Surface Water

Mahesh K. Jat

Department of civil Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

CET 304 : Hydrology

Hydrology

Components
 Surface Water

Surface water is water stored or flowing on the earth surface.

The surface water system continuously interacts with the
atmospheric and subsurface water systems, i.e., infiltration ,
subsurface flow and groundwater recharge.

In this section we will discuss the different physical laws

governing the surface flow.

Also we will learn how hydrological data are analysed to

provide input information to different surface water models.
What is a Watershed?

• An area of land,
from ridge top to
ridge top, that
collects, stores, and
releases water to a
common point, such
as a river or a lake
 Surface Water
Surface water Processes:
Horton overland flow
Subsurface stormflow,
Return flow
Water Flow

Groundwater flow
 Surface Water

Channel flow is the main form of surface water flow, and all
other surface flow processes contributes to it.

Determining flow rates to stream channels is a central task

of surface water hydrology .

The precipitation which becomes stream flow may reach to

the streams through overland flow or sub-surface flow or
both.
 Overland Flow

If rainfall Intensity exceeds soil infiltration capacity

or rate:

– First of all water fills surface depression then

– Water spills over and flows downslope as overland

flow and

– Eventually flows to the stream

 Overland Flow

Overland flow occurs when the rainfall intensity

exceeds the infiltration capacity
Surface Water

Subsurface Flow
Lateral flow through
soil.

Consists of both
slower matrix flow
and faster macropore
flow
 Saturation Overland Flow

Overland flow generated from direct rainfall onto saturated

areas.
Return flow from saturated soils in topographic lows and along
valley bottoms where water table rises to intersect the surface.
Direct Precipitation on Channels

Generally a minor
contribution to runoff, why?
 Hydrograph
Record of River Discharge over a period of time

River Discharge
= cross sectional area X rivers mean (average) velocity

(at a particular point in its course)

Storm Hydrographs
Show the change in discharge caused by a period of rainfall
 Stream Flow Hydrograph
A stream or discharge hydrograph is a graph or table showing the flow rate
as a function of time at a given location on stream.
Hydrograph is an integral expression of the physiographic and climatic
characteristics that governs the relationship between rainfall and runoff of a
particular drainage basin.

Why Construct & Analyse Hydrographs ?

To find out discharge patterns of a particular drainage basin

Help predict flooding events, therefore influence implementation of flood

prevention measures

Hydrographs can be of two type –

• Annual hydrograph and
• Storm hydrograph
Annual Hydrograph
 Storm/Flood Hydrograph

Flood hydrographs show the effect that precipitation has

on the water levels in a river.

After a storm the water levels in rivers will increase.

The rate of this increase and subsequent return to

normal or base flow is determined by several factors.
 Storm/Flood
Hydrograph
• Flood Hydrograph
Graphically represent
runoff rates vs. time
– Peak runoff rates
– Volume of runoff
• Measured hydrographs
are best
– But not often
available
• Methods are available to
develop a “synthetic”
hydrograph
– Use a unit
hydrograph (UHG)
 Hydrograph components

• qp is the maximum flow

rate on the hydrograph
• tp (time to peak) is the
time from the start of the
hydrograph to qp.

• tb (base time) is the total

time duration of the
hydrograph.
 Hydrograph Components
• tc (time of concentration) time it takes water to flow
from the hydraulically most remote point in a
watershed to the watershed outlet

• tL (lag time) is the average of the flow times from all

locations in the watershed and can be estimated as the
length of time from the center of mass of the first
effective rainfall block, to the peak of the runoff
hydrograph.

