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College Physics
®
for AP Courses

SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

IRINA LYUBLINSKAYA, CUNY COLLEGE OF STATEN ISLAND
GREGG WOLFE, AVONWORTH HIGH SCHOOL
DOUGLAS INGRAM, TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
LIZA PUJJI, MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SUDHI OBEROI, RAMAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE
NATHAN CZUBA, SABIO ACADEMY

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 College Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses
College Physics for AP® Courses College Physics
College Physics for AP® Courses Connection for AP® Courses

Connection for AP® Courses

Real World Connections Applying the Science Practices

College Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses

 College
Physics for AP® Courses

College Physics for AP® Courses

underlying order and simplicity

realm of physics
Britain's Heritage of Science
law

F = ma

imply the existence of objects or phenomena as yet unobserved.

experiment

physics
 relativistic quantum mechanics,

y = bx
 specifying how it is measured stating how it is calculated

average speed

Système International
only
 10
1 2 3
10 , 10 , 10
10 same
800 8×10 2 450 4.5×10 2.
800 450 10 2.
10 −9 m,
10 9 m.
10 18 10 18 m

10 15 10 15 s

10 12 10 12 W

10 9 10 9 Hz

10 6 10 6 Ci

10 3 10 3 m

10 2 10 2 L

10 1 10 1 g

10 0

10 −1 10 −1 L

10 −2 10 −2 m

10 −3 10 −3 m

10 −6 10 −6 m

10 −9 10 −9 g

10 −12 10 −12 F

10 −15 10 −15 m

10 −18 10 −18 s
meters kilometers

80m× 1 km = 0.080 km.

1000m
 ⎛
10 −18 10 −30
⎝9.11×10
−31
kg⎞⎠ 10 −23

⎛
10 −15 10 −27
⎝1.67×10
−27
kg⎞⎠ 10 −22

10 −14 10 −15 10 −15

10 −10 10 −5 10 −13

10 −8 10 −2 10 −8

10 −6 1 10 −3

10 −3 10 2 1
⎛ 4 ⎞
1 10 3 10 5 ⎝8.64×10 s⎠

⎛ 7 ⎞
10 2 10 8 10 7 ⎝3.16×10 s⎠

10 4 10 12 10 9

10 7 10 15 10 11

⎛
10 11 10 23
⎝7.35×10
22
kg⎞⎠ 10 17

⎛
10 16 10 25 ⎝5.97×10
24
kg⎞⎠ 10 18

⎛
10 21 10 30
⎝1.99×10
30
kg⎞⎠

10 22 10 42

10 26 10 53

average speed = distance .

time
 average speed = 10.0 km = 0.500 km .
20.0 min min

60 min/hr

average speed =0.500 km × 60 min = 30.0 km .

min 1h h

km × 1 hr = 1 km ⋅ hr ,
min 60 min 60 min 2

defined

Average speed = 30.0 km × 1 h × 1,000 m ,

h 3,600 s 1 km
Average speed = 8.33 m
s.

10 −3
 A A
A A± A
11 in. ± 0.2.
 3.0ºC 37.0ºC
34.0ºC 40.0ºC
3.0ºC

A
A

% unc = A ×100%.
A

5 lb

4.8 lb
5.3 lb
4.9 lb
5.4 lb
5 lb ±0.4 lb

A A

% unc = A ×100%.
A

% unc = 0.4 lb ×100% = 8%.

5 lb

5 lb ± 8%

the percent uncertainty in a quantity calculated by multiplication or division is the sum of the percent
uncertainties in the items used to make the calculation 4.00 m 3.00 m
2
2% 1% 12.0 m 3%
 0.36 m 2 0.4 m 2

±0.05 s 11.49 s 15.01 s

12.04 s 12.07 s

36.7 cm
36.71 cm

36.6 cm 36.7 cm
the last digit written down in a measurement is the first digit with some uncertainty

36.7 cm

Zeros are significant except when they serve only as placekeepers

6×10 3

10 3

the number of significant digits in the final

answer can be no greater than the number of significant digits in the least precise measured value
 The result should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity having the
least significant figures entering into the calculation
A = πr 2 r = 1.2 m
A = πr 2 = (3.1415927...)×(1.2 m) 2 = 4.5238934 m 2

A=4.5 m 2,
π
The answer can contain no more decimal places than the least precise measurement.

7.56 kg
- 6.052 kg
+13.7 kg
= 15.2 kg.
15.208 kg

exact
c = 2πr

F m a
2
0.0255 m/s
 2 m × 2 person ×39 stories = 156 m.
1 person 1 story
 volume of stack = length×width×height,
volume of stack = 6 in.×3 in.×0.5 in.,
volume of stack = 9 in. 3 .
$1×10 12, $100
4
$10,000, $1×10

$1×10 12(a trillion dollars)/ $1×10 4 per stack = 1×10 8 stacks.

100 yd×50 yd,
5,000 yd 2.

Area = 5,000 yd 2× 3 ft × 3 ft × 12 in. × 12 in. = 6,480,000 in. 2 ,

1 yd 1 yd 1 ft 1 ft
Area ≈ 6×10 6 in. 2 .

6×10 6 in. 2

$100
3 8 8 3
9 in. / stack×10 stacks = 9×10 in. .

volume of bills = area of fiel ×height of money:

Height of money = volume of bills ,
area of fiel
8 3
Height of money = 9×10 in. = 1.33×10 2 in.,
6 2
6×10 in.
Height of money ≈ 1×10 2 in. = 100 in.

100 in.× 1 ft = 8.33 ft ≈ 8 ft.

12 in.

420 m 2
 measuring tool

necessary

diopters
 (106.7)(98.2) / (46.210)(1.01) (18.7) 2
⎛ −19⎞
⎝1.60×10 ⎠(3712)

33 m/s

90 km/h
1.0 m/s = 3.6 km/h 2.0 km/h
1.0 m/s = 3.6 km/h. 90 km/h
60 km/h

120 ± 2 mm Hg

80 mm Hg?

30 s 40 ± 1
30.0 ± 0.5 s
342 m/s
3.102 cm

42.188 km
2h 12 s 25 m

1.80 ± 0.01 cm 2.05 ± 0.02 cm, and 3.1 ± 0.1 cm

pound-mass
1 lbm = 0.4539 kg
0.0001 kg
5.0%
90 km/h
(1 km = 0.6214 mi)
130 ± 5 3.955 ± 0.005 m 3.050 ± 0.005 m

7.500 ± 0.002 cm
3.250 ± 0.001 cm
10 −22 s

10 −27 kg
10 −15 kg.

