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The Impacts of Artificial Intelligence on Innovations

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The Impacts of Artificial Intelligence on Innovations

INTRODUCTION

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a technological advancement in which human intelligence is

simulated in machines that have been programmed to think and act like human beings. It is a

technology about human-machine interaction that changes the logic of human life and

working systems and transforms the quality of human life.1 Artificial Intelligence uses

adequate systems, techniques, and methods to solve real-world problems. Emerging

technologies and things like data science, big data, the internet of things, Artificial

Intelligence, blockchain, and cloud computing are some of the things that are changing the

modern world and how people live. The adoption of Artificial Intelligence results in a smart

and innovative world.

Rapid advancements in artificial intelligence have several impacts on the economy and

society at large. These innovations have a direct influence on employment, productivity, and

competition. The speed with which artificial intelligence is entering every sector gives many

companies a challenge to compete to create an Artificial Intelligence company.2 However,

artificial intelligence can change the innovation process itself, whose consequences may, in

the future, dominate the direct effect. Throughout history, innovation has always been the

main driver for improved standards of living. Today, almost all sectors use one or more of

these new technologies and especially artificial intelligence.

The field of artificial intelligence is still growing. Due to a lack of enough knowledge of

the increasing amount of information available, scaling leads to data problems for enforcing
1
. Charniak, Eugene. Introduction to artificial intelligence. Pearson Education India, 1985

2
. Tang, Xuli, Xin Li, Ying Ding, Min Song, and Yi Bu. "The pace of artificial intelligence

innovations: Speed, talent, and trial-and-error." Journal of Informetrics 14, no. 4 (2020):

101094.
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artificial intelligence technology.3 Moreover, many information branches and fields need to

make expert decisions when obtaining confidential information from various sources using

artificial intelligence. Therefore, there is a need to provide adaptive artificial intelligence for

real-time application use within a short period. 

Therefore, this paper will provide a piece of knowledge on the innovations and

contributions of artificial intelligence to businesses and society at large. It will also explain

how artificial intelligence has transformed business operations, research and development

organizations, and the global economy.4 The results from this research can be applied by the

developing countries towards the adoption of Artificial intelligence shortly. The study will

also help to know more about the artificial intelligence system in a better way.

Research Objectives

This research paper aims to clarify the current level of innovation, integration, application,

and impact of artificial intelligence on business. The current period is a fascinating period of

human history because of the technological innovations taking place at a significantly higher

rate. For instance, robots working in industries, artificial intelligence gamed, cars driving

themselves, and smartwatches monitoring patients' health are some of these technological

innovations from artificial intelligence. The research aims to answer the following questions:

1. What are the factors resulting in today's exponential growth in artificial intelligence?

2. Are all other technologies slowly being replaced with artificial intelligence?

3. How is the development of artificial intelligence affecting industries and all sectors

around the world?

4. How does artificial intelligence impact all businesses around the globe?

5. How is the influence of artificial intelligence transforming the market and future jobs?

LITERATURE REVIEW

3
. Ibid.
4
. Ibid.
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The Economics of New Research Tools

The economists have acknowledged the benefits of underinvestment in research.

Distortion of innovations may be less or more due to the insight consideration gained in the

conditions of incentives in terms of both overall direction and the research level.5 General-

purpose technology gives a rise in the innovation process that can lead to underinvestment

and distortions in the direction of investments. Lack of incentives in a sector can lead to an

indirect externality that results in a systematic reduction in innovative investments.

  Another concept for thinking about artificial intelligence is the economics of research

tools. In the research industry, innovations lead to new areas of inquiry as well as improve

productivity. Most of these advancements have significant potential across a wide range of

domains beyond the initial applications. According to the classic studies of hybrid corn by

Griliches in 1957, new research tools invented create or improve the product and involve a

new way of creating new products, with more and broad applications.6 The hybrid corn

invention represented a comprehensive method for breeding new different varieties. This

invention contributed largely to agricultural productivity.