• If each block of effective rainfall has a duration of D

D
t p = tL +
2
 The steady rise in discharge is shown by the rising limb. The
point where the river has reached the point of maximum
discharge is called the peak discharge and the return to a
base flow is shown by the recession limb.
Discharge
Cumecs Peak discharge
80
(m3/s)

70
Recession (receding)
60 limb
Rising limb
50

40

30
Peak rainfall
90
Precipitation 80
20 70
(mm) 60

10
50
40 Base (normal)
30
20 flow
10

0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 0000 0300 0600
Time
 The time delay between the peak rainfall and peak discharge
is due to the fact that most rain will fall onto the land rather
than into a river and so these two events will not be
simultaneous.
Discharge
Cumecs Peak discharge
80
(m3/s)

70
Recession (receding)
60 limb
Rising limb
50
Lag
40 time
30
Peak rainfall
90
Precipitation 80
20 70
(mm) 60

10
50
40 Base (normal)
30
20 flow
10

0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 0000 0300 0600
Time
 Development of Hydrographs
• Most often hydrographs are constructed for the watershed
outlet (and possibly some selected points in the
watershed).

• We modify the rainfall hyetograph to reflect watershed

characteristics.

• The volume under the effective rainfall hyetograph is equal

to the volume of surface runoff.
 Construction of Hydrographs

Base Flow Separation

Basin lag time
To estimate Direct Runoff we needs to separate Peak flow
Base Flow and Direct Runoff. 3

Oldest method is Normal Depletion Curve Method. Overland

2
flow

Discharge (m3/s)
mm
It is a characteristic graph of flow recessions
4 Through flow
compiles by superimposition of many recession 1 3
curves observed on a given stream . Recession curve 2
Base flow
Often take the form of exponential decay-
0 12 24 36 48 30 72

Hours from start of rain storm

where Q0 is the flow at time t0 and k is the time decay coefficient.

By noting the time period when stream hydrograph coincides with the normal recession
baseflow curve. The points where direct runoff begins and ceases can be identified.
Between these points base flow and direct runoff can be separated using nay method.
 Construction of Hydrographs
Base Flow Separation
Factors influencing Storm Hydrographs

• Slope (Relief) • Land Use

• Vegetation • Drainage Density
•Area • Precipitation / Temp
• Shape • Tidal Conditions
• Rock Type
• Soil
 Interpretation of Storm Hydrographs
You need to refer to:
•Rising Limb Basin lag time
Peak flow
3
•Recession Limb
Overland
2
•Lag time flow

Discharge (m3/s)
mm
4 Through flow

•Rainfall Intensity 1 3
2
Base flow

•Peak flow compared to 0 12 24 36 48 30 72

Base flow Hours from start of rain storm

•Recovery rate, back to Base flow

 Factors affecting hydrographs
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by several factors:

Relief: The steeper the slopes the faster the water flows
overland into rivers, making the rising limb steeper. If land
is more gently sloping water flows over it more slowly and
is therefore more likely to infiltrate into the soil –
throughflow is slower than overland flow so the resulting
rising limb will be less steep. This makes the lag time for
the steep long profile shorter too.

Hydrograph

Steep long profile Gentle long profile

 Factors affecting hydrographs
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by several factors:

Vegetation: The presence of vegetation in a river basin will

firstly slow the flow of overland flow into rivers, due to
interception, making a less steep rising limb with a longer
lag time. Secondly, the peak flow for this river with
vegetation will be lower because some of the rain that falls
will be absorbed and used by the plants, reducing the
amount of water that enters the river.

Hydrograph

Vegetation No vegetation
 Factors affecting hydrographs
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by several factors:

Drainage density: A river basin with many tributaries (high

drainage density) will offer many opportunities for overland
flow, which flows more quickly and so the rising limb will be
steeper with a shorter lag time. Conversely where there is a
lower drainage density there will be more throughflow, which
is slower leading to a gentler rising limb and a longer lag
time.
Hydrograph

High drainage Low drainage

density density
 Factors affecting hydrographs
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by several factors:
Basin size: A large river basin will collect more water than a
smaller one, potentially leading to a higher peak flow. As
there are larger areas to cover though, the lag time will be
greater in a larger basin