Salmonella typhimurium
 How long will it
take for a space probe to get to Mars? Where will a football land if it is thrown at a certain angle?

study of motion without considering its causes

motion
 change in position
Δx = x f − x 0,
Δx xf x0

Δ Δx
change in position x0 xf

x +2.0 m

x 0 = 1.5 m
x f = 3.5 m
Δx = x f −x 0 = 3.5 m − 1.5 m = + 2.0 m.

x 0 = 6.0 m x f = 2.0 m
 Δx = x f −x 0 = 2.0 m − 6.0 m = −4.0 m.
x

the magnitude or size of

displacement between two positions
the total length of the path traveled between two positions

distance traveled

Δx = x f − x 0 = −1 km

3 km + 2 km = 5 km
1 km
x

magnitude and direction

(+) (−)

20ºC

−20ºC
 (+) (−)

you
your assistant
change

Δt
Δt = t f − t 0,
Δt tf t0
Δ
t0
t0 = 0 Δt = t f ≡ t

(t 0 = 0)
t (Δt = t f ≡ t)
 displacement (change in position) divided by the time of travel
x −x
v- = Δx = t f − t 0 ,
Δt f 0

v- average v Δx xf
x0 tf t0 t0

v- = Δx
t .

velocity is a vector because displacement is a vector

v- = Δx −4 m
t = 5 s = − 0.8 m/s.

instantaneous velocity velocity at a specific instant

v t

speed is a scalar
not
 xf = x0

distance = 80 miles
time 105 minutes
80 miles × 5280 feet × 1 meter × 1 minute = 20 m/s
105 minutes 1 mile 3.28 feet 60 seconds

the rate at which velocity changes

v −v
a- = Δv = tf − t 0 ,
Δt f 0

a- v t a average

m/s 2
direction

change Δv

change motion
v f − v i = − 5 m/s − − 25 m/s
 Δv Δt
v −v
a- = Δv = tf − t 0
Δt f 0

v 0 = 0 v f = −15.0 m/s Δt = 1.80 s

− 15.0 m/s
Δv = v f = −15.0 m/s
Δv Δt a-

a- = Δv = −15.0 m/s = −8.33 m/s 2.

Δt 1.80 s

8.33 m/s 2

8.33 m/s 2

a acceleration at a specific instant in time

1.8 m/s 2

+3.0 m/s 2
–2.0 m/s 2
 x −
x0 xf Δx x′ 0 x′ f
Δx′ −1.5 km
 Δx = x f − x 0

x f = 6.70 km x 0 = 4.70 km x′ f = 3.75 km

x′ 0 = 5.25 km

Δx = x f − x 0 = 6.70 km − 4.70 km= +2.00 km

Δx′ = x′ f − x′ 0 = 3.75 km − 5.25 km = − 1.50 km

−1.5 km.

v0 = 0 v f = 30.0 km/h Δt = 20.0 s

 Δv Δv= +30.0 km/h

a-

a- = Δv = +30.0 km/h
Δt 20.0 s

⎛ ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ ⎞
a- = ⎝+30 km/h ⎠⎝10 m ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠ = 0.417 m/s 2
20.0 s 1 km 3600 s

change

v 0 = 30.0 km/h v f = 0 km/h Δt = 8.00 s

Δv
Δv = v f − v 0 = 0 − 30.0 km/h = −30.0 km/h
Δv Δt a-

a- = Δv = −30.0 km/h
Δt 8.00 s

⎛ ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ ⎞
a- = Δv = ⎝−30.0 km/h ⎠⎝10 m ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠ = −1.04 m/s 2.
Δt 8.00 s 1 km 3600 s

change
 x′ f = 3.75 km x′ 0 = 5.25 km Δt = 5.00 min
Δx′ Δx′ − 1.5 km

v- = Δx′ = −1.50 km
Δt 5.00 min

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
v- = Δx′ = ⎝−1.50 km ⎠⎝60 min ⎠ = −18.0 km/h
Δt 5.00 min 1h

v 0 = −20 km/h v f = 0 km/h Δt = 10.0 s

Δv
Δv = v f − v 0 = 0 − (−20 km/h)=+20 km/h.
a-

a- = Δv = +20.0 km/h
Δt 10.0 s
 ⎛ ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ ⎞
a- = ⎝+20.0 km/h ⎠⎝10 m ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠= +0.556 m/s 2
10.0 s 1 km 3600 s

change

increase
v a
 t x v a

Δt = t f − t 0 t0 = 0 Δt = t f
x 0 is the
initial position v 0 is the initial velocity t is the final time x is the final
position v is the final velocity Δt = t
Δx = x − x 0
Δv = v − v 0
Δt = t ⎫
Δx = x − x 0⎬
Δv = v − v 0 ⎭
the subscript 0 denotes an initial value and the absence of a subscript denotes a final value

acceleration is constant

a- = a = constant,
a
is

Δx x a

v- = Δx .
Δt
Δx Δt
x−x
v- = t 0 .

x
x = x 0 + v- t,

v +v
v- = 0 (constant a).
2
 v +v
v- = 0 v
2

v +v
v- = 0
2
v + v 30 km/h + 60 km/h
v- = 0 = = 45 km/h,
2 2

x
x = x 0 + v- t.
x x0 v- t

v- = 4.00 m/s Δt = 2.00 min x0 = 0 m

x = x 0 + v- t = 0 + (4.00 m/s)(120 s) = 480 m

x = x 0 + v- t

v- v- v- 2
 t

a = Δv
Δt
Δv Δt
v − v0
a= t (constant a).
v
v = v 0 + at (constant a).

1.50 m/s 2

v 0 = 70.0 m/s a = −1.50 m/s 2 t = 40.0 s

vf
v = v 0 + at
 v = v 0 + at = 70.0 m/s + ⎛⎝−1.50 m/s 2⎞⎠(40.0 s) = 10.0 m/s

v = v 0 + at

(v = v 0)
a

Endeavor

a≠0

v = v 0 + at.
v0
v0 + v
= v 0 + 1 at.
2 2
v0 + v
= v-
2

v- = v 0 + 1 at.
2
v- x = x 0 + v- t

x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2 (constant a).
2

26.0 m/s 2

x x0
x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
v0 a t

v0 = 0 a 26.0 m/s 2 t
x

x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2.
2

x = 1 at 2.
2
a t
 x = 1 ⎛⎝26.0 m/s 2⎞⎠(5.56 s) 2 ,
2

x = 402 m.

x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2 ?
2

v 0 = v- x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
x = x 0 + v 0t

a≠0

v = v 0 + at t
v − v0
t= a .
v +v
v- = 0 x = x 0 + v- t
2
v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0) (constanta).

v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0)

v0 = 0
x − x 0 = 402 m
a = 26.0 m/s 2
v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0) v.

v 2 = 0 + 2⎛⎝26.0 m/s 2⎞⎠(402 m).

 v 2 = 2.09×10 4 m 2 /s 2.
v

v = 2.09×10 4 m 2 /s 2 = 145 m/s.

v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0)

a
x = x 0 + v- t
v +v
v- = 0
2
v = v 0 + at
x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0)

7.00 m/s 2
2
5.00 m/s
 v 0 = 30.0 m/s v = 0 a = −7.00 m/s 2 a
x0 Δx
x − x0

v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0).
x
x t

x
v 2 − v 20
x − x0 =
2a

0 2 − (30.0 m/s) 2
x−0=
2⎛⎝−7.00 m/s 2⎞⎠

x = 64.3 m on dry concrete.

