energies
Article
Numerical Analysis of Liquid–Liquid Heat Pipe Heat
Exchanger Based on a Novel Model
Qilu Chen 1 , Yutao Shi 2 , Zhi Zhuang 1 , Li Weng 2 , Chengjun Xu 2 and Jianqiu Zhou 1, *






Citation: Chen, Q.; Shi, Y.; Zhuang,
Z.; Weng, L.; Xu, C.; Zhou, J.
Numerical Analysis of Liquid–Liquid
Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger Based on a
Novel Model. Energies 2021, 14, 589.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030589
Received: 17 November 2020
Accepted: 21 January 2021
Published: 24 January 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 589. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030589
1 School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 210000, China;
201861108002@njtech.edu.cn (Q.C.); 201861108003@njtech.edu.cn (Z.Z.)
2 School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 210000, China;
202062107015@njtech.edu.cn (Y.S.); wengli30@njtech.edu.cn (L.W.); 201862107008@njtech.edu.cn (C.X.)
* Correspondence: zhouj@njtech.edu.cn
Abstract: Heat pipe heat exchangers (HPHEXs) are widely used in various industries. In this paper,
a novel model of a liquid–liquid heat pipe heat exchanger in a countercurrent manner is established
by considering the evaporation and condensation thermal resistances inside the heat pipes (HPs).
The discrete method is added to the HPHEX model to determine the thermal resistances of the HPs
and the temperature change trend of the heat transfer fluid in the HPHEX. The established model is
verified by the HPHEX structure and experimental data in the existing literature and demonstrates
numerical results that agree with the experimental data to within a 5% error. With the current model,
the investigation compares the effectiveness and minimum vapor temperature of the HPHEX with
three types of HP diameters, different mass flow rates, and different H ∗ values. For HPs with a
diameter of 36 mm, the effectiveness of each is improved by about 0.018 to 0.029 compared to HPs
with a diameter of 28 mm. The results show that the current model can predict the temperature
change trend of the HPHEX well; in addition, the effects of different structures on the effectiveness
and minimum vapor temperature are obtained, which improve the performance of the HPHEX.
Keywords: novel model; heat pipe heat exchanger model; phase change thermal resistance; improved
thermal performance; minimum vapor temperature
1. Introduction
As the world’s energy forms become increasingly tense, green energy and low carbon
emissions have become the mainstream. Heat pipe heat exchangers (HPHEXs) are increas-
ingly being applied in all walks of life [1]. A heat pipe (HP) is a highly efficient heat transfer
device mainly made of a hermetically sealed evacuated tube containing a small amount of
working medium. The phase change process of the medium is used in the HP to transfer a
large amount of heat; a large amount of heat can be transferred with a small temperature
difference [2] and is called a thermal superconductor or thermal “short-circuits” [3].
A heat exchanger is a device that transfers part of the heat of the hot fluid to the cold
fluid. The heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHEX) is composed of HPs, which are inserted
into two pipelines to transfer heat from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. Compared with
traditional heat exchangers, HPHEXs have the advantages of simple structure, excellent
heat transfer performance, low cost, easy processing, etc. [4]. HPHEXs are applied in
various industries, such as waste heat recovery [5,6], nuclear power plants [7,8], HVAC
(heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems) [9], solar energy systems [10,11], the
automobile industry [12], CPU cooling [13], data center cooling [14], and many more.
Experimental and theoretical studies on HPHEXs were conducted by many schol-
ars [5,15,16]. For the experimental study of HPHEXs, Ma et al. [5] investigated a HPHEX
used for recovering the waste heat in a slag cooling process in the steel industry, and the
influence of the change of waste water mass flow rate on the performance of HPHEX
was also studied. For the theoretical calculation of HPHEXs, the mathematical model
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 589 2 of 19

in the moderate-temperature HPHEX system was established by Han et al. [15] to study
the temperature distribution inside and outside each HP. There were also scholars who
combined experiments and theories to analyze HPHEXs. Noie [16] studied the effects of
fluid velocity and heat transfer rate on the outlet temperature and the effectiveness of an
air-to-air thermosyphon heat exchanger with the ε-NTU method and experiments were
used to verify the model. It is found that neglecting the thermal resistances in the HPs
will lead to overestimation of the effectiveness of the HPHEX and underestimation of the
outlet temperature of the fluid. In this paper, the phase change heat transfer resistances are
considered to improve the accuracy of the current model.
As we all know, the heat transfer process in HPs is involved in the complex phase
changes of condensation and evaporation, including pool boiling, nucleate film boiling, and
film condensation. Scholars and engineers carried out various types of HPs experiments,
and many empirical correlations for the heat transfer of phase changes in evaporators
and condensers were put forward [3,17–22]. The empirical correlation of Imura et al. [19]
was summarized for pool boiling in a thermosyphon, and Shiraishi et al. [20] improved
the correlation of Imura et al. [19] by changing the exponent of the pressure from 0.3
to 0.23. An empirical correlation on the basis of Nusselt’s theory [21] of predicting film
condensation heat transfer of a thermosyphon at low heat fluxes is presented by Jouhara
et al. [3]. The well-known correlation by Chun et al. [22] was developed to determine the
falling film nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient. In addition, the structural parameters
of the HP, the types of working mediums in the pipe, and the filling rate have an impact
on heat transfer analysis in the HP. For instance, an experimental investigation of the
performance of thermosyphons charged with water and the dielectric heat transfer liquids
FC-84, FC-77, and FC-3283 was carried out by Jouhara et al. [3], and the condensation
heat transfer coefficient was corrected under the condition of a small pipe diameter. The
mathematical thermal and hydrodynamic model of an axial swallow-tailed micro-grooved
HP was designed by Zhang [23], and the experimental results were used to verify the
correctness of the model. At the same time, the multiphase flow heat transfer model of
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) software is increasingly being used to simulate
the heat transfer of the two-phase changes [24] in HPs. The two-phase changes and the
simultaneous evaporation and condensation phenomena in a thermosyphon were modeled
by Alizadehdakhel et al. [24], and the simulation in a thermosyphon was carried out at
different operating conditions. However, in some models, the saturated vapor temperature
in the HP was arbitrarily set, which would reduce the calculation accuracy. In this respect,
some work needs to be done to fill this gap. In this paper, the saturated vapor temperature
inside the HP is obtained by comparing the predicted saturated temperature with the
simulated saturated temperature to improve the accuracy of the simulation.
In this paper, a novel mathematical model, including the thermal resistances of evap-
oration and condensation inside HP, is to be proposed for predicting the heat transfer
performance of liquid–liquid HPHEX, and the numerical solution results are to be pre-
sented. In order to verify the current model, the existing experimental model is to be
computed with the mathematical model, and the predicted heat transfer performance is to
be compared with the experimental data. With the current model, the temperature profiles
of hot side and cold side of HPHEX and the trend of temperature variation of the working
fluid inside HPs are to be predicted. The prediction of the outlet temperature of the hot
side and cold side and the temperature of the vapor inside HPs can avoid the failure of the
HPs and optimize the heat transfer performance of the HPHEX. In addition, heat transfer
enhancement is carried out by changing the diameters, the mass flow rates, and the H ∗ of
the HPs, and the effect on the thermal performance is obtained. Because of the coupling
relationship between vapor temperature and the working pressure of HPs, which is of
great significance to the optimization of the design, it is necessary to systematically study
the shape and temperature variation law of HPs.
 H* of the HPs, and the effect on the thermal performance is obtained. Because of the cou-
pling relationship between vapor temperature and the working pressure of HPs, which is
Energies 2021, 14, 589 of great significance to the optimization of the design, it is necessary to systematically3 of 19
study the shape and temperature variation law of HPs.