One of the most important results of these innovations is that the economic impact of these

research tools reduces the cost of innovation activities and provides a new approach to

design. For example, before coming up with double-cross hybridization, the main focus in

agriculture was self-fertilization.7 Therefore, when hybridization was systemized and the

5
. Mitchell, R. S., J. G. Michalski, and T. M. Carbonell. An artificial intelligence

approach. Berlin: Springer, 2013

6
. Griliches, Zvi. "Hybrid corn: An exploration in the economics of technological

change." Econometrica, Journal of the Econometric Society (1957): 505.

7
. Ibid., 510
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advantages demonstrated, the techniques and conceptual approach for innovations in the

agricultural field were shifted, leading to new tools and knowledge in systematic design.

The innovations of machine learning and neural networks have a significant impact on the

classifications and prediction area. The invention of optical lenses had an economic impact,

although the lenses had substantial and long-lasting effects on science, growth, technological

change, and welfare. Through making microscopic objects to appear large, lenses opened up

new technological innovations.8 Leung et al. (2016) described machine learning as an

excellent opportunity to read genomes in ways that humans could not perceive and recognize.

The immediate impact of many research tools is to reduce the cost and improve the quality

of the existing innovation processes.9 For instance, in the pharmaceutical industry, new

material kinds promise the enhancement of the efficiency of specific research processes.

Besides, the innovation of genetically engineered research mice has a significant impact on

biomedical research. The challenge posed by artificial intelligence advancements is that they

appear to be research tools that can change the innovation method and have broad

implications across a wide range of fields.

Furthermore, another essential feature of the research tool is that it is challenging to

approximate its benefits. Providing an appropriate service is mainly a challenge when

contracting the innovator is not perfect, and the uncertainty of the new tools' application.10

When the innovation requires multiple steps, providing an appropriate benefit poses a

question on whether and how to give the rights in general and how to distribute property

8
. Leung, Michael KK, Andrew Delong, Babak Alipanahi, and Brendan J. Frey. "Machine

learning in genomic medicine: a review of computational problems and data

sets." Proceedings of the IEEE 104, no. 1 (2015): 178.

9
. Ibid., 183
10
. Ibid., 185
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rights and incentives across the stages of the innovation process. For instance, the lack of

stimuli during the early stages of innovation means that the subsequent innovations' tools will

not be invented.

The Evolution of Artificial Intelligence

According to Nilsson's (2010) research, Artificial Intelligence is defined as any activity

aiming to make machines intelligent. That is the quality that enables an organization to

function appropriately with the planning in its environment.11 Artificial intelligence has been

unified since its invention by its engagement and the possibility of mechanizing intelligence.

The intellectual history of artificial intelligence as a scientific and technical field is described

by distinguishing between three separate but interrelated areas, namely robotics, symbolic

systems, and neural networks. 

Historically, the most prosperous area of research in the history of artificial intelligence

falls under symbolic systems. Early inventors were more concerned with artificial

intelligence as a learning process. However, the symbol processing hypothesis was based on

the replication of human decision making through processing symbols.12 Several attempts to

demonstrate this process have successfully established projects, such as a computer's ability

to navigate the elements of board games such as chess. The research-based on the concept of

general problem solutions has been an area of interest. There are also several areas of interest

in the use of such approaches to assist human decision making. While symbolic symbols

continue to be an area of research, it has not been central to artificial intelligence applications

commercially.

11
. Nilsson, Nils J. The quest for artificial intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

12
. Iliadis, Lazaros, Ilias Maglogiannis, and Vassilis Plagianakos, eds. Artificial

intelligence applications and innovations. Springer International Publishing, 2018.