– 5.00 m/s 2

x wet = 90.0 m on wet concrete.

v- = 30.0 m/s t reaction = 0.500 s a reaction = 0

x 0 − reaction x reaction

x = x 0 + v- t x

x = 0 + (30.0 m/s)(0.500 s) = 15.0 m.

x braking + x reaction = x total

2.00 m/s 2

t
t

v 0 = 10 m/s a = 2.00 m/s 2 x = 200 m

t x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
t
t

200 m = 0 m + (10.0 m/s)t + 1 ⎛⎝2.00 m/s 2⎞⎠ t 2

2
t=ts t
200 = 10t + t 2.
t.

t 2 + 10t − 200 = 0

at 2 + bt + c = 0,
a = 1.00, b = 10.0, and c = −200

2
t = −b ± b − 4ac .
2a
t
t = 10.0 and−20.0.
t=t
t = 10.0 s and − 20.0 s.

t = 10.0 s.

a- = Δv / Δt

20 m/s 2

t a v0 v
v = v 0 + at
t.

t = v− v 400 m/s − 0 m/s = 20 s

a =
20 m/s 2
Examine the situation to determine which physical principles are involved draw a simple sketch

Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns)

Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns)

Find an equation or set of equations that can help you solve the problem

Substitute the knowns along with their units into the appropriate equation, and obtain numerical solutions complete with units
Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

0.40 m/s 2

Solve the problem using strategies as outlined and in the format followed in the worked examples in the text

v = v 0 + at = 0 + ⎛⎝0.40 m/s 2⎞⎠(100 s) = 40 m/s.

Check to see if the answer is reasonable

⎛40 m ⎞⎛3.28 ft ⎞⎛ 1 mi ⎞⎛60 s ⎞⎛60 min ⎞ = 89 mph

⎝ s ⎠⎝ m ⎠⎝5280 ft ⎠⎝ min ⎠⎝ 1 h ⎠

If the answer is unreasonable, look for what specifically could cause the identified difficulty

0.40 m/s 2

0.40 m/s 2
 same constant acceleration independent of their mass

1.67 m/s 2

falling without air resistance or friction

constant

g = 9.80 m/s 2.

g 9.78 m/s 2 9.83 m/s 2

9.80 m/s 2
downward (towards the center of Earth) defines
a +g −g
a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2
a = g = 9.80 m/s 2

g y
x

g
v = v 0 − gt
y = y 0 + v 0t − 1 gt 2
2
v 2 = v 20 − 2g(y − y 0)

.
 y y0

y1 v1 y2 v2
y3 v3
y1

y 0 = 0 v 0 = 13.0 m/s a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2 t = 1.00 s

y = y 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2 y y1
2

y1

y = 0 + (13.0 m/s)(1.00 s) + 1 ⎛⎝−9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(1.00 s) 2 = 8.10 m

2

t = 1.00 y1 > y0 moving

v1
v1

y 0 = 0 v 0 = 13.0 m/s a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2 t = 1.00 s

y 1 = 8.10 m
v = v 0 − gt v = v 0 + at
a = gravitational acceleration = −g

v 1 = v 0 − gt = 13.0 m/s − ⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(1.00 s) = 3.20 m/s

v1 t = 1.00 s

t = 2.00 s 3.00 s
 t y v a

1.00 s 8.10 m 3.20 m/s −9.80 m/s 2

2.00 s 6.40 m −6.60 m/s −9.80 m/s 2
3.00 s −5.10 m −16.4 m/s −9.80 m/s 2

Misconception Alert!

time

y1
v1
y3 v3
−9.80 m/s 2 −9.80 m/s 2
y

y0 = 0

y 0 = 0 y 1 = − 5.10 m v 0 = −13.0 m/s a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2

v 2 = v 20 + 2a(y − y 0)
v y1 y

v 2 = (−13.0 m/s) 2 + 2⎛⎝−9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(−5.10 m − 0 m) = 268.96 m 2 /s 2,

v = ±16.4 m/s.

v = −16.4 m/s.

this is exactly the same velocity the rock had at this position when it was thrown straight upward with the same
initial speed
speed

±3.20 m/s
 speed

13.0 m/s
y=0 −13.0 m/s
y = −5.10 m
+13.0 m/s −13.0 m/s
y=0

g
 a

y 0 = 0 y = –1.0000 m t = 0.45173 v 0 = 0
a

y = y 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
v0 a v0

y = y 0 + 1 at 2.
2
a
2(y − y 0)
a= .
t2

2( − 1.0000 m – 0)
a= = −9.8010 m/s 2 ,
(0.45173 s) 2
a = −g

g = 9.8010 m/s 2.

a
9.80 m/s 2 9.8010 m/s 2
g 9.80 m/s 2

What measurements will you need to take in order to find the acceleration due to gravity?
What relationships and equations found in this chapter may be useful in calculating the acceleration?
What variables will you need to hold constant?
What materials will you use to record your measurements?
 y0 = 0 y = −30.0 m a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2
y = y 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2 t a = −g
2

y = 0 + 0 − 1 gt 2
2
2y
t2 = −g
2y 2( − 30.0 m)
t = ± −g = ± = ± 6.12 s 2 = 2.47 s ≈ 2.5 s
−9.80 m/s 2

y = bx

x y

y = mx + b.
m b
y
 y = mx + b

a v

x t

v- x0 y = mx + b
x = v- t + x 0

x = x 0 + v- t.

x t
x t v

slope = Δx = v
Δt

t
 x t

slope = Δx = v- .
Δt

x t (Δ)

v- = Δx = 2000 m − 525 m ,
Δt 6.4 s − 0.50 s

v- = 250 m/s.

a a≠0
 x t
v t
2
5.0 m/s
 x t

x t

t = 25 s

t = 25 s

v
Δx Q (3120 m − 1300 m)
slope = v Q = =
Δt Q (32 s − 19 s)

v Q = 1820 m = 140 m/s.

13 s
 v t = 25 s vQ
v t

v t Δv Δt

v t
v t a.

slope = Δv = a
Δt

y = mx + b
y V b v0 m a x t

v = v 0 + at.

discover

5.0 m/s 2
x t t = 55 s
 v t

t = 25 s

a
(260 m/s − 210 m/s)
slope = Δv =
Δt (51 s − 1.0 s)
 a = 50 m/s = 1.0 m/s 2.
50 s

a t = 25 s

y
 x

y x

y- x y

Δx
Δx = x f − x 0,
x0 xf Δ

Δt = t f − t 0,
tf t0
t
v-
x −x
v- = Δx = t f − t 0 .
Δt f 0

v
 not

a-
v −v
a- = Δv = t f − t 0 .
Δt f 0
m/s 2

a- = a

Δt = t ⎫
Δx = x − x 0⎬
Δv = v − v 0 ⎭
a
x = x + v- t
0
v +v
v- = 0
2
v = v 0 + at

x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0)
y x

The six basic problem solving steps for physics are:

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5

Step 6

g = 9.80 m/s 2.
a +g −g
a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2
a = +g = 9.80 m/s 2
+g −g a
 x t v.
v t a.