2. Mathematical model of HPHEX

2. Mathematical model of HPHEX
As briefly introduced,
As briefly introduced,the HPs mainly
the HPs transfer
mainly largelarge
transfer amounts of heat
amounts through
of heat throughthe the
two-phase circulation of the working medium; the specific working principle
two-phase circulation of the working medium; the specific working principle of the HP can of the HP
can be
beseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure 1a.1a. The
Theworking
workingmedium
mediumabsorbs
absorbsheat heatto
toevaporate
evaporateand andrises
risesinto
into the
the condenser, releases heat in the condenser, and condenses down.
condenser, releases heat in the condenser, and condenses down. The mathematical model The mathematical
model of HPHEX
of HPHEX is mainly
is mainly formed
formed by coupling
by coupling the the mathematical
mathematical modelmodel of HPHEX
of the the HPHEX and the
and mathematical
the mathematical modelmodel
of theof HP.
the The
HP. first
The model
first model
is theisevaporation/condensation
the evaporation/condensation thermal
thermal resistances
resistances insideinside the which
the HP, HP, which is mainly
is mainly described
described bythermal
by the the thermal resistance
resistance network
network method. The thermal resistance network can be seen in
method. The thermal resistance network can be seen in Figure 1b. The second model Figure 1b. The secondis the
model is the convective
convective heat process
heat transfer transfer ofprocess of the hot/cold
the hot/cold fluid outside
fluid outside the HPsthe HPs flowing
flowing through the
through
HPHEX. Figure 2 shows the working analysis diagram of HPHEX. The HPHEX is The
the HPHEX. Figure 2 shows the working analysis diagram of HPHEX. divided
HPHEX
into isthedivided
hot side into
andthe hotside;
cold sidethe
andhotcold side;
side the hot side
is arranged withis hot
arranged with
fluid and hot
the fluid
cold side is
and the
filledcold side
with coldis filled
fluid. with cold and
The cold fluid.
hotThe cold
fluid and hot
transfer fluid
heat transfer
through theheat through
thermal the of
coupling
thermal coupling
the HPs, and ofthethe HPs,
heat and the
transfer heat transfer
process process is completed.
is completed.

Energies 2021, 14, x (a) (b) 4 of 21

Figure 1. (a)1.Working
Figure principle
(a) Working diagram
principle of heat
diagram pipe pipe
of heat (HP);(HP);
(b) thermal resistance
(b) thermal model
resistance inside
model HP. HP.
inside

Figure 2. Model structure

Figure 2. structure of
of heat
heat pipe
pipe heat
heat exchanger
exchanger (HPHEX).
(HPHEX).

The thermal resistances from hot fluids to cold fluids consist of 7 parts, which can be
clearly seen from Figure 1b. In addition, the total resistance of each HP can be calculated
as follows.
R = R + R + R + R + R + R + R
Energies 2021, 14, 589 4 of 19

The thermal resistances from hot fluids to cold fluids consist of 7 parts, which can be
clearly seen from Figure 1b. In addition, the total resistance of each HP can be calculated as
follows.
Rhp = R1 + R2 + R3 + Rv + R4 + R5 + R6 (1)
where R1 and R6 are the evaporator and condenser convection thermal resistances, R2
and R5 are the thermal conductivity resistances of evaporator and condenser walls,R3 and
R4 are evaporation/condensation thermal resistances in the HP, and Rv is the thermal
resistance of vapor pressure drop in HP.

2.1. Thermal Resistance Outside HP

Convection mainly occurs between the evaporator/condenser of the HP and the hot
side/cold side external fluids. Convection thermal resistance R1 and R6 can be calculated
as follows [25].
1
R1 = (2)
he.out Ae.out
1
R6 = (3)
hc.out Ac.out
where he.out and hc.out are the average convection heat transfer coefficients. There is a
widely applied empirical correlation to calculate the heat transfer coefficient of a fluid
flowing around bundle, which was summarized by Zukauskas [25]. Ac.out and Ae.out are
the external heat transfer area of the evaporator and the condenser.
Conduction thermal resistances can be calculated as follows.
ln( D/Din )
R2 = (4)
2πLe k w

ln( D/Din )
R5 = (5)
2πLc k w
where D is outer diameter of HPs and Din is inner diameter of the heat pipe. Le and Le are
the length of evaporator and condenser, respectively. k w is thermal conductivity of the HP
wall material.

2.2. Thermal Resistance Inside HP

Numerical analysis in the HP is based on the internal two-phase heat transfer mech-
anism. The latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid is used to transfer the heat
between the hot and cold fluids. The wall temperature of the evaporator and condenser is
considered to be at a uniform temperature. Since the vapor pressure drop along the HP is
very small, the vapor temperature in the HP can be considered constant.
Boiling thermal resistance includes pool boiling thermal resistance and falling film
thermal resistance; to obtain the boiling resistance, a boiling coefficient must be estimated.

1
R3 = (6)
h pb.e A pb.e + h f b.e A f b.e

where h pb.e and h f b.e are the pool boiling heat transfer coefficient and the film boiling
heat transfer coefficient, respectively. A pb.e stands for the total superficial area of the pool
πDin Le FR
boiling, A pb.e = 4 .A f b.e stands for the total superficial area of the film boiling, and
πDin Le (1− FR)
A f b.e = 4 . FR is the filling rate of the HP.
The most well-known correlation for calculating the pool boiling thermal resistance of
the HP comes from Shiraish et al. [20] and can be calculated as follows.

ρ0.65 k0.3 0.7 0.2 

!
/ C pl g Pv 0.23 0.4

l
h pb.e = 0.32 qe (7)
ρ0.25 0.4 0.1
v h f g µl Patm
Energies 2021, 14, 589 5 of 19

where ρl and ρv are liquid and vapor densities, C pl is the specific heat of the liquid, k l is
liquid thermal conductivity, µl is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid, h f g is the latent heat
of the vaporization, g is gravitational acceleration, Pv is vapor pressure, Patm is atmospheric
pressure, and qe is heat flux to the evaporator.
Film boiling is another important heat transfer method of boiling heat transfer. The
film boiling heat transfer is complicated and can be expressed by various correlations [26].
h f b.e can be calculated as follows [26].

h∗ k l
h f b.e =  1 (8)
µl2 3
ρl g

1
Re 3
where is a dimensionless heat transfer coefficient and h∗ = 0.606( 4 f ) ; Re f is the falling
 
4(te.w −tv ) Le
film boiling Reynolds number and Re f = h Nusselt µh ; tv is vapor temperature;
l fg
te.w is the evaporator wall temperature.
The working medium evaporates from the liquid to the vapor, then rises along the
pressure gradient, and its internal pressure will decrease. The thermal resistance due to the
decrease in vapor pressure can be calculated as follows.
" #
8R g µv t2v ( Le + Lc )/2 + L a
Rv = (9)
πh2f g Pv ρv ( Din /2)4

where R g is the specific gas constant, L a is the length of the adiabatic section, and µv is the
dynamic viscosity of the vapor.
When the vapor in the HP comes in contact with the wall surface of the HP where the
temperature is lower than the saturation temperature of the vapor, condensation occurs.
Condensation thermal resistance can be calculated as follows.
1
R4 = (10)
hc.in Ac.in

where hc.in is the heat transfer coefficient associated with conduction through the liquid film
in the condenser, and Ac.in is the internal surface area of the liquid film in the condenser
that is equivalent to the internal surface area of the condenser.
The Nusselt analysis for condensation on a vertical flat is frequently used to calculate
hc.in [21], and the Nusselt average heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as follows.
( )1
ρl (ρl − ρv )h f g gk3l 4
h Nusselt = 0.943 (11)
µl Lc (tv − tc.w )

where tv is the saturated vapor temperature, tc.w is the wall temperature of the condenser,
and Lc is the length of the condenser.
However, the above correlation cannot calculate the condensation heat transfer co-
efficient well under many conditions. The reason may be that under different heat flow
conditions, liquid droplets adhere to the tube wall of the condensing section when the
vapor rises. In experimental research under different conditions, many scholars proposed
that the correlations can be simply modified to better match the condensation heat transfer
coefficient obtained from the experiment, of which the one proposed by Jouhara et al. [3] is
consistent with the requirements of this paper, depicted as follows.
 
0.1 −5 ρ l
hc.in = 0.85Re f exp −6.7 × 10 − 0.6 h Nusselt (12)
ρv
Energies 2021, 14, 589 6 of 19

4Qc
where Re f means the Re number of condensed film and Re f = πDin h f g µl , Qc is the heat
transfer rate to the condenser.