Hydrograph

Large basin Small basin

 Factors affecting hydrographs
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by several factors:
Surface type : Run-off will occur quickly where the surface
is impermeable eg impermeable rocks/concrete. A steeper
rising limb is the result. Where the surface is impermeable
eg deep soils/permeable rock (like some clays) infiltration
occurs, increasing through flow and thus making the rising
limb less steep.
 Watershed
Urbanization
 Factors affecting hydrographs

Soil Type: The deeper the soil the more water can be
absorbed. Soils which have larger particle sizes (e.g those
derived from the weathering of sandstones) have larger
infiltration capacities.

lower the rate of infiltration/faster the rate of run-off when

the soil is saturated (saturated overland flow) or when
rainfall intensity (rate per unit of time) is high (infiltration
excess over land flow).
FLOOD HYDROGRAPHS
 Precipitation & Temperature
Short intense rainstorms can produce rapid overland flow and steep rising
limb

If there have been extreme temperatures, the ground can be hard (either
baked or frozen) causing rapid surface run off

Snow on the ground can act as a store producing a long lag time and
shallow rising limb. Once a thaw sets in the rising limb will become steep
Gaining and Losing Streams
 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff

Excess rainfall or effective rainfall is the rainfall which is neither

retained on the land surface nor infiltrated into soil.

After flowing across the watershed surface, excess rainfall becomes

Direct Runoff at the watershed outlet .

A graph between excess rainfall and time is called excess rainfall

hyetograph.

The difference between the observed total rainfall hyetograph and

excess rainfall hyetograph is called abstractions or losses.

The excess rainfall hyetograph may be determined from the rainfall

hyetograph in one of two ways, depending on whether stream flow
data are available or not.
 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff

Case –I : When stream flow data are available

➢ If stream flow data are available excess rainfall hyetograph and direct runoff
hydrograph can be obtained using ø Index.
➢ The ø Index is a constant rate of abstraction that will yield an excess rainfall
hyetograph with a total depth equal to the depth of direct runoff rd over the
watershed.

The value of Ø is determined by picking a time interval length Δt, judging the
number of intervals M of rainfall that actually contribute to direct runoff,
subtracting Ø.Δt from the observed rainfall in each interval and adjusting the
values of Ø and M as necessary so that the depth of direct runoff and excess
rainfall are equal.
 f-index method
M
rd =  (Rm − ft )
• Take a ∆t value , and adjust value of m =1
M to satisfy the equation
rd = depth of direct runoff
• Steps Rm = observed rainfall
1. Estimate base flow f = Phi index
M =# intervals of rainfall
2. DRH = stream flow hydrograph –
base flow contributi ng to driect runoff
t = time interval
3. Compute rd, rd = Vd/ A
4. Adjust M until you get a satisfactory
value of ϕ
5. ERH = Rm - ϕ ∆t
 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff
Case –I : When stream flow data are available - An Example
 Example
Time Observed Have precipitation and streamflow data, need to estimate losses
Rain Flow
in cfs 12000 0

8:30 203 0.5

1
9:00 0.15 246 10000
1.5
9:30 0.26 283
2
10:00 1.33 828 8000

Streamflow (cfs)
2.5

10:30 2.2 2323

11:00 0.2 5697 6000

11:30 0.09 9531

4000
12:00 11025
12:30 8234
2000
1:00 4321
1:30 2246
0
2:00 1802 7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

2:30 1230 Time

3:00 713
3:30 394 No direct runoff until after 9:30
And little precip after 11:00
4:00 354
Basin area A = 7.03 mi2
4:30 303
• Estimate baseflow (straight line method)
– Constant = 400 cfs
12000

10000

8000
Streamflow (cfs)

6000

4000

2000

0
7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

Time baseflow
 Example (Cont.)
Direct
Time Observed Runoff
• Calculate Direct Runoff Rain
in
Flow
cfs cfs
Hydrograph 8:30
9:00
0.15
0.26
203
246
– Subtract 400 cfs 9:30 1.33 283
10:00 2.2 828 428
10:30 2.08 2323 1923
11:00 0.2 5697 5297
11:30 0.09 9531 9131
12:00 11025 10625
12:30 8234 7834
1:00 4321 3921
1:30 2246 1846
2:00 1802 1402
2:30 1230 830
3:00 713 313
3:30 394
4:00 354 43550
4:30 303

Total = 43,550 cfs

 Example (Cont.)