50 µm/s ⎛⎝50×10 −6 m/s⎞⎠

A bird that is diving for prey has a speed of − 10 m / s

−5ºC
 g

ta tb tc td te

ta tb tc
ta tb tc
 25.0º

(3.00×10 8 m/s)

1.06×10 −10 m

2.20×10 6 m/s

g (9.80 m/s 2)

1.40 m/s 2

3.84×10 6 m
 m/s 2 g (9.80 m/s 2) ?

0.0500 m/s 2

0.550 m/s 2
4.50 m/s 2

2.10×10 4 m/s 2
(1 ms = 10 −3 s)

0.350 m/s 2

6.20×10 5 m/s 2
8.10×10 −4 s

1.35 m/s 2 m/s 2

g ⎛⎝g = 9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
1.65 m/s 2

m/s 2 g

2.40 m/s 2

2.00 m/s 2

0.150 m/s 2

3.33×10 −2 s
 Hint

0.500 m/s 2

y0 = 0
 t = 20 s

5.0 m/s 2

(8.00×10 −5 s)

(3.50×10 −3 s)

t = 10.0 s

t = 30.0 s
3.2 m/s 2 t = 10 s t = 2.5 s
 v(t)

t=5s

A B

A B

most sensible
 v t

aCD aAB aBC aDE

aBC aAB aCD aDE
aAB aBC aDE aCD
aCD aAB aDE aBC
 a2 + b2 = c2

a b c
2 2 2 2 2
a +b =c c c= a +b

(9 blocks) 2+ (5 blocks) 2= 10.3 blocks

projectile motion resolve
 graphical representation of a vector

D D

F
 F

29.1°

D D
D
29.1°
 D D

29.1°
Step 1. Draw an arrow to represent the first vector (9 blocks to the east) using a ruler and protractor

Step 2. Place the tail of the second vector at the head

of the first vector

Step 3. If there are more than two vectors, continue this process for each vector to be added. Note that in our example, we have
only two vectors, so we have finished placing arrows tip to tail
Step 4. Draw an arrow from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector
Step 5. measure its length with a ruler. (Note that in most calculations, we will use the
Pythagorean theorem to determine this length.)
Step 6. measure the angle it makes with the reference frame using a protractor. (Note that
in most calculations, we will use trigonometric relationships to determine this angle.)

49.0°
15.0°

A B C

R
R

R R

R 7.0°
R = 50.0 m = 7.0°
 A + B = B + A.
2+3 3+2

B A
A–B negative B –B
the negative of any vector has the same magnitude but the opposite direction
B –B

B –B

subtraction B A –B A

A – B = A + (–B).
5 – 2 = 5 + (–2)

66.0° 112° 22.0°

opposite
 A B
A+B opposite
B 180° – 112° = 68° –B
–B B
A + (–B) A–B

A+B
A + (–B)

A –B

R
R

R = 23.0 m = 7.5°
 A B
R'

R = 52.9 m = 90.1°

3 × 27.5 m 66.0°

opposite

A c
c A
c
c
c=3 A = 27.5 m

x and y

29.0°
finding the components (or
parts)
 A Ax Ay

A x y x y Ax Ay

Ax Ay A x y A Ax Ay

A x + A y = A.

Ax = 3 m
Ay = 4 m A=5m A x + Ay = A not

3m+4m ≠ 5m
 Ax + Ay ≠ A

A A Ax Ay x
y
A x = A cos

A y = A sin .

Ax Ay A
A x = A cos A y = A sin

A x = A cos A y = A sin

A = 10.3 = 29.1º
A x = A cos = ⎛⎝10.3 blocks⎞⎠⎛⎝cos 29.1º⎞⎠ = 9.0 blocks
A y = A sin = ⎛⎝10.3 blocks⎞⎠⎛⎝sin 29.1º⎞⎠ = 5.0 blocks.

Ax Ay A A
A Ax Ay

A = A x2 + Ay2
 = tan −1(A y / A x).

Ax Ay

A = A 2x + A 2y

Ax Ay A = 9 2 +5 2=10.3
= tan –1(5/9)=29.1º

A x = A cos A y = A sin

A Ax Ay A = A 2x + A 2y = tan –1(A y / A x)
Ax Ay A

A B
R

A B R
R

A B R
R.
x y x y Rx Ry Rx

Ry R A = A x2 + Ay2 = tan –1(A y / A x)

Step 1. Identify the x- and y-axes that will be used in the problem. Then, find the components of each vector to be added along
the chosen perpendicular axes. A x = A cos A y = A sin
Ax Ay Bx By A B x A B

A B Ax
Ay Bx By

Step 2. Find the components of the resultant along each axis by adding the components of the individual vectors along that axis.

Rx = Ax + Bx

R y = A y + B y.

Ax Bx Rx
Ay By Ry

x
y

Step 3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:

R = R 2x + R 2y.
Step 4. To get the direction of the resultant:

= tan −1(R y / R x).

 A B x y x
y A
53.0 m 20.0º B
34.0 m 63.0º

A 53.0 m 20.0 º x B 34.0 m

63.0º x R

A B x y

A B x y
A = 53.0 m A = 20.0º B = 34.0 m B = 63.0º x A x = A cos

A x = A cos A = (53.0 m)(cos 20.0º)

= (53.0 m)(0.940) = 49.8 m

B x = B cos B = (34.0 m)(cos 63.0º)

= (34.0 m)(0.454) = 15.4 m.
y A y = A sin A

A y = A sin A = (53.0 m)(sin 20.0º)

= (53.0 m)(0.342) = 18.1 m

B y = B sin B = (34.0 m)(sin 63.0 º )

= (34.0 m)(0.891) = 30.3 m.
x y
R x = A x + B x = 49.8 m + 15.4 m = 65.2 m

R y = A y + B y = 18.1 m+30.3 m = 48.4 m.

R = R 2x + R 2y = (65.2) 2 + (48.4) 2 m

R = 81.2 m.
 = tan −1(R y / R x)=+tan −1(48.4 / 65.2).

= tan −1(0.742) = 36.6 º .

R 81.2 m 36.6º

A − B ≡ A + (–B) the method

for the subtraction of vectors using perpendicular components is identical to that for addition –B
B x y A−B=R
⎛ ⎞
Rx = Ax + – Bx⎝ ⎠

R y = A y + ⎛⎝ – B y⎞⎠

–B B
 is negligible
motions along perpendicular axes are independent

x y s
x y
s x y A
Ax Ay s sx sy
x y

x y
a y = – g = – 9.80 m/s 2

ax = 0

a
x = x 0 + v- t
v +v
v- = 0
2
v = v 0 + at
x = x 0 + v 0t + 1 at 2
2
v 2 = v 20 + 2a(x − x 0).
 s s x y
s

Step 1. Resolve or break the motion into horizontal and vertical components along the x- and y-axes.
A x = A cos A y = A sin s
x y. v v x = v cos v y = v sin θ, v

Step 2. Treat the motion as two independent one-dimensional motions, one horizontal and the other vertical.