2.3. Thermodynamic Calculation of HPHEX

The heat transfer rate in the condenser and evaporator could be calculated as follows.

tv − tc.average
Qc = (13)
Rc
tv − te.average
Qe = (14)
Re
where Qc and Qe are the heat transfer rates of the evaporator and condenser. Rc and Re
are the thermal resistances of the evaporator and condenser. tc.average and te.average are the
average temperatures of the condenser and the evaporator.
Under steady-state flow conditions on the cold side and hot side, the assumption of
heat leakage can be ignored. The heat transfer rate of the evaporator of the heat exchanger
is equal to that of the evaporator.
Qc = Qe (15)
When the fluid flows through the evaporator and condenser, the hot fluid releases
heat and causes the temperature to decrease, and the cold fluid absorbs the heat and causes
the temperature to rise. The temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid can
be calculated by the vapor temperature; the vapor temperature of the HP is an important
factor that determines the thermal resistance in the HP. The physical parameters of the
vapor in the tube are all determined by tv , and tv can be obtained by solving the above
three correlations.
Qc
4 tc = (16)
mc ρc C p.c
Qe
4 te = (17)
me ρe C p.e
where 4tc is the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of the condenser; 4te
is the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of the evaporator. mc and me are
the mass flow of the condenser and evaporator. ρc and ρe are the densities of the condenser
fluid and evaporator fluid. C p.c and C p.e are the heat capacities of the condenser fluid and
evaporator fluid.

2.4. Thermodynamic Analysis

Analyzing the performance of the HPHEX can be expressed by its effectiveness.
Effectiveness can be defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate of the HPHEX to its
maximum possible heat transfer rate [26], depicted as follows.

Q actual
ε= (18)
Qmax

where Q actual is the actual heat transfer rate of the HPHEX; Qmax is the maximum possible
heat transfer rate of the HPHEX.
Ignoring the external loss of the HPHEX, the actual heat transfer rate for HPHE
(Q axtual ) can be calculated as follows.

Q axtual = me C p.e (te.inlet − te.outlet ) (19)

where te.inlet is the inlet temperature of the evaporator; te.outlet is the outlet temperature of
the evaporator.
Energies 2021, 14, 589 7 of 19

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the actual heat transfer rate for HPHE
(Q axtual ) can be also calculated as follows.

Q axtual = mc C p.c ( Tc.outlet − Tc.inlet ) (20)

where tc.outlet is the outlet temperature of the condenser; tc.inlet is the inlet temperature of
the condenser.
In the heat exchange process of the HPHEX, there is the maximum possible heat
transfer rate (Qmax ), which can be calculated as follows.

Qmax = Cmin (te.inlet − tc.inlet ) (21)

where Cmin is the smaller one of the specific evaporator (Ce ) and condenser (Cc ) heat
capacities. Ce = me C p.e and Cc = mc C p.c .

3. Numerical Calculation and Verification

In the design process of the HPHEX model, the thermal resistance inside and outside
the HP are two important aspects, which are accurately calculated to improve the HPHEX
model to generate predictions with higher accuracy. The thermal resistance outside the
HP is dependent on the convection heat transfer coefficient, which is determined by the
qualitative temperature and Reynolds number at the cold side and hot side. The qualitative
temperature means the average temperature of the fluid at the inlet and outlet section,
which is used to determine the physical parameters of the fluid. The thermal resistance
inside the HP is based on evaporation and condensation heat transfer coefficients, which
are determined by the temperature difference between the vapor and the outside fluid.
The HPHEX model is computed iteratively on the basis of the vapor temperature and the
qualitative temperature of the outside fluid.

3.1. Numerical Calculation

The liquid–liquid HPHEX model is a countercurrent heat exchanger; fluids of different
temperatures are arranged on the hot side and cold side. Each row of HPs is used as
an independent heat exchange unit in the HPHEX model. The structural parameters
(geometric model) of the entire model and the inlet temperature of the hot side and cold
side are determined.
In the countercurrent HPHEX model, the outlet temperature at the cold side and hot
side is unknown. The inlet temperature at the cold side can be calculated by assuming the
outlet temperature at the cold side for comparison with the determined inlet temperature at
the cold side, and the numerical calculation iterative process of the HPHEX is accomplished.
The specific flow chart applied to the calculation is shown in Figure 3. Then, the temperature
change trend of the HPHEX is accurately obtained by assuming the saturated vapor
temperature, the outlet temperature at the hot side of the first row, and the inlet temperature
at the cold side of the first row. When the HP is working, the working medium vapor and
the working fluid in the HP are saturated, and the saturated vapor temperature is the same
as the saturated liquid temperature. The results of the comparison calculation and the
assumed value are consistent with the predefined difference value, and the first row of HP
iteration ends. If not, we re-estimate the vapor saturation temperature, outlet temperature
at the hot side, and inlet temperature at the cold side of the first row, and then restart the
iterative calculation to obtain a new calculation result. The iterative calculation model of
the first row HPs is completed, and the heat transfer calculation model of the second row
HPs starts. The outlet temperature of the first row HPs at the hot side is taken as the inlet
temperature of the second row HPs at the hot side, and the inlet temperature of the first
row HPs at the cold side is taken as the outlet temperature of the second row of HPs at the
cold side. After the iterative calculation of the n-th row HPs, the inlet temperature of the
n-th row at the cold side is obtained and compared with the determined inlet temperature
at the cold side of the HPHEX model. If they are consistent with the predefined difference,
 Energies 2021, 14, x 9 of 21

Energies 2021, 14, 589 8 of 19

outlet temperature of the i + 1-th row HPs of the condenser and te.inlet .i +1 is the inlet
thetemperature of the i +ends;
calculation process 1-th row HPs of the
otherwise, the cold
evaporator. n is
side outlet the numberofofthe
temperature rows of is
HPs HPs
and tc.inlet .n is the inlet temperature of the n-th row HPs of the condenser.
re-estimated.

Figure
Figure 3. Flow
3. Flow chart
chart of mathematical
of mathematical model
model of n-rows
of n-rows HPHEX.
HPHEX.
Energies 2021, 14, 589 9 of 19

The specific flow chart mainly includes 4 loop iterations: the vapor saturation temper-
ature cycle, the temperature distribution cycle at the cold side and hot side, the number of
HPs in the HPHEX cycle and the cold side inlet temperature cycle.
te.outlet.i is the outlet temperature of the i-th row HPs of the evaporator and tc.inlet.i is
the inlet temperature of the i-th row HPs of the condenser. hc.out.i is the average convection
heat transfer coefficient of the i-th row HPs of the condenser and he.out.i is the average
convection heat transfer coefficient of the i-th row HPs of the evaporator. tv.i is the saturated
vapor temperature of the i-th row HPs and t0v.i is the calculated saturated vapor temperature
of the i-th row HPs. α is the relaxation factor. tc.inlet.i 0 is the calculated inlet temperature
of the i-th row HPs of the condenser and te.outlet.i 0 is the calculated outlet temperature of
the i-th row HPs of the evaporator. tc.outlet.i+1 is the outlet temperature of the i + 1-th row
HPs of the condenser and te.inlet.i+1 is the inlet temperature of the i + 1-th row HPs of the
Energies 2021, 14, x 10 of 21
evaporator. n is the number of rows of HPs and tc.inlet.n is the inlet temperature of the n-th
row HPs of the condenser.