• Compute volume of direct runoff

11 11
Vd =  Qn t = t  Qn
n =1 n =1
= 3600 s/hr * 0.5 hr * 43,550 ft 3 /s
= 7.839 *10 7 ft 3

• Compute depth of direct runoff

Vd
rd =
A
7.839 *10 7 ft 3
=
7.03 mi * 5280 2 ft 2
= 0.4 ft
= 4.80 in
 Example (Cont.)

• Neglect all precipitation intervals that occur before

the onset of direct runoff (before 9:30)
• Select Rm as the precipitation values in the 1.5
hour period from 10:00 – 11:30
M
rd =  ( Rm − ft ) rd = 4.80 in
m =1
4.80 = (1.33 + 2.20 + 2.08 − f * 3 * 0.5)

f = 0.54 in

ft = 0.27 in
 Example (Cont.)
Direct Excess
Time Observed Runoff Rainfall
Rain Flow
in cfs cfs in 12000 0

8:30 0.15 203 0.5

9:00 0.26 246 1

ft=0.27
10000
9:30 1.33 283 1.5
10:00 2.2 828 428 1.06
2
10:30 2.08 2323 1923 1.93 8000

Streamflow (cfs)
2.5
11:00 0.2 5697 5297 1.81
11:30 0.09 9531 9131
6000
12:00 11025 10625
12:30 8234 7834
1:00 4321 3921 4000
1:30 2246 1846
2:00 1802 1402
2000
2:30 1230 830
3:00 713 313
3:30 394 0
4:00 354 43550 7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

4:30 303 Time

 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff
Case –I : When stream flow data are available - An Example

Runoff Coefficient:

The ration of runoff to rainfall over a given time period is called runoff
coefficient. Abstractions can be calculated using runoff coefficient also -

Where, Rm is the total rainfall and rd is the corresponding runoff depth and C
is runoff coefficient
 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff
Case –II : When Stream Flow Data are Not Available : Abstractions Using
Infiltration Equations

Any equation can be used for estimation of infiltration

assuming negligible interception and other initial losses

➢ Horton’s Equation

➢ Philips Equation

➢ Green Ampt’s Equation

Infiltration Equations can be Used for Estimation of φ Index
Excess Rainfall by Infiltration an Example
 Excess Rainfall by Infiltration an Example -Cont

when
Excess Rainfall by Infiltration an Example -Cont
 Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff
Case –II : Abstractions Using Semi Physically Based Empirical Methods

Soil conservation service (NRCS-CN)

The NRCS-CS runoff curve number (also called a curve

number or simply CN) is an empirical model for estimating
direct runoff or rainfall excess. This model was developed by
the USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, which was
formerly called the Soil Conservation Service or SCS.
 NRCS-CN method
• Soil conservation service (SCS) method is an experimentally
derived method to determine rainfall excess using information
about soils, vegetative cover, hydrologic condition and
antecedent moisture conditions
• The method is based on the simple relationship that

Pe = P - Fa – Ia
P = Pe + I a + Fa

Precipitation
Pe is runoff volume/depth, P is
precipitation volume/depth, Fa is Pe
continuing abstraction, and Ia is
the sum of initial losses
(depression storage, interception,
Ia Fa
ET)
Time
tp
Abstractions – NRCS-CN Method
• In general
P = Pe + I a + Fa
Pe  P