Horizontal Motion(a x = 0)
x = x 0 + v xt
v x = v 0x = v x = velocity is a constant.
Vertical Motion(assuming positive is up a y = −g = −9.80m/s 2)
y = y 0 + 1 (v 0y + v y)t
2
v y = v 0y − gt

y = y 0 + v 0yt − 1 gt 2
2
v 2y = v 20y − 2g(y − y 0).

Step 3. Solve for the unknowns in the two separate motions—one horizontal and one vertical.
t

Step 4. Recombine the two motions to find the total displacement s and velocity v x y

A = A 2x + A 2y = tan −1(A y / A x)
s v v

s = x2 + y2
= tan −1(y / x)
v = v 2x + v 2y

v = tan −1(v y / v x).

ax = 0 vx

x y

75.0°

ax = 0 ay = – g x0 y0

y
 vy = 0
y

v 2y = v 20y − 2g(y − y 0).

y0 vy

0 = v 20y − 2gy.

v 20y
y= .
2g
v 0y y v 0y = v 0 sin v 0y
0 = 75.0°
v 0y = v 0 sin 0 = (70.0 m/s)(sin 75°) = 67.6 m/s.

(67.6 m/s) 2
y= ,
2(9.80 m/s 2)

y = 233m.

y = y 0 + 1 (v 0y + v y)t y0
2

y = 1 (v 0y + v y)t.
2
 vy

2y 2(233 m)
t = =
(v 0y + v y) (67.6 m/s)
= 6.90 s.

y = y 0 + v 0yt − 1 gt 2
2
t

ax = 0
x = x 0 + v xt x0
x = v xt,
vx x v x = v 0 cos 0.

v x = v 0 cos 0 = (70.0 m/s)(cos 75.0°) = 18.1 m/s.

t x
x = (18.1 m/s)(6.90 s) = 125 m.

y
y=h

v 20y
h= .
2g
maximum height of a projectile

x y
x0 = 0 y0 = 0 x y

35.0°
 t

v v t

y = y 0 + v 0yt − 1 gt 2.
2
y0 y = −20.0 m.
v 0y = v 0 sin 0 25.0 m/s sin 35.0° 14.3 m/s

−20.0 m = (14.3 m/s)t − ⎛⎝4.90 m/s 2⎞⎠t 2.

t
⎛
⎝4.90 m/s 2⎞⎠t 2 − (14.3 m/s)t − (20.0 m) = 0.

at2 + bt + c = 0 a = 4.90 b = – 14.3

c = – 20.0.
2
t = −b ± b − 4ac .
2a
t = 3.96 t = – 1.03
t = 3.96 s – 1.03 s

t = 3.96 s.

vx vy
v 0 vx

v x = v 0 cos 0 = (25.0 m/s)(cos 35°) = 20.5 m/s.

v y = v 0y − gt,
v 0y 14.3 m/s

v y = 14.3 m/s − (9.80 m/s 2)(3.96 s)

v y = −24.5 m/s.
v

v = v 2x + v 2y = (20.5 m/s) 2 + ( − 24.5 m/s) 2,

v = 31.9 m/s.
v

v = tan −1(v y / v x)

v = tan −1( − 24.5 / 20.5) = tan −1( − 1.19).

v = −50.1 ° .

50.1°

v0
0 15° 75°
 v0
0
0 = 45°
38°
45° 90°
g
R level ground

v 20 sin 2 0
R= g ,

v0 0

R
diagonally
 relative to the observer

5 m/s
30 m/s 35 m/s

v
vx vy x y

v x = v cos
v y = v sin

v = v 2x + v 2y
= tan −1(v y / v x).

v vx vy
 v tot v boat y
v river

x
y
v tot = v 2x + v 2y
= tan −1(v y / v x)

v tot = v 2x + v 2y,

v x = v river = 1.20 m/s

v y = v boat = 0.750 m/s.

v tot = (1.20 m/s) 2 + (0.750 m/s) 2

v tot = 1.42 m/s.

 = tan −1(v y / v x) = tan −1(0.750 / 1.20).

= 32.0º.

32.0º

20.0º

v tot
vw vp vp
vw
vw
x y
vp

v tot vw vp x y x y
v px = 0 v py = v p

v totx = v wx
 v toty = v wy + v p.
v wx
v wx = v totx = v totcos 110º.
v tot = 38.0 m / s cos 110º = – 0.342
v wx = (38.0 m/s)(–0.342)=–13.0 m/s.

v wy
v toty = v wy + v p

v toty = v totsin 110º

v wy = (38.0 m/s)(0.940) − 45.0 m/s = −9.29 m/s.

v wx v wy
vw

vw = v 2wx + v 2wy
= ( − 13.0 m/s) 2 + ( − 9.29 m/s) 2

v w = 16.0 m/s.

= tan −1(v wy / v wx) = tan −1( − 9.29 / −13.0)

= 35.6º.

velocity is relative to some reference frame

modern

3,000 km/s
same
 v y 2 = v 0y 2 − 2g(y − y 0).

v y 2 = 0 2 − 2(9.80 m/s 2)( − 1.50 m − 0 m) = 29.4 m 2 /s 2

v y = −5.42 m/s.

v y = − 5.42 m/s

v x = 260 m/s x y

v = v x 2 + v y 2.

v = (260 m/s) 2 + ( − 5.42 m/s) 2

v = 260.06 m/s.

= tan −1(v y / v x) = tan −1( − 5.42 / 260)

= tan −1( − 0.0208) = −1.19º.

not (260 – 5.42) m/s 260.06 m/s

very
 A B
R A+B=R R

B A B
−B A – B = A + (–B) = R
R
A+B=B+A

A c cA c
A c
A

A B

A x = A cos
B x = B cos

A y = A sin
B y = B sin .
Rx Ry
R
Rx = Ax + Bx

R y = A y + B y.
R R

R = R 2x + R 2y.
R
= tan −1(R y / R x).

s x y
v v x = v cos v y = v sin v
 Horizontal motion(a x = 0)
x = x 0 + v xt
v x = v 0x = v x = velocity is a constant.

Vertical motion(Assuming positive direction is up; a y = −g = −9.80 m/s 2)

y = y 0 + 1 (v 0y + v y)t
2
v y = v 0y − gt

y = y 0 + v 0yt − 1 gt 2
2
v 2y = v 20y − 2g(y − y 0).

s = x2 + y2

= tan −1(y / x)

v = v 2x + v 2y

v = tan −1(v y / v x).

h v 0y

v 20y
h= .
2g
R
0 v0

v 20 sin 2 0
R= g .

v x = v cos
v y = v sin

v = v 2x + v 2y

= tan −1(v y / v x).