3.2. Model
3.2. Model Verification
Verification
In order
In order totoverify
verifythe
thecurrent
currentmodel,
model,the theliquid–liquid
liquid–liquid HPHEX
HPHEX established
established byby MaMaet
et al. [5] is used to validate the current model. Selected experimental
al. [5] is used to validate the current model. Selected experimental data and data and numerical
results are
results are compared
compared to to verify
verify the
the correctness
correctness of of the
the model.
model. As Asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure44a,b, the
a,b, the
HPHEX mainly
HPHEX mainly includes
includes 3131 HPs
HPs with
with aa length
length of of 11 m;
m; the
the specific
specific structural
structural parameters
parameters
are shown
are shown in in Table
Table 1.1. The
The same
same structure
structure asas the
the experimental
experimental model model is is selected
selected toto verify
verify
the numerical model, such as the wall thickness and diameter of the
the numerical model, such as the wall thickness and diameter of the HPs, so as to improve HPs, so as to improve
the accuracy
the accuracy of of the
the numerical
numerical model.
model. Figure
Figure 5a,b
5a,b summarize
summarize the the comparison
comparison between
between the the
heat transfer rate predicted by the current model and the selected
heat transfer rate predicted by the current model and the selected experimental data in experimental data in
Ref. [5] at the cold side inlet mass flow as 2.6 and 2.9 m 3 /h, respectively. Whereas the inlet
Ref. [5] at the cold side inlet mass flow as 2.6 and 2.9 m3/h, respectively. Whereas the inlet
mass flow
flow ofof the
the hot
hot side 3
mass side varies
varies from
from 0.83
0.83 to
to 31.87
1.87 m m3/h in the
/h in the experiment,
experiment, the the inlet
inlet mass
mass
flow of
flow of the
the hot
hot side
side varies
varies from
from 0.83
0.83 to
to 1.9
1.9 m
m3/h/h inin the
the simulation.
simulation. ItIt can
can be
be clearly
clearly seen
seen
from Figure 5a,b that the results of the current model simulation
from Figure 5a,b that the results of the current model simulation and the experimental and the experimental
results have
results have aa high
high degree
degree ofof fit.
fit. The
The maximum
maximum deviations
deviations are are equal
equal toto 0.32
0.32 and
and 0.34
0.34 kW
kW
for the cases with cold fluid inlet mass flow of 2.6 and 2.9 m33 /h, respectively, and the error
for the cases with cold fluid inlet mass flow of 2.6 and 2.9 m /h, respectively, and the error
is within 5%.
is within 5%.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram ofof HPs
HPs distribution.
distribution. (b)
(b) The
The structure
structure diagram
diagram of the
the integral
integral HPHEX and the way of inlet
and outlet of hot and cold fluid.
and outlet of hot and cold fluid.
In summary,
Table 1. The mainthe HPHEXofmodel
parameters for heat
heat pipe iterative calculation of the thermal resistance
exchanger.
in the HP has high accuracy, which is consistent with the experimental data. Under the
Name condition ofValue
lower mass flow rate at the hot Name
side, the error between the Value
simulation results
Diameter and the experimental
32 mm results is large because
Arrangement part of the heat is transferred
Triangular by radial
Length of condenser conduction during
0.48 m the start-up stage of the HPs.
Heat pipes spacingHowever, when the mass flow rate
Refer to Figure 4a at the
hot side increases, the start-up time of the HPs is shortened, the heat
Cold transfer
side: 44 °C,inhot
theside:
radial
Length of adiabatic section guide decreases,
0.04 mand the error between Inletthe
temperature
simulation results and the experimental results
80 °C
Length of evaporator decreases. The
0.48accuracy
m of the HPHEX modelof
Number is HPs
higher under the condition31 of higher hot
Tube wall thickness 3 mm Flow type Countercurrent
Cold side: water, hot side:
Working medium water Heat exchanger fluid waste water (regarded as wa-
ter)
 Energies 2021, 14, 589 10 of 19

side mass flow rate. The novel model can reasonably predict the working performance of
the heat exchanger and can be used in the following research.

Table 1. The main parameters of heat pipe heat exchanger.

Name Value Name Value

Diameter 32 mm Arrangement Triangular
Length of condenser 0.48 m Heat pipes spacing Refer to Figure 4a
Energies 2021,
Length14,ofx adiabatic section 0.04 m Inlet temperatureCold side: 44 ◦ C, hot side: 80 ◦ C 11 of 21
Length of evaporator 0.48 m Number of HPs 31
Tube wall thickness 3 mm Flow type Countercurrent
Cold side: water, hot side: waste
Working medium water Heat exchanger fluid
decreases. The accuracy of the HPHEX model is higher under the condition
water (regarded of higher hot
as water)
Fill ratio 30% rate. The novel model -can reasonably predict the working
side mass flow - performance of
Material Carbon steel - -
the heat exchanger and can be used in the following research.

Figure
Figure5.5.(a)
(a)Comparative analysisofofmodel
Comparative analysis model structure
structure andand experimental
experimental data data
underunder coldinlet
cold fluid fluid inlet
mass
mass flowrate
flow of mm
rateof c = 2.6. (b) Comparative analysis of model structure and experimental data under
c = 2.6. (b) Comparative analysis of model structure and experimental data
cold fluid inlet mass flow rate of 2.9 m3 /h.
under cold fluid inlet mass flow rate of 2.9 m3/h.
4. Results and Discussion
4. 4.1.
Results and Discussion
Temperature Profiles of Vapor, Hot Side, and Cold Side
The HPHEX
4.1. Temperature in Ref.of
Profiles [5]Vapor,
is applied
Hot to recover
Side, wasteSide
and Cold heat of waste water for the heating
of cold water. The current liquid–liquid HPHEX model is computed under the condition
The HPHEX in Ref. [5] is applied to recover waste heat of waste water for the heating
of countercurrent arrangement in Figure 4. The inlet temperatures and mass flow rates
of cold water. The current liquid–liquid HPHEX model is computed under the condition
of countercurrent arrangement in Figure 4. The inlet temperatures and mass flow rates of
the hot side and cold side are 80 °C (353.15 K) and 40 °C (317.15 K), and 1.3 m3/h and 2.9
m3/h, respectively.
 Energies 2021, 14, 589 11 of 19

of the hot side and cold side are 80 ◦ C (353.15 K) and 40 ◦ C (317.15 K), and 1.3 m3 /h and
2.9 m3 /h, respectively.
Figure 6 summarizes the temperature profiles for the 1st to 9th rows of the hot side
and cold side, together with that of the vapor inside the HPs. These change trends are
Energies 2021, 14, x consistent with the traditional countercurrent HPHEXs. From the temperature change 12 of 2
trend of the hot side and cold side in Figure 6, one could see that the temperature profiles
of the cold and hot sides in the countercurrent manners have similar variation trends. Since
the HPHEX model is running in countercurrent manner, the temperature of the hot fluid
temperature of the fluids on the hot side and cold side, and has the same temperatur
gradually decreases from left to right in Figure 6, and the temperature of the cold fluid
change trend
gradually rises as theright
from hot to
side
leftand cold side.
in Figure The
6. The vapor
change in saturation temperature
the heat transfer decrease
process is
from leftinto
uniform right.
the countercurrent HPHEX model.

Figure6.6.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperature change
change trend
trend of hotofside
hotand
sidecold
andside
cold side flowing
flowing through through the HPs, to-
the HPs, together
gether
with thatwith that in
of vapor of HPs.
vapor in HPs.
(The (Theflow
inlet mass inletrates
massat flow rates
the hot sideatand
thecold
hotside
sideofand cold side
the HPHEX areof the
HPHEX
1.3 m31.3
and 2.9are /h, and 2.9 m3/h, respectively.)
respectively.)