Precipitation
• After runoff begins Pe
Fa  S
• Potential runoff Ia Fa
P − Ia
• SCS Assumption tp Time

Fa Pe
=
S P − Ia
P = Total Rainfall
• Combining SCS assumption Pe = Rainfall Excess
with P = Pe+Ia+Fa I a = Initial Abstraction
(P − I a )2 Fa = Continuing Abstraction
Pe =
P − Ia + S S = Potential Maximum Storage
 NRCS-CN Method (Cont.)
• Experiments showed • Surface
– Impervious: CN = 100
I a = 0.2S – Natural: CN < 100
• So
12
100

(P − 0.2S )2
11 90
Pe = 10 80
Cumulative Direct Runoff, Pe, in
P + 0.8S 9 70
8 60
7 40
1000
S= − 10 6 20
CN 5
10
(American Units; 0  CN  100) 4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Cumulative Rainfall, P, in

In SI system, where S is in mm, Pe is in mm depth, P is in mm

 SCS Method (Cont.)
• S and CN depend on antecedent rainfall conditions
• Normal conditions, AMC(II)

4.2CN ( II )
• Dry conditions, AMC(I) CN ( I ) =
10 − 0.058CN ( II )

23CN ( II )
• Wet conditions, AMC(III) CN ( III ) =
10 + 0.13CN ( II )

Curve nos have been given by the SCS based on soil type and land use
type and available in Tables
 SCS Method (Cont.)
AMC condition can be determined based on rainfall data as per below
mentioned criiteria
 SCS Method (Cont.)
Curve nos have been given by the SCS based on soil and land use type
and available in Tables
• SCS Curve Numbers depend on soil conditions
Group Minimum Infiltration Soil type
Rate (in/hr)
A 0.3 – 0.45 High infiltration rates. Deep, well
drained sands and gravels
B 0.15 – 0.30 Moderate infiltration rates. Moderately
deep, moderately well drained soils
with moderately coarse textures (silt,
silt loam)
C 0.05 – 0.15 Slow infiltration rates. Soils with layers,
or soils with moderately fine textures
(clay loams)
D 0.00 – 0.05 Very slow infiltration rates. Clayey
soils, high water table, or shallow
impervious layer
 Example - SCS Method - 1

• Rainfall: 5 in.
• Area: 1000-ac
• Soils:
– Class B: 50%
– Class C: 50%
• Antecedent moisture: AMC(II)
• Land use
– Residential
• 40% with 30% impervious cover
• 12% with 65% impervious cover
– Paved roads: 18% with curbs and storm sewers
– Open land: 16%
• 50% fair grass cover
• 50% good grass cover
– Parking lots, etc.: 14%
 Example (SCS Method – 1, Cont.)
Hydrologic Soil Group

B C

Land use % CN Product % CN Product

Residential (30% imp 20 72 14.40 20 81 16.20

cover)
Residential (65% imp 6 85 5.10 6 90 5.40
cover)
Roads 9 98 8.82 9 98 8.82

Open land: good cover 4 61 2.44 4 74 2.96

Open land: Fair cover 4 69 2.76 4 79 3.16

Parking lots, etc 7 98 6.86 7 98 6.86

Total 50 40.38 50 43.40

CN = 40.38 + 43.40 = 83.8

CN values come from Table 5.5.2
 Example (SCS Method – 1 Cont.)