 A B

A+B

A B

A B A B
B A
0° 90°
t=0
t=0

0° 90°
 20°
40.0°

A B
R=A+B

B
40° A
20°
A+B=B+A

40.0°
B A
A B R′ = A − B

R=A+B 40.0° 20.0°

A B
R′′ = B - A = - R′

order

A B C
A+B+C

A B C

A B
R R
 vA vB

vA vB v tot
v tot x y

v tot
30°

A B

R=A+B

A B
R R

B+A=A+B
 7.50 km 15º
A, B, C

25.0 m
B A
R′ = A – B
25.0 m 18.0 m
A B A=B+C

A
B
C 2.50 km
45.0º 4.70 km 60.0º
1.30 km 25.0º 5.10 km
1.70 km 5.00º 7.20 km
55.0º 2.80 km 10.0º

40.0 km 60º
30.0 km 15º
R

32.0 km
35.0º

45.0º
45.0º

45º

30.0°

x y
 g

32°
40.0 m/s (144 km/h)

25°

= 45°
30.0°

40°
3
6.37×10 km

H
60°
 38.0°
45º
45°
38°
45°
5.00 m/s

45.0°

y = ax + bx 2
x = v 0x t t
y = v 0yt – (1 / 2)gt 2 x
y
25.0º
y = ax + bx 2
a b relative to the
quarterback
v 20 sin 2θ 0
R= g
t y 40.0º
t
x − x0 R = x − x0
5.0º
15º

7.00 m/s

20º
45.0º

5.00º
 90.0º

30.0º

50.0º

280 m/s
5º

25.0º

4.80 m/s 5.00º

describes
 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

observation

observing

m
 g m
mg

a = ∑F/ m

a = ∑F/ m
on
 restoring force

x
Δx F restore
F restore F restore

cause
for there to be any change in velocity (either a change in magnitude or direction)
net external force
 cause

generally applicable or universal laws

net external force causes acceleration

You must define the boundaries of the system before

you can determine which forces are external
 w
N f
F net

a′ > a

w
N f

F net

a ∝ F net ,
∝ F net

acceleration is directly proportional to the net external force

 1
a∝m
m

only

F net
a= m .

F net = ma.

F net = ma.

cause and effect relationship

F net = ma
1m/s 2
F net = ma

1 N = 1 kg ⋅ m/s 2.

w w down
w.
g

m
w F net = ma
F net = w
g a=g

weight m
w = mg.

g = 9.80 m/s 2

w = mg = (1.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 9.8 N.

g

1.67 m/s 2

the weight of an object is the gravitational force on it from the nearest large
body
 mass weight

m g

can change
1.67 m/s 2
2
9.80 m/s

F net m
F net = ma

F net
a a= m

a = 51 N
24 kg

kg ⋅ m/s 2
 51 kg ⋅ m/s 2
a= = 2.1 m/s 2.
24 kg

T
2
49 m/s ,

T
N
w between
f

F net = ma,
F net

F net = 4T − f .
 F net = ma = 4T − f .
T
4T = ma + f .

4T = ma + f = (2100 kg)(49 m/s 2 ) + 650 N.

4T = 1.0×10 5 N,

5
T = 1.0×10 N = 2.6×10 4 N.
4

g g
2 2
9.80 m/s g 45×9.80 m/s 440 m/s 2
 Man of la Mancha

symmetry in nature

opposite
because they act on different systems

F wall on feet
F wall on feet F feet on wall F feet on wall
F wall on feet
 F feet on wall
F feet on wall
F wall on feet
F feet on wall
F wall on feet F wall on feet w BF
w BF

F = ma
f
F floo f

F prof

F foot
F floo
f
F floo F prof F cart
F foot

F net
a= m .

F net = F floo − f = 150 N − 24.0 N = 126 N.

m = (65.0 + 12.0 + 7.0) kg = 84 kg.

F net m
F net
a= m ,
a = 126 N = 1.5 m/s 2 .
84 kg
 F prof
F prof

F prof

F net
a= m

F net = F prof − f ,

F prof

F prof = F net + f .

f F net

F net = ma,

m a = 1.5 m/s 2

F net = ma,

F net = (19.0 kg)(1.5 m/s 2 ) = 29 N.

F prof = F net + f ,

F prof = 29 N+24.0 N = 53 N.
 F = mg m
g
 F hand
w
N

N
normal

N N
N = 100 N

W
 N
w w⊥ w∥ N w⊥
f w∥

two one

⊥ ∥

w f N
N f w
w∥
w⊥

w ∥ = w sin (25º) = mg sin (25º)

w⊥ = w cos (25º) = mg cos (25º)

w∥ f

F net ∥
a∥ = m
F net ∥ = w ∥ = mg sin (25º)

F net ∥ mg sin (25º)

a∥ = m = m = g sin (25º)
(9.80 m/s 2)(0.4226) = 4.14 m/s 2

F net ∥ = w ∥ − f ,

F net ∥
a∥ = m
 F net ∣ ∣ w∥ −f mg sin (25º) − f
a∥ = m = m = m .

(60.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)(0.4226) − 45.0 N

a∥ = ,
60.0 kg

a ∥ = 3.39 m/s 2,

a = g sin regardless of mass

w⊥ w∥
w⊥ N
w∥ f

w ∥ = w sin ( ) = mg sin ( )

w⊥ = w cos ( ) = mg cos ( ).

w w⊥
w⊥
cos ( ) = w
w⊥ = w cos ( ) = mg cos ( )
w∥
sin ( ) = w
w∥ = w sin ( ) = mg sin ( )
 ”
tendons

F net = 0
w T
F net = T − w = 0,
T w

T = w = mg.

T = mg = (5.00 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 49.0 N.

 T
T
T

w TL
TR

TL TR
TL TR

x y
 T w
x
F netx = T Lx − T Rx.
F netx = 0
F netx = 0 = T Lx − T Rx
T Lx = T Rx .
TL TR
T Lx
cos (5.0º) =
TL
T Lx = T L cos (5.0º)
T
cos (5.0º) = Rx
TR
T Rx = T R cos (5.0º).
T Lx T Rx
T L cos (5.0º) = T R cos (5.0º).

T L = T R = T,
y T
Fy = 0

F nety = T Ly + T Ry − w = 0.

T Ly T Ry T
TL = TR = T
T Ly
sin (5.0º) =
TL
T Ly = T L sin (5.0º) = T sin (5.0º)
T Ry
sin (5.0º) =
TR
T Ry = T R sin (5.0º) = T sin (5.0º).
 T Ly T Ry

F nety = T Ly + T Ry − w = 0
F nety = T sin (5.0º) + T sin (5.0º) − w = 0
2 T sin (5.0º) − w = 0
2 T sin (5.0º) = w

w mg
T= = ,
2 sin (5.0º) 2 sin (5.0º)

(70.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)

T= ,
2(0.0872)

T = 3900 N.

create

T= w .
2 sin ( )
T F⊥

F⊥
T= .
2 sin ( )
T

=0 sin =0

F⊥
T= T
2 sin ( )
F⊥
Real forces fictitious forces
 Once it is determined that Newton’s laws of
motion are involved (if the problem involves forces), it is particularly important to draw a careful sketch of the situation

T FT
w

FT FT
T= -w

Then carefully determine the system of interest

 Newton’s second law can be applied to solve the problem

F net = ma

F net x = ma,
F net y = 0.

check the solution to see whether it is reasonable

2.7×10 5 N x 3.6×10 5 N y
 x y Fx Fy
F app F app

5.0×10 6 kg 7.5×10 −2 m/s 2

F app

F app =F x + F y

FD F app
it
F app
FD

Fx Fy F app

F app = F 2x + F 2y

F app = (2.7×10 5 N) 2 + (3.6×10 5 N) 2 = 4.5×10 5 N.