The medium
4.2. Effect of MassinFlow
the HPs absorb the heat of the fluid on the hot side and release the
heat to heat the fluid on the cold side. The vapor saturation temperature is affected by
The comparison
the temperature of the
of the fluids onminimum
the hot sidevapor temperature
and cold in the
side, and has HPHEX
the same is shown in Fig
temperature
ure 7 for
change different
trend mass
as the hot sideflow
and rates. As The
cold side. can vapor
be seen, the minimum
saturation vapor
temperature temperature i
decreases
almost
from leftpositively
to right. correlated with mass flow rates. The mass flow rate on the hot side in
creases from 0.9 to 1.9 m3/h. For the cold side mass flow rate of 2.3 m3/h, the minimum
4.2. Effect of Mass Flow
vapor temperature rises from 329.4 to 332.5 K. When the mass flow rate on the cold sid
is 2.6The comparison
m3/h, of the vapor
the minimum minimum vapor temperature
temperature rises fromin329.1
the HPHEX
to 332.1isK;shown
for theincold sid
Figure 7 for different mass3 flow rates. As can be seen, the minimum vapor temperature
mass flow rate of 2.9 m /h, the minimum vapor temperature rises from 328.8 to 331.8 K
is almost positively correlated with mass flow rates. The mass flow rate on the hot side
The vapor temperature depends not only on the temperature of the fluid at the hot sid
increases from 0.9 to 1.9 m3 /h. For the cold side mass flow rate of 2.3 m3 /h, the minimum
and cold
vapor side, butrises
temperature alsofrom
on the thermal
329.4 to 332.5resistances
K. When theofmassthe flow
evaporator andcold
rate on the condenser.
side is Judg
ingmfrom
2.6 3 theminimum
/h, the simulation results
vapor and Eq.rises
temperature (13) from
and 329.1
(14), to
when
332.1the evaporator
K; for thermal re
the cold side
sistance
mass flowdecreases, m3 /h,
rate of 2.9 the vapor temperature
the minimum approaches
vapor temperature therises
hotfrom
side 328.8
temperature;
to 331.8 K. when th
The vapor temperature
condenser depends decreases,
thermal resistance not only onthethe vapor
temperature of the fluid
temperature at the hot the
approaches sidecold sid
and cold side, but
temperature. alsoaon
With the thermal
fixed resistances
mass flow rate ofofthe
the evaporator
cold side, andthe condenser.
mass flowJudgingrate of the ho
from the simulation
side increases, results and heat
the convective Equations (13)coefficient
transfer and (14), when the evaporator
increases, the thermal thermal
resistance de
resistance decreases, the vapor temperature approaches the hot side temperature; when
creases, and the minimum vapor temperature approaches the fluid temperature of the ho
the condenser thermal resistance decreases, the vapor temperature approaches the cold
side. With a fixed mass flow rate of the hot side, the mass flow rate of the cold side in
side temperature. With a fixed mass flow rate of the cold side, the mass flow rate of the
creases,
hot the convective
side increases, heat transfer
the convective coefficient
heat transfer increases,
coefficient the thermal
increases, resistance
the thermal resistancedecreases
and the minimum
decreases, vapor temperature
and the minimum is closeapproaches
vapor temperature to the temperature of the coldofside
the fluid temperature the fluid.
hot side. With a fixed mass flow rate of the hot side, the mass flow rate of the cold side
Energies
Energies2021,
2021,14,
14,x589 12 of 19 13 of 2

Energies 2021, 14, x 13 of 2

increases, the convective heat transfer coefficient increases, the thermal resistance decreases,
and the minimum vapor temperature is close to the temperature of the cold side fluid.

Figure 7. Comparison of minimum vapor temperature with different cold side mass flow rates.

Effectiveness is an important criterion for measuring the performance of HPHEXs

Figure7.7.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof of
minimum vapor
minimum temperature
vapor with different
temperature cold side
with different mass
cold flow
side rates.
mass flow rates.
As shown in Figure 8, higher mass flow rate of the cold side leads to higher effectivenes
withEffectiveness
a fixed mass is an flow rate ofcriterion
important the hotfor side, while the
measuring the mass flow rate
performance of the cold
of HPHEXs. As side re
shown Effectiveness
mainsinunchanged,
Figure 8, higher is an
andmass important
the effectiveness criterion
flow rate of theofcold for
theside measuring
HPHEXleads decreasesthe performance
with the increase
to higher effectiveness of
with HPHEXs in th
As
amassshown
fixedflow in
massrate Figure
flowof 8,
theofhot
rate higher
theside. mass
When
hot side, flow rate
thethe
while of
hotmass the
side flowcold
massrate side
flow leads
ratecold
of the to higher
increases effectivenes
from 0.9 to 1.
side remains
with
m3/h aand
unchanged, fixed
theandmassthe flow
mass flowrate rateof
effectiveness the
onof hot
the
the side,
HPHEX
cold sidewhile
is 2.3the
decreases m3withmass
/h, flow
the
the rate of
increase
effectiveness the
in the cold sidefrom
mass
decreases re
mains
flow rateunchanged,
of the hot and
side. the
When effectiveness
the hot side of
mass theflowHPHEX
rate decreases
increases from with
0.9 the
to 1.9 m 3 /h
increase in the
0.1631 to 0.0949. When the mass flow rate3 on the cold side changes to 2.6 m /h, the effec 3
and theflow
massrateflowofrate on theside.
cold When
side is 2.3
themhot /h,side
the effectiveness decreases fromfrom
mass
tiveness decreases the hot
from 0.1657 to 0.0968. Furthermore,mass flow the rate
cold increases
3 /h, side mass0.1631
flow0.9 to 1.9
rate be
to
m 0.0949. When the mass flow rate on the cold side changes to
3/h and the mass flow rate on the cold side is 2.3 m3/h, the effectiveness decreases from 2.6 m the effectiveness
comes 2.9 m /h, and the effectiveness decreases from 0.1681 to 0.0984. With the fixed mas
3
decreases
0.1631 from 0.1657
to 0.0949. When to the
0.0968.
mass Furthermore,
rate onthe
flowtemperature thecold
cold side
sidemasschangesflow to rate
2.6becomes
m3/h, sidethe effec
flow
2.9 m3rate of the
/h, and the cold side,
effectiveness the outlet
decreases from 0.1681 to increased
0.0984. With with theincreasing
fixed masshot flow mas
tiveness
flow decreases
rates. Then, from
according 0.1657
to to
Eq. 0.0968.
(18) and Furthermore,
(21), due to the
the cold
decrease side in mass flow
temperature rate be
differ
rate of the cold side, the outlet temperature increased with increasing hot side mass flow
comes
ence and
rates. 2.9 m
Then,
3
since/h, and
accordingCe isthe to effectiveness
smaller
Equations Ccdecreases
than(18) ,and
the (21), from
effectiveness
due to 0.1681 to 0.0984.
thedeclines.
decrease With the fixed
Furthermore,
in temperature mass
it can b
flow rate of the cold side, the outlet temperature increased
difference and since Ce is smaller than Cc , the effectiveness declines. Furthermore, it can be with increasing hot side mass
seen from Figure 8 that the effectiveness increases with the increasing mass flow rate o
flowfrom
seen rates. Then,
Figure according
8 that to Eq. (18)
the effectiveness and (21),
increases with due
theto the decrease
increasing mass flowin temperature
rate of the differ
the cold side. The mass flow rate on the hot side is fixed for all cases, and an increase i
ence and since Ce is smaller than Cc , the effectiveness declines. Furthermore,
cold side. The mass flow rate on the hot side is fixed for all cases, and an increase in massit can be
flow rate at the cold side produced an increase in temperature difference at the hot side,at the ho
mass flow rate at the cold side produced an increase in temperature difference
seen
side,from
which Figure 8 that the effectiveness increases with the increasing mass flow rate o
which in turn in turn
increases increases the effectiveness.
the effectiveness.
the cold side. The mass flow rate on the hot side is fixed for all cases, and an increase in
mass flow rate at the cold side produced an increase in temperature difference at the ho
side, which in turn increases the effectiveness.

Figure8.8.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof effectiveness withwith
of effectiveness different cold side
different mass
cold sideflow rates.
mass flow rates.