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The other influential area in artificial intelligence ought to be robotics. The robot's concept

as a machine that can perform human tasks is an old concept that dates back to the 1940s. It

began to gain momentum in the 1980s by combining advancements in numerically controlled

machine tools and the development of more adaptive and rule-based robotics that can sense

the environment.13 These machines are programmed to perform a specific task in a controlled

environment. Over the past two decades, robotics innovations have a significant impact on

automation and manufacturing by introducing more responsive robots that use programmed

algorithms to respond to several stimuli.

The advanced robots continue to capture the public imagination when the term artificial

innovations are being talked about. Automation of laboratory equipment has increased the

speed of research productivity, but robots are not connected with the advancement, making

researchers take innovations across many domains. The robotic space has been the best

helpful research tool in the scientific field. The automated remote sensing tools to collect data

at a large scale or in a more challenging environment may change some areas of research. 

Learning can now be characterized as the third stream in artificial innovation. Learning

approach trials to bring out reliable and more accurate ways for the predictions of physical

and logical way events in the presence of particular inputs has been focused more than the

symbolic logic or sense and reacting systems.14 A neural network has also been mainly

crucial in this specific areal of artificial innovation. A neural network is a program that

combines weights and thresholds to change a set of inputs into a set of outputs, and it

measures the closeness of the results to reality and then adjusts the weight it uses to narrow

the distance between the works and reality. 

13
. Ibid.
14
. Brooks, Rodney A. "Elephants don't play chess." Robotics and autonomous systems 6,

no. 1-2 (1990): 7

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Neural networks, in this way, can learn more as they feed more inputs. It is a critical step

to differentiate the three artificial innovation streams into bringing a more developing and a

better understandable process due to the difference in their potential significance.15 Now that

the significant improvements in artificial innovations have not been in general problem

solvers, the symbolic systems motivated human thinking capacity. The recent advancements

of robots and deep learning need a highly significant level of human planning to narrow the

problem-solving problems in projects.

In the future, further breakthroughs can lead to technology that can lower the nature of

human intelligence. Scientific and commercial attention is as well removed from these

domains by the recent advances.16 Secondly, these advancements have consequences of being

considered in future economic effects like job opportunities decreased. It is essential to focus

on improving robotics and the application of deep learning, which have taken over for the last

few years. Robotics are positively associated with highly specialized applications. 

Deep Learning as a General-Purpose Technology

Robotics is an area where it is more widespread and has more improved performances in

terms of job displacement to job enhancement. Though recent advancements have some side

effects on jobs, they also positively impact job enhancements and new tasks. Deep learning

has proven to be a powerful tool in artificial innovation in physical and logical events that

require a set of program instructions to perform better.17 The improvement of deep learning to
15
. Brooks, Rodney A. "Intelligence without representation." Artificial intelligence 47, no. 1-

3 (1991): 143

16
. Ibid.
17
. Leung, et al., "Machine learning in genomic medicine (2015): 182
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prediction has enabled a new way of doing technical and scientific research. Rather than

dealing with small-sized datasets, it is now possible to move on with large pools of

unstructured data, which has developed predictions' accuracy.

It is clear that if the advance of deep learning brings the arrival of general machine tools,

it's likely to be very significant in the long-run economic, social, and technological

consequences. These new advanced general-purpose tools across many sectors might result in

job displacement though it will bring out increased productivity that will boost economic

growth.18 It will help understand the extent to which deep learning is and how it will enhance

research productivity significantly. If deep understanding proves to be a better approach, it

will be essential to have developed institutions and a better environment conducive to

innovations. The performances of deep learning algorithms depend on the training data that

they were collected.

The Management and Organization of Innovation

The development of deep learning supports the idea of reduced marginal costs, forcing

research and development organizations to substitute highly skilled labor towards fixed cost

investments in artificial intelligence. These investments improve research projects'

performance and come up with new opportunities that investigate social and physical

phenomena.19 The ability to substitute away from specialized labor and capital may lower

entry barriers in specific scientific or research fields. The development of markets for shared

artificial intelligence services and the availability of relevant data may be necessary to adopt

and disseminate deep learning.

