PREFACE

The current world human population of over 7000 million people con-
sumes about 5 3 1017 BTU of energy per year. This is expected to
increase to 7.5 3 1017 BTU per year by 2040. About 87% of all energy
consumed comes from fossil fuels, and nuclear and hydropower provide
12%. Solar, wind and geothermal energy provide less than 1%. Among
fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal), about 85% of the available energy is
contained in coal although only 26% of all energy consumed is derived
from coal. It is therefore very likely that coal’s share of the energy mix
will increase in the future. Global coal deposits are widespread in 70
countries. Coal is the most abundant and economical fuel today, costing
only 4 cents/kWh of electricity. The mineable reserve of coal (to a depth
of 3000 ft) is about 1 trillion tons, but the total indicated reserve to a
depth of 10,000 feet is between 17 and 30 trillion tons. Exploitation of
the energy contained in the nonmineable coal reserve is the essence of
this book.
Besides coal, this vast coal reserve contains another source of energy,
coalbed methane (CBM). It is almost like natural gas with about 10 15%
lower calorific value. Reserve estimates of CBM ranges from 275 to
34,000 TCF. This huge reserve of gas remains almost unexploited. CBM
production only started in the 1980s and the current global production is
3 TCF/year. About 60% of this production is in the United States. Coal
and CBM are syngenetic in origin; thus, coal is both the source and the
reservoir for CBM. Coal seams are formed over millions of years by the
biochemical decay of plant materials. The process produces vast amount
of methane and carbon dioxide as the plant materials metamorphose to
coal. Most of the gas escapes to the atmosphere and only a small fraction
is retained in coal. The gas content of coal ranges from 35 to 875 ft3/ton
to a depth of 4000 ft. Not much data is available for deeper coal seams
but, in general, the gas content increases with depth.
The coal reservoir for gas significantly differs from conventional gas
reservoirs, requiring a separate treatment of the subject. The book dis-
cusses all aspects of reservoir engineering and production engineering for
CBM.
The material for the book was developed by the author to teach a
graduate-level course on the subject at the West Virginia University over

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the past 10 years. It takes a 15-week-long semester to cover this course.

The content is based on the author’s derivation of mathematical equations
for measuring reservoir properties and his forty years of experience in the
field on production engineering. This work is strictly a graduate level
book but can be later expanded to include undergraduate material to
make it amenable for two courses: an undergraduate and a graduate-level
course.
Chapter 1, Global Reserves of Coal Bed Methane and Prominent
Coal Basins, is a general introduction to global CBM reservoirs with a
description of current gas production activities. Nineteen basins are iden-
tified, and the geology and reserves of prominent basins are discussed.
The next four chapters (chapters Gas Content of Coal and Reserve
Estimates, Porosity and Permeability of Coal, Diffusion of Gases From
Coal, and Pore Pressure and Stress Field in Coal Reservoirs) present
the reservoir engineering aspects of CBM. Chapter 2, Gas Content of
Coal and Reserve Estimates, discusses gas contents and gas isotherms
of coal seams with methods for the estimation of gas-in-place (GIP) for
both mineable and non-mineable reserves. Chapter 3, Porosity and
Permeability of Coal, deals with the porosity and permeability of coal
seams. Definitions of terms and various methods of measuring or estimat-
ing permeability are discussed. Chapter 4, Diffusion of Gases From Coal,
derives equations for the measurement of diffusivity and sorption time.
Chapter 5, Pore Pressure and Stress Field in Coal Reservoirs, deals with
reservoir (pore) pressure and ground stress. The influence of these stresses
on production technology is also discussed.
Chapter 6, Fluid Flow in Coal Reservoirs and Chapter 7, Fluid Flow
in Pipes and Boreholes discuss the flow of fluids in porous media, such as
coal and shale, and the flow of fluid in pipes and gas wells. They provide
mathematical equations to calculate gas production and reservoir pressure
decline, which are essential for efficient gas production. The flow of
slurries in pipes and pipe annulus are also discussed. Gas production
decline is discussed in detail.
Chapter 8, Hydraulic Fracking of Coal, deals with hydrofracking of
coal. This is currently the most popular method of gas production.
Hydrofracking of both vertical and horizontal wells is discussed. Sand
schedules for water and nitrogen-foam fracking are provided. One of
the unique contents of this chapter is the in-mine measurements
of the length, width, and height of the fracture and verification of extant
theories. Some 200 wells were mapped and results are summarized.
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Chapter 9, Horizontal Drilling in Coal Seams, deals with horizontal

drilling both in-mine and from the surface. This is the future technique
for CBM production from deep coal seams. Design of drill rigs for in-
mine use is discussed.
Finally, twelve US coal basins are classified on the basis of depth
as (a) shallow, (b) medium-depth, and (c) deep basins. The most
suitable production technique for each basin is presented in addition to a
summary of current CBM production activities. Secondary recovery
of CBM by CO2 flooding and tertiary recovery of energy in coal by
underground coal gasification are very briefly discussed.
Most of the knowledge contained in the book was discovered by the
author while working for CONOCO/CONSOL Energy (an erstwhile
subsidiary of CONOCO) from 1974 through 2014.
I gratefully acknowledge the help and guidance provided to me on
hydrofracking of coal by my two friends, the late Dr. H.R. Crawford of
CONOCO and the late Fred Skidmore of Texas. I am grateful to the late
Eustace Frederick for his support in using these techniques to degas the
world’s gassiest mine, which produced 70 MMCFD of methane.
For the development of in-mine drilling rigs, I owe thanks to the late
William Poundstone of CONSOL Energy, who mentored me, and the late
Robert Fletcher of JH Fletcher Co, for manufacturing the first in-mine dril-
ling rig for the coal industry.
I would be remiss in my duty if I did not thank Joyce Conn, who has
typed most of my publications for the last 42 years, and Kattie Washington
of Elsevier for her patience and guidance.
This book can be considerably expanded in the second edition if the
need arises.