The condensation heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the Nusselt average hea
Figure 8. Comparison
transfer of effectiveness
coefficient, so with different
only the influence cold side
of different mass flowon
parameters rates.
the condensation hea
transfer coefficient is discussed. As can be seen from Figure 9, the maximum condensatio
heatThe condensation
transfer coefficientheat transfer coefficient
is positively correlatediswith
calculated
the hotbyside
the mass
Nusselt average
flow heai
rate and
 Energies 2021, 14, 589 13 of 19

Energies 2021, 14, x The condensation heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the Nusselt average heat 14 of 21
transfer coefficient, so only the influence of different parameters on the condensation heat
transfer coefficient is discussed. As can be seen from Figure 9, the maximum condensation
heat transfer coefficient is positively correlated with the hot side mass flow rate and is
from 0.9 to 1.9 m3/h. The cold side mass flow rate is 2.3 m3/h, the maximum condensation
negatively related to the cold side mass flow rate. The hot side mass flow rate increases
heat transfer
from 0.9 to 1.9 mcoefficient
3 /h. The cold increases
side mass from
flow6.90
rate ×is 10
3 to
2.3 m 7.40the× maximum
3 /h, 103 W/(mcondensation
2·K). When the cold

side mass flow

heat transfer rate changes
coefficient to 2.6
increases from
3/h, the
m 6.90 maximum
× 10 3 to 7.40 × condensation
103 W/(m2 ·K). heat
Whentransfer
the coeffi
cient increases
cold side mass flowfromrate6.76 × 10 toto7.24
changes 3
2.6 m 3
× 10 /h,W/(m
3 2·K). Furthermore,
the maximum condensationtheheat
coldtransfer
side mass flow
× 10 3 to 7.24 × 103 W/(m2 ·K). Furthermore, the cold side
rate becomes
coefficient 2.9 mfrom
increases 3/h, and
6.76the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient increases
mass flow 33
from 6.62rate
× 10becomes
3 to 7.13 2.9× m10/h, and the
W/(m 2·K).maximum
According condensation
to Eq. (11) heat
andtransfer
(12), coefficient
the condensation
increases from 6.62 × 10 3 to 7.13 × 10 3 W/(m2 ·K). According to Equations (11) and (12), the
heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the physical parameters of saturated vapor and
condensation heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the physical parameters of saturated
saturated liquid at saturation temperature, so it is similar to the change trend of the min
vapor and saturated liquid at saturation temperature, so it is similar to the change trend of
imum saturated vapor temperature. When the hot side mass flow rate is constant, the
the minimum saturated vapor temperature. When the hot side mass flow rate is constant,
minimum
the minimum saturated
saturated vapor
vaportemperature
temperaturedecreases
decreases with withthe theincrease
increaseininthe
the cold
cold side mass
side
flow
mass flow rate, so the condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with the decrease in in the
rate, so the condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with the decrease
minimum
the minimum saturated
saturatedvaporvaportemperature.
temperature.

Figure 9.9.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofof
maximum condensation
maximum heatheat
condensation transfer coefficient
transfer with different
coefficient cold side
with different cold side
mass flow
mass flowrates.
rates.
4.3. Effect of HP Diameter
4.3. Effect of HP Diameter
Figure 10 shows the minimum vapor temperature as a function of hot side mass flow
Figurevalues
for various 10 shows
of HP the minimum
diameter (D =vapor
28, 32,temperature
and 36 mm). as Anaincrease
functioninofHP hot side mass flow
diameter
for various values
is accompanied by aofdecrease
HP diameter
in the (D = 28, 32,vapor
minimum and 36 mm). An in
temperature increase
the HP.inThe
HPHPsdiameter is
accompanied
with a diameterby ofa28decrease
mm haveinthe thehighest
minimum vaporvapor
minimum temperature
temperature in the HP.
with theThe
same HPs with
mass flow rate of the cold side and hot side. When the mass flow
a diameter of 28 mm have the highest minimum vapor temperature with the same mass rate at the hot side
increases
flow ratefrom 0.9 cold
of the m3 /h,
to 1.9side andthehotminimum vapor the
side. When temperature
mass flow rises from
rate at 328.5 to 331.6
the hot side Kincreases
for the HPs with a diameter of 36 mm, and the minimum vapor
from 0.9 to 1.9 m3/h, the minimum vapor temperature rises from 328.5 to 331.6 temperature rises fromK for the
328.8 to 331.8 K for the HPs with a diameter of 32 mm. In contrast, for the HPs with
HPs with a diameter of 36 mm, and the minimum vapor temperature rises from 328.8 to
a diameter of 36 mm, the minimum vapor temperature rises from 329.1 to 332.0 K. As
331.8
can beKseen,
for the HPs with vapor
the minimum a diameter of 32 mm.
temperature In contrast,
is negatively for thewith
correlated HPsHPwith a diameter o
diameter.
36 mm, the minimum vapor temperature rises from 329.1 to 332.0
As the HP diameter increases, the thermal resistance of the cold side is further reduced, K. As can be seen, the
minimum vapor temperature
and the minimum vapor temperature is negatively correlated
is closer to with HP
the temperature of diameter. As In
the cold side. thethe
HP diam
eter increases,
simulation thethe
range, thermal resistance
differences of theof the cold vapor
minimum side istemperature
further reduced,betweenandvarious
the minimum
diameters
vapor decrease with
temperature the increase
is closer to theintemperature
mass flow rateof ofthe
the cold
hot side,
side.andInthe
thetemperature
simulation range
differences
the are balanced.
differences of the minimum vapor temperature between various diameters decrease
with the increase in mass flow rate of the hot side, and the temperature differences are
balanced.
Energies 2021, 14, x 15 of 2

Energies 2021,
Energies 2021,14,
14,x589 14 of 19 15 of 2

Figure 10. Comparison of the minimum vapor temperature with different HP diameters. (The
mass flow rate at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3/h.)
Figure 10.Comparison
Figure10. Comparison of of
thethe
minimum
minimum vapor temperature
vapor with different
temperature HP diameters.
with different (The mass(The
HP diameters.
flow
massrate at cold
flow rate side of the
at cold HPHEX
side 2.9 m3 /h.)
of theisHPHEX is 2.9 m3/h.)
As shown in Figure 11, different HP diameters (D = 28, 32, and 36 mm) will cause
different effectiveness.
As shown As different
in Figure 11, the HP diameter increases,
HP diameters the32,effectiveness
(D = 28, and 36 mm) of willthe HPHEX in
cause
As shown
different in Figure
effectiveness. As 11, HP
the different
diameter HPincreases,
diameters the(D = 28, 32, and
effectiveness of 36 HPHEX
the mm) will3 cause
creases. For the HPs with a diameter of 36 mm and hot side mass flow rate of 0.9 m /h, the
different effectiveness.
increases. For the HPsHPHEXAsa the
with HP diameter
diameter increases, themass
effectiveness ofof
0.9the 3HPHEX in
effectiveness of the is 0.182.ofWhen
36 mm and
the HPhot side
diameter flow rate32
becomes mm, mits
/h,
effective
creases. For the HPs with a diameter of 36 mm and hot side mass
the effectiveness of the HPHEX is 0.182. When the HP diameter becomes 32 mm, its flow rate of 0.9 m 3/h, the
ness becomes 0.1681. In addition, the HP diameter is 28 mm, and the effectiveness is 0.153
effectivenessbecomes
effectiveness of the HPHEX
0.1681. Inisaddition,
0.182. Whenthe HPthe HP diameter
diameter is 28 mm, becomes
and the 32 mm, its effective
effectiveness
The mass flow rates on the hot side and cold side are fixed for all cases, as the increase in
is 0.153.
ness The mass
becomes flowIn
0.1681. rates on the the
addition, hot HP
sidediameter
and cold is
side
28 are
mm, fixed
andforthealleffectiveness
cases, as the is 0.153
HP diameter
increase in HP leads
diameterto the
leadsincrease in heatinexchange area area
and and
turbulence degree, which, in
The mass flow rates on the to
hottheside
increase
and cold heat exchange
side are fixed for allturbulence
cases, as degree,
the increase in
turn,
which, increases the
in turn, leads effectiveness.
increases theincrease
effectiveness.
HP diameter to the in heat exchange area and turbulence degree, which, in
turn, increases the effectiveness.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Comparison
Comparison of effectiveness
of effectiveness with with different
different HP diameters.
HP diameters. (The
(The mass mass
flow flow
rate at coldrate
sideat cold
side
of theof the HPHEX
HPHEX 3
is 2.9 mis/h.)
2.9 m /h.)
3
Figure 11. Comparison of effectiveness with different HP diameters. (The mass flow rate at cold
The
side of thevariation
HPHEXtrend is 2.9 of
m3the
/h.) maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient with hot
The variation trend of the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient with ho
side mass flow rate at different HP diameters is shown in Figure 12. When the hot side
side mass
mass The
flow rate at different
flow variation
rate is constant,
HP diameters is shown in Figure 12. When the hot side
trendthe maximum
of the maximum condensation
condensationheat transfer coefficient
heat transfer decreaseswith ho
coefficient
mass
with flow rate is constant, the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases
side the
massincrease
flow in HPatdiameter.
rate differentTheHPmaximum
diameters condensation
is shown heat
in transfer
Figure 12.coefficient
When theis hot side
with×the
6.28 103increase
W/(m2 ·K) inwhen
HP diameter. The
the hot side maximum
mass flow rate condensation
and HP diameter heat
aretransfer
0.9 m3 /hcoefficient
and is
mass flow rate is constant, the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases
6.28 × 10 3 W/(m2·K) when the hot side mass flow rate and HP diameter are 0.9 m3/h and 36
36 mm, respectively. When the HP diameter changes to 32 mm, the maximum condensation
with the increase in HP diameter. The maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient is
heat
mm,transfer coefficient
respectively. When the×HP
is 6.63 103 diameter
W/(m2 ·K);changes
for the HPs with
to 32 mm,a diameter
the maximumof 28 mm, the
condensation
6.28 × 10 W/(m
maximum
3 2 ·K) when
condensation heat the hot side mass flow rate
× and HP 2diameter
3 W/(m · are increase
0.9 m3/h and 36
heat transfer coefficient is transfer
6.63 × 10coefficient is 6.88
3 W/(m2·K); 10 K). With the
for the HPs with a diameter of 28 mm, the
mm,
in HPrespectively.
diameter, theWhen
minimum the HP diameter changes to 32 mm,3 the maximum condensation
maximum condensation heatsaturated
transfer vapor temperature
coefficient is 6.88 ×decreases.
10 W/(m2The ·K). maximum
With the increase
heat transfer heat
condensation coefficient
transferiscoefficient
6.63 × 10 isW/(m
3 2·K);byfor
affected thethe HPs with
saturated vapora diameter of 28
temperature inmm, the
in HP diameter, the minimum saturated vapor temperature decreases. The maximum con
maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient is 6.88 × 103 W/(m2·K). With the increase
densation heat transfer coefficient is affected by the saturated vapor temperature in HPs
in HP diameter, the minimum saturated vapor temperature decreases. The maximum con
therefore, the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient has the same trend as the
densation heat transfer coefficient is affected by the saturated vapor temperature in HPs
minimum saturated vapor temperature.
therefore, the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient has the same trend as the
 Energies 2021, 14, 589 15 of 19