Besides, this new research paradigm requires a significant shift in the management of

innovation itself. The possibility of replacing skilled technical labor in the research sector

18
. Ibid., 187

. Minsky, Marvin. "Steps toward artificial intelligence." Proceedings of the IRE 49, no. 1

19

(1961): 13
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with artificial intelligence will break the science in some fields by disrupting career and labor

markets that support long training periods in many scientific and technical operations.

It is possible that deep learning will change the nature of scientific and technical

advancements. It also offers an alternative concept based on predicting many approaches that

abstract away from underlying causes, but that allows for a singular prediction index that can

yield sharp insight. The understanding of causal mechanisms and abstract relationships comes

at a cost.20 For example, it is easy to imagine a deep learning system trained on a large

amount of x-ray diffraction data quickly discovering the structure of DNA at low marginal

cost. Still, there is a need for human judgment about a broader biological context to realize

that the proposed system suggests a direct mechanism for heredity.

Global Market Analysis

In a knowledge-based society, start-ups are referred to as the innovation and growth

drivers of the economy. Their analysis helps to gain a valuable understanding of exploring

the transformational impact of artificial intelligence on businesses. The artificial intelligence

start-ups are creating technological and process-oriented innovations that would generate

efficiency gains and business opportunities in the future.21 The analysis of the top artificial

intelligence start-ups shows the influence of advanced research and artificial intelligence on

global markets. However, the study also shows that artificial intelligence technology is only

confined to a few regions globally, which creates an artificial intelligence divide. The divide

strengthens the inequality in social, economic, and cultural sectors.

Qualities of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence is understood concerning machine learning and data analytics.

Machine learning takes data and puts into consideration the underlying trends.22 If machine
20
. Ibid., 20
21
. Russell, Stuart, and Peter Norvig. "Artificial intelligence: a modern approach." (2002).
22
. Ibid.
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learning spots something relevant to the problem at hand, software designers use that

knowledge to analyze specific issues. Data comes from digital information, unstructured data,

visual information, text, or satellite imagery. 

Unlike passive machines capable of predetermined responses, algorithms are designed to

make decisions using real-time data. Use of remote inputs, digital data, or sensors combine

information from various sources and act on the concepts derived from that data.23 With the

improvements in storage systems, analytical techniques, and processing speeds, there is a

significant impact on data analysis and decision-making.

Lastly, artificial intelligence can learn and adapt as they make decisions. For example,

vehicles have tools that let drivers and vehicles know about upcoming congestion,

construction, or any other possible traffic disruption in the transportation sector.24 The cars,

therefore, can take advantage of the experience of different vehicles without human

involvement. The drivers can sense the ongoing traffic and vehicle conditions from the data

obtained from their advanced algorithms, sensors, and cameras.

Major Applications of Artificial Intelligence

Military and the National Security

Historically, intelligence has been a critical factor in security planning as it plays a

significant role in determining the outcomes of wars and battles. Operational intelligence

gives all sorts of information about the enemy and their country. Intelligence is always

essential as it reduces the ignorance margin and the risk element in the planning of any

military and civil operations.25 Intelligence about the enemy would be incomplete and

23
. Ibid.
24
. Ibid.
25
. Handel, Michael I. "Intelligence and military operations." Intelligence and National

Security 5, no. 2 (1990), 33

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ineffective if the operations and plans were unknown. The military team must reveal to the

intelligence team about their procedures to be optimized.

The development and organization of intelligence agencies began to emerge governmental

advisory units by the end of the 19th century. It was very influential during the Cold War era

and World War II. Currently, it is being applied in regional conflicts and the war against

terrorism. It is the center of the building and maintaining national security, as it is essential in

defining and assessing its planning and expenditures within an integrated knowledge race. 26

Military intelligence's rapid development has led to increased expenditure on intelligence

innovation, operations, and equipment. This information on costs is highly confidential.