1000
• Average AMC CN = 83.8 S= − 10
CN
1000
S= − 10 = 1.93 in
83.8
(P − 0.2S )2 (5 − 0.2 *1.93)2
Pe = = = 3.25 in
P + 0.8S 5 + 0.8 *1.93
• Wet AMC
23CN ( II ) 23 * 83.8
CN ( III ) = = = 92.3
10 + 0.13CN ( II ) 10 + 0.13 * 83.8

1000
S= − 10 = 0.83 in
92.3
(P − 0.2S )2 (5 − 0.2 * 0.83)2
Pe = = = 4.13 in
P + 0.8S 5 + 0.8 * 0.83
Urbanisation Effect
 Time Distribution of SCS Abstractions
Time distribution of Fa can be obtained using same SCS curve no.
formulae. Time distribution of Fa is required to estimate excess rainfall
hyetograph
 Example (NRCS-CN Method – 2)

• Given P, CN = 80, AMC(II)

• Find: Cumulative abstractions and excess rainfall hyetograph
Time Cumulativ Cumulative Cumulative Excess Rainfall
(hr) e Abstractions (in) Excess Rainfall Hyetograph (in)
Rainfall (in)
(in)
P Ia Fa Pe
0 0
1 0.2
2 0.9
3 1.27
4 2.31
5 4.65
6 5.29
7 5.36
Example (SCS Method – 2)

• Calculate storage S=
1000
− 10 =
1000
− 10 = 2.50 in
• Calculate initial abstraction CN 80
• Initial abstraction removes I a = 0.2S = 0.2 * 2.5 = 0.5 in
– 0.2 in. in 1st period (all the precip)
Time Cumulative
– 0.3 in. in the 2nd period (only part of (hr) Rainfall (in)
the precip) P

• Calculate continuing abstraction 0 0

1 0.2
2 0.9
Pe
Fa = S S (P − I a ) 2.5( P − 0.5)
3 1.27
P − Ia Fa = = 4 2.31
(P − I a + S ) ( P + 2.0) 5 4.65
P = Pe + I a + Fa
2.5(0.9 − 0.5) 6 5.29
Fa (2 hr) = = 0.34 in 7 5.36
(0.9 + 2.0)
 Example (SCS method – 2)

• Cumulative abstractions can now be calculated

Time Cumulati Cumulative
2.5( P − 0.5)
(hr) ve Abstractions (in) Fa =
Rainfall ( P + 2.0)
(in)
P Ia Fa
0 0 0 -
1 0.2 0.2 -
2 0.9 0.5 0.34
3 1.27 0.5 0.59
4 2.31 0.5 1.05
5 4.65 0.5 1.56
6 5.29 0.5 1.64
7 5.36 0.5 1.65
 Example (SCS method – 2)

• Cumulative excess rainfall can now be calculated Pe = P − I a − Fa

• Excess Rainfall Hyetograph can be calculated

Time Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Excess Rainfall

(hr) Rainfall Abstractions (in) Excess Rainfall (in) Hyetograph (in)
(in)
P Ia Fa Pe
0 0 0 - 0 0
1 0.2 0.2 - 0 0
2 0.9 0.5 0.34 0.06 0.06
3 1.27 0.5 0.59 0.18 0.12
4 2.31 0.5 1.05 0.76 0.58
5 4.65 0.5 1.56 2.59 1.83
6 5.29 0.5 1.64 3.15 0.56
7 5.36 0.5 1.65 3.21 0.06
 Example (SCS method – 2)

• Cumulative excess rainfall can now be calculated Pe = P − I a − Fa

• Excess Rainfall Hyetograph can be calculated
R a i nf a l l ( i n)
R a i nf a l l H y e t ogr a phs
Time Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Excess Rainfall
(hr) Rainfall
2. 5
Abstractions (in) Excess Rainfall (in) Hyetograph (in)
(in)
2
P Ia Fa Pe
0 0 0
1. 5
- 0 0
1 0.2 0.2 - 0 0
2 0.9 0.51 0.34 0.06 0.06
3 1.27 0.5 0.59 0.18 0.12
0. 5
4 2.31 0.5 1.05 0.76 0.58
5 4.65 0.50 1.56 2.59 1.83
0 R a i nf a l l
6 5.29 0.5 1.64
1
2
3
3.15 0.56
4 E x c e s s R a i nf a l l
5
7 5.36 0.5 1.65 T i me ( h o u r ) 3.21 0.06
6
7