release of the
blocked air with some explosive noise, and producing the plosive sounds. The initial sounds in the English
words: keen, go, pen, be, time, deep—are all plosives.
• ii) Affricate: The sounds—produced with a stricture of complete closure and slow release of the air—are
called affricates. As in the case of plosives, affricates are produced in three stages, the first two of which are
the same as for plosives—a complete closure of the air passage followed by a building up of pressure behind
the closure. At the third stage, however, the production of affricates is different from that of plosives. For
plosives the release of the blocked air is sudden. But in the case of affricates, it is slow. Because of a slow
separation of the articulators, a sort of friction will be heard. Affricates are characterized by some audible
friction. The initial sounds in the English words “chalk” and “jam” are affricates.
• iii) Nasal: The sounds which are produced with a stricture of complete oral closure and nasal opening are
called nasals. In the production of nasals, there is a closure only of the oral passage, while the nasal passage
remains open. The active articulator and passive articulators come into firm contact with each other—thereby
blocking off the oral passage of air completely. And at the same time, the soft palate is lowered so that there is
no velic closure and thus the nasal passage is opened. Now, the lung air can pass freely through the nose,
producing nasal sounds. The final sounds in the English words: sum, sun, and sung—are some examples of
nasal sounds.
• iv) Roll: The sounds—articulated with a stricture of intermittent closure—are trills or rolled sounds. As
against the plosives, the affricates and nasals, no closure is involved in the production of rolls. What is
necessary, instead, here are repeated taps. The soft palate is raised towards the back wall of the pharynx—
thereby shutting off the nasal passage of air. The active articulator—namely the tip of the tongue—taps
against the passive articulator—the alveolar ridge (or just behind it), or the uvula strikes against the back of
the tongue several times with the result that the air escapes between the articulators intermittently. Such a
stricture is termed intermittent closure, and thus rolled consonants are produced. The sound „r‟ used by some
English speakers in the initial positions of words like red, rain, rat, etc.
• v) Flap: The sounds, produced with a single tap, are called flaps. Whereas a roll consists of several taps, a
flap has a single tap. Here the active articulator strikes against the passive articulator just once and then
quickly flaps forward. In all other respects, the manner of articulation of the two is the same. Flaps are also
called taps. The „r‟ sound of the English word „very‟ is often pronounced as a flap by many English speakers.
• vi) Lateral: The sounds—that are articulated with a stricture of complete closure in the centre of the vocal
tract but with air escaping along the sides of the tongue without any friction—are called laterals. During the
production of a lateral sound, the active and passive articulators come into firm contact with each other. The
soft palate is raised—thereby shutting off the nasal passage of air. If the sides of the tongue are lowered—so
that there is plenty of gap between the sides of the tongue and the upper molar teeth, the air will escape along
the sides of the tongue without any friction. Since the air can pass continuously, the sound produced is a
„continuant‟, that is, it can be continued. The initial sound in the words „let‟ is a lateral sound.
• vii) Fricative: The sounds which are produced with a stricture of close approximation are called fricatives.
During the production of these sounds, the active articulator comes close to the passive articulator in such a
way that there is only a narrow gap between them. When, the soft palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal
passage of air, the lung air escapes through the narrow gape, producing audible friction. In this way, fricatives
are produced. The initial sounds in the English words: fine, vain, the, thin, ship, zoo, sun, and hat—are
fricatives.
• viii) Frictionless continuant: The sounds—produced with a stricture of open approximation—are called
frictionless continuants. During the production of these sounds, the soft palate is raised—thereby shutting off
the nasal passage of air. If the active articulator is brought close to the passive articulator—so that the gape
between them is wide, the lung air will escape through this gape without any friction. The example of a
frictionless continuant is the common variety of the „r‟ sound in Received Pronunciation (RP).
• ix) Semi-vowels: Semi-vowels are vowels that function as consonants. The initial sounds in the English
words „watch‟ and „yes‟ are examples of semi-vowels.