⎛F y ⎞
= tan −1
⎝F x ⎠
⎛ 5 ⎞
= tan −1 3.6×10 5 N = 53º,
⎝2.7×10 N ⎠
FD
F app F app
F app

F net = F app − F D.

F net = ma.

F app − F D = ma.
 FD
F D = F app − ma.

F D = (4.5×10 5 N) − (5.0×10 6 kg)(7.5×10 –2 m/s 2 ) = 7.5×10 4 N.

FD F app 53º

FD
 y x

T1 T2

x
F netx = T 2x − T 1x = 0.
 T 1x = T 2x.
T1 T2
T 1 cos (30º) = T 2 cos (45º).

T 2 = (1.225)T 1.
T1 T2 T2
T1 T1
y
F net y = T 1y + T 2y − w = 0.

T 1y + T 2y = w.

T 1 sin (30º) + T 2 sin (45º) = w.

T2 T1

T 1(0.500) + (1.225T 1)(0.707) = w = mg,

(1.366)T 1 = (15.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2).

T1
T 1 = 108 N.
T2 T2 T1

T 2 = 132 N.

1.20 m/s 2
 T
w ws we Fs
Fp Ft N

Fp

w
Fs Fp Fs
Fs

F net = ma.
F net = F s − w
F s − w = ma.
Fs
F s = ma + w,
w = mg
F s = ma + mg.
 a = 1.20 m/s 2
F s = (75.0 kg)(1.20 m/s 2 ) + (75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2),

F s = 825 N.

F net = ma = 0 = F s − w
F s = w = mg
Fs = (75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)
Fs = 735 N.

a = Δv Δv = 0
Δt

F s = ma + mg = 0 + mg.

F s = (75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2),

F s = 735 N.

a less

g appear

Identify which physical principles are involved

Solve the problem using strategies outlined in the text

 integrated concept problem
acceleration
kinematics force dynamics

Δv = 8.00 m/s
Δt = 2.50 s

a = Δv .
Δt

a = 8.00 m/s
2.50 s
= 3.20 m/s 2.

F net = ma.
m a
F net = (70.0 kg)(3.20 m/s 2)
= 224 N.
apparently

four basic forces

10 −38 ∞

10 – 2 ∞

10 – 13 10 –18 m W+ W – Z0
1 10 –15 m

entire

net

unification of forces

W+ W− Z0
electroweak

test object

w = mg

force field
 F p1
FB F p2
F′ B
F exch F′ exch

and
“I’m sure LIGO will tell us something about the universe that we didn’t know before. The history of science tells us that any time
you go where you haven’t been before, you usually find something that really shakes the scientific paradigms of the day. Whether
gravitational wave astrophysics will do that, only time will tell.”
 F net m
a
F net
a= m

w m w = mg g

F net
a= m
F net = ma
w m
g
 w = mg.

N = mg.

w⊥ w∥

w ∥ = w sin ( ) = mg sin ( )
w⊥ = w cos ( ) = mg cos ( ).
T

T = mg.

x F net x = 0
F net x = ma

F net = ma F net = 0

four basic forces

is

is
 T

attractive
4.20 m/s 2

0.893 m/s 2
3.50 m/s 2

F 49.0 m/s 2

196 m/s 2

201 m/s 2

2.4×10 4
2.40×10 4 m/s 2

1.20 m/s 2

7.50 m/s 2

8.00×10 −5 kg

5.00×10 5-kg

12º 1.250×10 7 N
4.50×10 6 N

1.50 m/s 2
F⊥
1.80 m/s 2

F⊥
T=
2 sin ( )

T1
T2
 8.00×10 4 -kg
5.50×10 4 kg

5.00×10 –2 m/s 2
7.50×10 5 N

1.75×10 4 N

0.150 m/s 2

0.550 m/s 2

F1 F2
F tot

F1 F2

F tot

F1 F2
F app

F1 F2
 1.20 m/s 2

1.50×10 6 kg
2.00×10 6 N

1.20×10 −5 N

0.500×10 −6 N

6.00×10 −7 kg

35.0º
 10.0º

1.20 m/s 2

0.600 m/s 2

0.400 m/s 2

T2

T1

2.00×10 6 kg
3.50×10 7 N
 d
d
X
v
v

v Y
v

v
p
magnitude on the first object in the opposite direction.

→
→ ∑ F
a = m
 f

fs
f s ≤ µ sN,
µs N

fs
f s ≤ µ sN,
µs N

≤ less than or equal to µs N

f s(max)

f s(max) = µ sN.

fk
f k = µ kN,
µk f k = µ kN friction behaves
simply

fk
 f k = µ kN,
µk

µs µk

W = mg = (100 kg)(9.80 m/s 2) = 980 N

f s(max) = µ sN = (0.45)(980 N) = 440 N

f k = µ kN = (0.30)(980 N) = 290 N
N f k = µ kN
 N
f w w⊥ W // N
w⊥ f W //
x

N = w⊥ = w cos 25º = mg cos 25º.

f k = µ kmg cos 25º,

µk

µk
fk fk fk
µk = = =
N
w cos 25º mg cos 25º.

µk = 45.0 N = 0.082.
(62 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)(0.906)

m
f k = µ kmg cos

f k = µ kmg cos mg sin

f k = Fg x
µ k mg cos = mg sin .
µk
mg sin
µk = = tan .
mg cos
 µk

µk

10 12
 FD
FD ∝ v2

F D = 1 CρAv 2,
2
C A ρ
F D = bv 2 b
0.5CρA
 FD

FD ∝ v2
F D = 1 CρAv 2,
2
C A ρ

C
 C
C

terminal velocity vt FD
FD

F net = mg − F D = ma = 0.

mg = F D.
 mg = 1 ρCAv 2.
2

2mg
v= .
ρCA

ρ = 1.21 kg/m 3
A = 0.18 m 2 C = 0.70

2(75 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)

v =
(1.21 kg/m 3)(0.70)(0.18 m 2)
= 98 m/s
= 350 km/h.

v
2
v

F net = 0
mg = 1 ρCAv 2
2
vt

2mg
vt = .
ρCA

A = (2 m)(0.35 m) = 0.70 m 2.
vt

2(85 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)

vt =
(1.21 kg/m 3)(1.0)(0.70 m 2)
= 44 m/s.

vt v = 98 m / s
To the mouse and any smaller animal, [gravity] presents practically no dangers. You can drop a mouse down a thousand-yard
mine shaft; and, on arriving at the bottom, it gets a slight shock and walks away, provided that the ground is fairly soft. A rat is
killed, a man is broken, and a horse splashes. For the resistance presented to movement by the air is proportional to the surface
of the moving object. Divide an animal's length, breadth, and height each by ten; its weight is reduced to a thousandth, but its
surface only to a hundredth. So the resistance to falling in the case of the small animal is relatively ten times greater than the
driving force.