Energies 2021, 14, x 16 of 2

HPs; therefore, the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient has the same trend as
the minimum saturated vapor temperature.

Figure
Figure12.12.Comparison
Comparison of maximum
of maximum condensation heat transfer
condensation coefficient
heat transfer with different
coefficient HP diame-HP di-
with different
ters. (The mass flow rate at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3 /h.)
ameters. (The mass flow rate at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3/h.)
4.4. Effect of H ∗
*
Figureof13 H
4.4. Effect shows the minimum vapor temperature trend as a function of hot side mass
flow for various
Figure values of
13 shows theH ∗minimum
. The mass vapor
flow rate at the hot side
temperature varies
trend as from 0.9 to 1.9
a function of m
3
hot/h.
side mass
∗
The H is determined as follows. *
flow for various values of H . The∗ mass flow rate at the hot side varies from 0.9 to 1.9
*
H = Le /Lhp (22)
m3/h. The H is determined as follows.
The minimum vapor temperature increases as H ∗ increases. For H ∗ = 0.4, the max-
imum and minimum values of the minimum H * vapor
= L e temperature
/ L hp are, respectively, 329.4 (22
and 326.7 K, whereas they are 331.8 and 328.8 K for H ∗ = 0.48. Furthermore, when H ∗ is
changed
Thetominimum
0.56, the maximum and minimumincreases
vapor temperature values of the H * increases.
as minimum vapor temperature *
For H = 0.4, the
are determined
maximum andtominimum
be 334.4 andvalues
321.1 K, ofrespectively.
the minimum Fromvapor
Figuretemperature
13, it is clearlyare,
seenrespectively
that
the minimum vapor temperature rises with the increase in H ∗ value, * while the decrease in
329.4 andresult
H ∗ could 326.7inK,the whereas
decrement theyof are
the 331.8
minimum and vapor K for H = 0.48.
328.8 temperature. This isFurthermore,
due to the when
H * is changed
correlation of H ∗ : when thethe
to 0.56, value of H ∗ increases,
maximum the heat exchange
and minimum values of area
the of minimum
the evaporator
vapor tem
increases,
perature areanddetermined
the heat exchange area ofand
to be 334.4 the321.1
condenser decreases. At
K, respectively. the same
From time,
Figure 13,the
it is clearly
evaporation heat transfer coefficient in HP increases, and the condensation heat * transfer
seen that the minimum vapor temperature rises with the increase in H value, while the
coefficient decreases. Accordingly, the reason why the minimum vapor temperature ap-
*
decreasethe
proaches in hotH side could result in
temperature the decrement
is that of the minimum
the thermal resistance vapor temperature.
of the evaporator decreases This
* condenser increases. Accordingly,
*
is due to the correlation of H : when the value of H increases, the heat exchange area
and the thermal resistance of the the reason why the
minimum vapor temperature
of the evaporator increases, and approaches
the heatthe hot sidearea
exchange temperature is that thedecreases.
of the condenser thermal At the
resistance of evaporator decreases, and the thermal resistance of the condenser increases.
same time, the evaporation heat transfer coefficient in∗HP increases, and the condensation
It can be seen from Figure 14 that the effect of the H value on effectiveness is not
heat transfer coefficient decreases. Accordingly, the reason why the minimum vapor tem
great. For H ∗ = 0.4 and mc = 0.9 m3/h, the effectiveness of the HPHEX is 0.1662. When
perature
H ∗ becomes approaches the hot side becomes
0.48, the effectiveness temperature is that
0.1681. the thermal
In addition, whenresistance ofthe
H ∗ is 0.56, the evapo
rator decreases
effectiveness and the
is 0.1638. Thethermal resistance
effectiveness of the condenser
of the HPHEX increases.
is mainly affected Accordingly,
by the vapor the
reason why the
temperature, hot minimum
side mass flow vapor temperature
rate, approaches
and the physical the hot
parameters of theside temperature
hot side fluid. is tha
With the increase
the thermal in H ∗ value,
resistance the vapor temperature
of evaporator decreases, and risesthe
andthermal
the physical parameters
resistance of the of conden
the hot side
ser increases. fluid change in a parabolic trend. The effectiveness is mainly affected by the
vapor temperature and the higher the vapor temperature is, the lower the effectiveness is.
Therefore, the effectiveness is lowest when H ∗ = 0.56. When mc = 0.9 m3 /h, the physical
parameters of the hot side fluid play a major role in the heat transfer process. For H ∗ = 0.48,
due to the high viscosity, Pr, high density, and high specific volume at constant pressure,
under the same flow conditions, the boundary layer formed by the fluid flowing through
the tube wall is thicker than other H ∗ ; therefore, the effectiveness is higher than H ∗ = 0.4.
 Energies 2021, 14, 589 16 of 19

With the increase in mass flow rate, the influence of the physical parameters of the hot side
fluid gradually decreases, and the influence of the vapor temperature increases gradually.
When mc = 1.5 m3 /h, the effectiveness of H ∗ = 0.4 is equal to that of H ∗ = 0.48, and with
Energies 2021, 14, x 17 of 21
the increase in mass flow rate at the hot side, the effectiveness of H ∗ = 0.4 is gradually
higher than that of H ∗ = 0.48.

Energies 2021, 14, x Figure 13. Comparison of minimum vapor temperature with different H ∗ . (The mass 18 ofat
flow rates 21
*
Figure 13. Comparison of minimum
cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3 /h.)
vapor temperature with different H . (The mass flow rates
at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3/h.)