However, some public data shows that investment in intelligence is between 5%-12% of the

defense budget.

The extent to which intelligence contributes to the military is analyzed concerning the

value of information and game theoretic frameworks. Intelligence itself has no direct effect

on the military's capability, and therefore, it should be integrated with weapon systems and

personnel.27 Countries benefit from a higher level of intelligence precision. On the other

hand, the rivals in a war of any conflict are better off with intelligence than without it,

irrespective of its precision level. Intelligence from enemies may harm the country’s military

capability.

Artificial intelligence plays a significant role in the national defence. For instance, the

American military deployed to sift through massive data and video captured by surveillance,

then alert human analysts when there is a suspicious activity. The big data analytics

26
. Pecht, Eyal, and Asher Tishler. "The value of military intelligence." Defence and Peace

Economics. (2015), 187

27
. Ibid., 190
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associated with artificial intelligence affects intelligence analysis.28 Whether America will

ever wage war with artificially intelligent lethal systems, there should be a need to defend

against these systems because they operate at hyper war speeds. Preparing for hyper war and

supporting critical cyber networks must be a high priority since China, North Korea, Russia,

and other countries use substantial resources into artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence

should, therefore, combat terrorism, provide security, and improve speech recognition

programs.

Counterintelligence

This is the information that is gathered and the activities undertaken to protect against

sabotage, espionage, terrorist activities, and assassinations among other intelligent activities.

It must take into account the signals and imagery intelligence to determine hostile activities.

Counterintelligence information is gathered through an intelligence cycle which includes

planning and direction, collecting, processing, producing, and disseminating.29 However, this

information is useless without proper action. In counterintelligence, there is a lot of truth, lies

and deception. Therefore, the intelligence organization must take extensive measures to

ensure the right teams are employed.

Counterintelligence performs various functions such as protecting the secrets. Physical

security involves keeping classified information away from unauthorized people as well as

making sure people who have the information protect it. Secondly, it provides the first line of

defense. To protect the information, intelligence organizations are in a dilemma about their

selection of employees.30 First, attempts to create a profiling system helps in determining

28
. Iliadis, et al., Artificial intelligence applications and innovations. 2018.
29
. Handel, Michael I. "Intelligence and military operations." (1990), 56

30
. Ibid., 63
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future betrayers is an imperfect process that leads to allocation of resources to the wrong

people. Secondly, psychological and behavioral measurement instruments have accuracy

rates below 100%, which leads to employment of individuals prone to security threat.

Espionage

Espionage refers to the act of obtaining confidential or secret information without the

permission of the information holder. Technical security systems should have a high level on

intelligence protection. Budget for the protection from espionage is mostly spent on internet

security software and Firewalls enabling safety from attacks from hackers.31 However, with

the technological developments, it is impossible to assure full protection from external

attacks of spies. From researches, most of the information outflow or leakage is done with the

help of the insiders. Therefore, the only comprehensive system of preventive methods for

espionage threat with all the security disciplines included can maximize data protection.

Homeland Security

There has been an increase in the cybersecurity threats in terms of intensity, severity, and

frequency, and these are a real threat to the country’s security. At the federal level, the

department of homeland security coordinates counterterrorism intelligence efforts of other

intelligence agencies.32 It then distributes that information for enhancement of America’s

response to terrorism threats and prepare for any attacks. The department of homeland

security also enforces immigration policies and administers immigration and naturalization

services.

Intelligence and Narcotics

Information used to measure heroin use and availability trends together with intelligence

filed reporting indicates that heroin was available in metropolitan areas of the United States.

Intelligence information from New York indicates that ethnic traffickers from China are
31
. Ibid., 67
32
. Ibid., 77
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emerging as heroin wholesalers.33 Drug policy requires a complex interaction between the

police and the criminal justice system, health and social care services and drug markets.

Innovation approaches on gathering of information is required by experts so as to come up

with intelligent plans on how to deal with narcotic drugs.