It can be seen from Figure 14 that the effect of the H * value on effectiveness is no
*
great. For H = 0.4 and mc = 0.9 m3/h, the effectiveness of the HPHEX is 0.1662. When
* *
H becomes 0.48, the effectiveness becomes 0.1681. In addition, when H is 0.56, the
effectiveness is 0.1638. The effectiveness of the HPHEX is mainly affected by the vapor
temperature, hot side mass flow rate, and the physical parameters of the hot side fluid
*
With the increase in H value, the vapor temperature rises and the physical parameters
of the hot side fluid change in a parabolic trend. The effectiveness is mainly affected by
the vapor temperature and the higher the vapor temperature is, the lower the effectiveness
*
is. Therefore, the effectiveness is lowest when H = 0.56. When mc = 0.9 m3/h, the physica
*
parameters of the hot side fluid play a major role in the heat transfer process. For H =
0.48, due to the high viscosity, Pr , high density, and high specific volume at constan
pressure, under the same flow conditions, the boundary layer formed by the fluid flowing
*
through the tube wall is thicker than other H ; therefore, the effectiveness is higher than
*
H = 14.
Figure
Figure 0.4. With the increase
14. Comparison
Comparison of in mass
of effectiveness
effectiveness withflow
with different
different
∗ .* (The
rate,HHthe influence
. (Themass of rate
massflow
flow the physical
rateat
atcold sideparameters
cold side of
of the
the o
3
the
HPHEXhot isside
HPHEX is 2.9 mfluid
2.9 m 3 /h.) gradually decreases, and the influence of the vapor temperature in
/h.)
* *
creases
Thegradually.
maximum When mc = 1.5
condensation m3/h,
heat the effectiveness
transfer of H with
coefficient increases = 0.4the
is equal that of H
to in
increase
The maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient increases with the increase in *
=H0.48,
* and *with the increase in mass flow rate at the hot side, the effectiveness of H =
∗ . For H ∗ = 0.4, the maximum and minimum values of the maximum condensation heat
H . For H = 0.4, the maximum and minimum
transfer are, respectively, 6.37 × 103 and 5.92
values of the maximum condensation
* × 103 W/(m2 ·K), whereas they are 7.13 × 103
0.4 is transfer
heat gradually
3 higher
are, 2 than that
respectively, ∗ of
6.37 × 10H = 5.92
3 and 0.48.× 103 W/(m2·K),∗ whereas they are 7.13 ×
and 6.63 × 10 W/(m ·K) for H =*0.48. Furthermore, when H is changed to 0.56, the
*
103 and 6.63
maximum and× minimum ·K) for ofHthe =maximum
103 W/(m2values 0.48. Furthermore,
condensationwhenheatHtransfer
is changed to 0.56,
coefficient are
the maximum and minimum3 values of the
3 maximum
2 condensation heat
determined to be 7.95 × 10 and 7.44 × 10 W/(m ·K), respectively. It can be seen from transfer coeffi-
cient are
Figures 13determined
and 15 thatto bemaximum
the 7.95 × 103 condensation
and 7.44 × 103heat
W/(m 2·K), respectively. It can be seen
transfer coefficient has the same
from Figures 13 and 15 that the maximum condensation
change trend under the influence of saturated vapor temperature. heat transfer coefficient has the
same change trend under the influence of saturated vapor temperature.
 heat transfer are, respectively, 6.37 × 103 and 5.92 × 103 W/(m2·K), whereas they are 7.13 ×
* *
103 and 6.63 × 103 W/(m2·K) for H = 0.48. Furthermore, when H is changed to 0.56
the maximum and minimum values of the maximum condensation heat transfer coeffi
cient are determined to be 7.95 × 103 and 7.44 × 103 W/(m2·K), respectively. It can be seen
Energies 2021, 14, 589 17 of 19
from Figures 13 and 15 that the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient has the
same change trend under the influence of saturated vapor temperature.

Figure 15. Comparison of maximum condensation heat transfer with different H ∗ . (The mass
* flow
Figure 15. Comparison of maximum condensation heat transfer with different H . (The mass
rate at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m3 /h.)
flow rate at cold side of the HPHEX is 2.9 m /h.)
3

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, numerical analysis on a liquid–liquid HPHEX with phase change thermal
resistance
In thisis proposed. The thermal
paper, numerical resistances
analysis of evaporationHPHEX
on a liquid–liquid and condensation
with phaseinside
change ther
the
malHP are comprehensively
resistance is proposed.considered,
The thermal and the HPHEX
resistances ofisevaporation
analyzed moreandaccurately.
condensation in
The
sideexperimental
the HP are data in Ref. [5] are used
comprehensively to verify and
considered, the numerical
the HPHEX results. Based on the
is analyzed more accu
HPHEX model, the effects of three factors on heat transfer performance and minimum
rately. The experimental data in Ref. [5] are used to verify the numerical results. Based on
vapor temperature inside the HP are discussed in-depth. The three factors are (1) mass
the HPHEX
flow rates, (2)model, the effects
HP diameters, and of
(3)three
H ∗ . Infactors on heat
addition, sometransfer performance
meaningful conclusionsand minimum
have
vapor temperature
been obtained. inside the HP are discussed in-depth. The three factors are (1) mas
1. The current model can fit the experimental data better and more accurately. The
maximum deviations are equal to 0.32 and 0.34 kW for the cases with cold fluid
inlet mass flow of 2.6 and 2.9 m3 /h. The maximum error is less than 5% and can be
considered reliable.
2. Using the current model, the mass flow rates at the hot side and cold side are 1.3 and
2.9 m3 /h to predict the temperature change of the entire HPHEX. The hot side fluid,
cold side fluid, and vapor in the HP have the same temperature change trend under
the countercurrent manner. For the HPHEX with the countercurrent manner, the heat
transfer rate is larger and the heat transfer is more uniform.
3. Within the scope of numerical analysis, the improvement in heat transfer rate by
rising mass flow rate at the cold side could effectively increase effectiveness. Since Ce
is smaller than Cc , the enhancement of mass flow rate at the hot side could decrease
effectiveness. Meanwhile, the enhancement of the cold side mass flow rate outside
the condenser facilitates a lower minimum vapor temperature. The enhancement of
the hot side mass flow rate outside the condenser facilitates a higher minimum vapor
temperature.
4. Within the scope of numerical analysis, an increase in HP diameter improves the
effectiveness of the HPHEX and decreases the minimum vapor temperature. Thus, in
the design of the HPHEX, a suitable HP diameter should be selected to enhance the
effectiveness and avoid the failure of the HP.
5. Increasing H ∗ can effectively increase the minimum vapor temperature, but has
little effect on the effectiveness of the HPHEX. By changing the H ∗ value, the vapor
temperature can be changed effectively, thus avoiding the failure of the HPs.
6. The condensation heat transfer coefficient is affected by the saturated vapor tempera-
ture, and the variation trend is similar to the minimum saturated vapor temperature.
Energies 2021, 14, 589 18 of 19

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Q.C.; validation, Q.C., Y.S. and Z.Z.; data analysis, Q.C.,
Y.S. and Z.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.C.; writing—review and editing, Q.C., L.W., C.X.
and J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article. The data presented in this study
are available in article here.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

A area, m2
Cp specific heat capacity of fluid, J/(kg·K)
D outer diameter of heat pipe, mm
Din inner diameter of heat pipe, mm
g gravitational acceleration, m/s2
H∗ the ratio of the length of the evaporator to the length of the heat pipe
h heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 ·K)
hfg latent heat of vaporization, j/kg
kw wall thermal conductivity, W/(m·K)
L length, m
m mass flow rate, m3 /h
P pressure, Pa
Patm atmospheric pressure, Pa
Q heat transfer rate, W
q heat flux, W/m2
R thermal resistance, K/W
Re Reynolds number
Rg specific gas constant, J/(kg·K)
t temperature, ◦ C(K)
∆t temperature difference, ◦ C(K)
Greek
α relaxation factor
ε effectiveness
µ dynamic viscosity, Pa·s
ρ density, kg/m3
Subscripts
a adiabatic
actual actual
c condenser
e evaporator
fb film boiling
hp heat pipe
in inner
inlet inlet
l liquid
max maximum
min minimum
out outer
outlet outlet
pb pool boiling
v vapor
w wall
Energies 2021, 14, 589 19 of 19

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