Finance

Decisions about loans are being made by software that considers a variety of information

about the borrower, such as the credit score and background checks. According to studies,

investments in artificial financial intelligence in the United States tripled to 12.2 billion

dollars between 2013 and 2014.34 Another example is its stock exchanges applications, where

very high-frequency trading by machines have replaced human decision making. Investors

will submit buying and selling orders, and then the computers will match them

instantaneously without human intervention.

Artificial intelligence is also helpful in financial systems for fraud detection. Fraud

mitigation has been a top priority for banks all over the world. Artificial intelligence,

therefore, helps banks to improve their predictions, identify the actual cases, and reduce false

alarms. Machine-learning algorithms can analyze a lot of data and then detect fraudulent

transactions. By this, they reduce false positive results as well as increase precision of real-

time approvals.

Criminal Justice

Judicial experts claim that artificial intelligence programs reduce human bias in law

enforcement and lead to a fair sentencing system. However, critics worry that artificial

intelligence algorithms will provide a remote system to punish citizens for crimes they have

not yet committed.35 Despite these issues, most countries have already moved ahead in this

33
. Ibid.
34
. Ibid.
35
. Ibid.
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area. These new technologies make it possible to match images and voice and use artificial

intelligence to improve law enforcement and national security.

Advantages of Artificial intelligence

The application of artificial intelligence has led to the reduction of human error. Human

beings are prone to mistakes from time to time. Computers, however, do not make these

mistakes if they are correctly programmed.36 Decisions are taken from the previously

analyzed information, so errors are reduced. Secondly, artificial intelligence takes risks

instead of humans. The development of AI roots can perform tasks that are risky to humans.

Thirdly, the use of artificial intelligence is available anytime. Humans work for specific

hours and need time for refreshments, but the machines work throughout time without any

breaks without getting tired or bored.37 Besides, they help perform repetitive jobs such as

sending emails and verifying errors in certain documents, among others. This removes

tedious tasks for humans and frees them up to perfume other tasks. Moreover, most

organizations use digital assistants to interact with users, saving the need for human

resources. These digital assistants help users with the information they need.

Furthermore, the use of artificial intelligence machines helps to perform tasks and make

decisions faster than human beings.38 Humans analyze many factors, both emotionally and

practically, while making decisions, but their programming delivers results very fast with

devices. Lastly, artificial intelligence has brought so many new inventions that help humans

solve the most complex problems. 

Limitations of Artificial Intelligence

36
. Russell, Stuart, and Peter Norvig. Artificial intelligence, (2002).

37
. Ibid.
38
. Ibid.
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Despite the above advantages, artificial intelligence also has a dark side. First, the creation

of these artificial intelligence machines requires a high cost because of their complexity.

Their hardware and software need to be updated with time to meet the latest requirements.

They also need repair and maintenance, which require high costs.39 Additionally, the

automation of almost all tasks will make humans lazy. Besides, artificial intelligence has

replaced most of the works, thus leading to high levels of unemployment. Organizations are

looking forward to returning the less qualified staff with robots that can do similar work more

efficiently.

Besides, machines lack out of the box thinking because they are designed or programmed

to perform a specific task. Anything beyond that will crash them and give irrelevant outputs.

Again, machines cannot develop a bond with humans, which is essential for team

management since they lack emotions.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research's primary data will be obtained using google forms to collect data and

analyze that data by using google analysis tools and other tools. Secondary data will involve

using previous google research to collect some related information and explore those with

data collected by google form. Data collection by Google and live local fields users who use

artificial intelligence products and systems. The research data analysis is done by google data

analysis tools and other artificial intelligence-based tools. Data collected is evaluated by

grapes chart and some different ways. After all the final analysis, each of the last grapes data

and check everything correctly and justify all the data to make a perfect and justified final

result of our final research result.

CONCLUSION

Artificial intelligence and machine learning are both scientific and mythical products. The

discovery of the idea that machines could perform human tasks is not new. However, due to
39
. Ibid
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advancements in technology, a lot is anticipated than ever before. Artificial intelligence has

been part of everyday human life and has changed how people live.40 The progressive growth

of automation and intelligence results from two factors: the increasing availability of big data

and hardware accelerations. These are making artificial intelligence the core technology

responsible for connectivity and automation, thus leading the world towards the fourth

industrial revolution.

The process of innovation and global competitiveness has strengthened due to the

adoption of various corporate firms' strategies that aim to become artificial intelligence firms.

The intention is to grow with the most advanced synthetic intelligence industries that will

create more opportunities shortly.41 However, as discussed earlier, artificial intelligence is

confined only to a few regions, thus creating an artificial intelligence divide. Further

expansion of technology in the artificial intelligence-enabled countries will widen this divide,

deepening the inequality in economic, cultural, and social sectors.

However, no matter how intelligent the future of artificial intelligence becomes, it will

never be the same as human intelligence. No machine can make entirely autonomous

decisions that require human intelligence and recognition of human values. Artificial

intelligence can achieve great discoveries and advancements due to its multiple possibilities.42

Most systems can learn, and this allows people to improve their performance over time.

Artificial intelligence reshapes companies and the organization of innovation management.

40
. Mitchell, R. S., J. G. Michalski, and T. M. Carbonell. An artificial intelligence

approach. Berlin: Springer, 2013.

41
. Tang, et al., The pace of artificial intelligence innovations, (2020)

42
. Ibid.
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With the rapid technological advancements and replacement of human organizations,

artificial intelligence makes administration rethink its whole innovation process.

A clear strategy is required to consider the associated ethical and legal challenges to

ensure that society will benefit from artificial intelligence advancements. Most important of

all, it is crucial to differentiate science fiction from practical reality. With the required

investment and funding, Artificial intelligence will transform the future of the economy and

society at large. 
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References

Brooks, Rodney A. "Elephants don't play chess." Robotics and autonomous systems 6, no. 1-2

(1990): 3-15.

Brooks, Rodney A. "Intelligence without representation." Artificial intelligence 47, no. 1-3

(1991): 139-159.

Charniak, Eugene. Introduction to artificial intelligence. Pearson Education India, 1985.

Griliches, Zvi. "Hybrid corn: An exploration in the economics of technological

change." Econometrica, Journal of the Econometric Society (1957): 501-522.

Iliadis, Lazaros, Ilias Maglogiannis, and Vassilis Plagianakos, eds. Artificial intelligence

applications and innovations. Springer International Publishing, 2018.

Leung, Michael KK, Andrew Delong, Babak Alipanahi, and Brendan J. Frey. "Machine

learning in genomic medicine: a review of computational problems and data

sets." Proceedings of the IEEE 104, no. 1 (2015): 176-197.

Minsky, Marvin. "Steps toward artificial intelligence." Proceedings of the IRE 49, no. 1

(1961): 8-30.

Mitchell, R. S., J. G. Michalski, and T. M. Carbonell. An artificial intelligence approach.

Berlin: Springer, 2013.

Negnevitsky, Michael. Artificial intelligence: a guide to intelligent systems. Pearson

education, 2005.

Nilsson, Nils J. The quest for artificial intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Russell, Stuart, and Peter Norvig. "Artificial intelligence: a modern approach." (2002).

Tang, Xuli, Xin Li, Ying Ding, Min Song, and Yi Bu. "The pace of artificial intelligence

innovations: Speed, talent, and trial-and-error." Journal of Informetrics 14, no. 4 (2020):

101094.
 Surname 21

Handel, Michael I. "Intelligence and military operations." Intelligence and National

Security 5, no. 2 (1990): 1-95.

Pecht, Eyal, and Asher Tishler. "The value of military intelligence." Defence and Peace

Economics 26, no. 2 (2015): 179-211.