F s = 6πr v,
r v

F s = 6πr v,
r v

1 µm 2 µm/s

5 µm/s
 F = kΔL,
ΔL F k

ΔL

ΔL = F
k

ΔL

F = kΔL,
ΔL F k

ΔL = F
k
 ΔL F
1 ΔL
k

F F
L

k
ΔL
k

10 3

ΔL L0
 ΔL
ΔL

ΔL ΔL
F
L0

ΔL

ΔL = 1 F L 0,
YA
ΔL F Y
A L0 Y
Y
 Y S B
9 2 9 2 9 2
(10 N/m ) (10 N/m ) (10 N/m )

F
w w

3.0×10 6 N

Y
 F = 3.0×10 6 N πr 2 = 2.46×10 −3 m 2
ΔL = 1 F L 0
YA

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 3.0×10 6 N ⎞
ΔL =
⎝210×10 9 N/m 2 ⎠⎝2.46×10 –3 m 2 ⎠(3020 m)
= 18 m.

uncrimping
 F = mg = ⎛⎝62.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = 607.6 N,

πr 2 = 1.257×10 −3 m 2 ΔL = 1 F L 0
YA

ΔL

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 607.6 N ⎞
ΔL =
⎝9×10 9 N/m 2 ⎠⎝1.257×10 −3 m 2 ⎠(0.400 m)
= 2×10 −5 m.

F = Y ΔL .
A L0
F N/m 2 ΔL
A L0

stress = Y×strain.

F = YA ΔL ,
L0

k = YA .
L0

F
A
 ΔL
L0
stress = Y×strain.

shearing force Δx
L0

Δx = 1 F L 0,
SA
S F L0
A F

A S

Δx = 1 F L 0,
SA
S F L0 A

L0 A Δx
F
 1.80 µm

F w w
w Δx = 1 F L 0 F
g SA

Δx = 1 F L 0 F
SA

F = SA Δx.
L0

S S = 80×10 9 N/m 2 r

A = πr 2 = 1.77×10 −6 m 2.
L0

(80×10 9 N/m 2)(1.77×10 −6 m 2)

F= (1.80×10 −6 m) = 51 N.
(5.00×10 −3 m)
w

m=w F
g = g = 5.2 kg.

1.80 µm
 F
A
ΔV

ΔV = 1 F V 0,
BA

B V0 F
A

ΔV
V0
5.00×10 7 N / m 2

ΔV = 1 F V 0 ΔV
BA V0

ΔV
V0
ΔV = 1 F .
V0 BA
B
ΔV = 5.00×10 7 N/m 2
V0 2.2×10 9 N/m 2
= 0.023 = 2.3%.
 FD

FD ∝ v2

F D = 1 CρAv 2,
2
C A ρ

F ΔL F = kΔL

f k = µ kN µk

fs ≤ µ s N µs N

F s = 6πr v r v

N
fs

f s ≤ µ sN,
µs
fk
f k = µ kN,
µk
 v

F D = 1 CρAv 2,
2
C A ρ

F s = 6π rv,
r v

F = kΔL,
ΔL F k

ΔL = 1 F L 0,
YA
Y Young's modulus A L0

F stress
A
ΔL strain
L0
stress = Y×strain.

Δx = 1 F L 0,
SA
S F L0 A

ΔV = 1 F V 0,
BA
B V0 F
A
 F tot
F1 F2

F tot
F tot

a = g sin
1.00×10 3 kg

f k = µ kN
a = g( sin − µ kcos ).

(µ k = 0).

5.0º

10.0º

= tan –1 µ s
a=0
 6º 6º

µ s = 0.100

4º 4º

µ s = 0.100

8.00×10 5-kg
5.50×10 5 kg

5.00×10 −2 m / s 2
7.50×10 5 N

F
 1.00×10 3 kg/m 3 πr 2

2.00 µm

1.10×10 3 kg/m 3

7.8×10 3 kg/m 3
3.0 mm

0.140 m 2
1×10 9 N / m 2

930 cm 2

0.70 m 2

2.44 m 2
 90.0º

4.00×10 4 N

30.0º

1×10 9 N / m 2

20.0º

30.0º 90º
30º

ΔV / V 0 = 2×10 −3

1.8×10 9 N/m 2

ΔV / V 0 = 9.05×10 −2

3.94×10 3 N
5.0º
 rotation

rotational motion
translational motion

a = ∑F/ m
 Δ

Δ = Δs
r .

Δ
Δt

Δ Δs

Δs r

r
2πr

Δ = 2πr
r = 2π.
Δ
2π rad = 1 revolution.
 π
30º 6
π
60º 3
π
90º 2

120º 2π
3

135º 3π
4
180º π

Δ (Δs)
(r)

Δ = 2π
360º
2π rad = 360º

1 rad = 360º ≈ 57.3º.

2π

ω=Δ ,
Δt
Δ Δt

ω v
Δs Δt

v = Δs .
Δt

Δ = Δs
r Δs = rΔ v

v = rΔ = rω.
Δt
 v = rω or ω = vr .

v = rω or ω = vr v
r v
tangential speed v = rω or ω = vr
v
v ω v = rω
ω v

v ω
v v = rω r

15.0 m/s 54 km/h

v = 15.0 m/s.
r = 0.300 m. v r v = rω, ω = vr

ω = vr .

ω = 15.0 m/s = 50.0 rad/s.

0.300 m

ω = (15.0 m/s) / (1.20 m) = 12.5 rad/s.

ω v velocities
ac
 Δv
a c = Δv / Δt ac
Δ Δs Δr

r Δs
v1 = v2 = v

Δv = Δs .
v r
Δv / Δt Δv
Δv = vr Δs.

Δt
Δv = v × Δs .
Δt r Δt
Δv / Δt = a c Δs / Δt = v

2
a c = vr ,
r v
ac

ac
ac v = rω
2 2
a c = (rω) / r = rω
2
a c = vr ; a c = rω 2.
ac
 (g)
g

2
v r a c = vr ; a c = rω 2

v = 25.0 m/s r = 500 m ac

2 (25.0 m/s) 2
a c = vr = = 1.25 m/s 2.
500 m

(g = 9.80 m/s 2)
a c / g = ⎛⎝1.25 m/s 2⎞⎠ / ⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = 0.128 a c = 0.128 g
7.5 × 10 4 rev/min.

2
ω r a c = vr ; a c = rω 2

7.50×10 4 rev / min 2πrad

ω = 7.50×10 4 rev × 2π rad × 1 min = 7854 rad/s.

min 1 rev 60.0 s
2
a c = vr ; a c = rω 2

a c = rω 2.

a c = (0.0750 m)(7854 rad/s) 2 = 4.63×10 6 m/s 2.

ac g

a c 4.63×10 6 5
g = 9.80 = 4.72×10 .

g ω

F = ma a = ac
Fc
F c = ma c.
2
ac a c = vr ; a c = rω 2
Fc
2
F c = m vr ; F c = mrω 2.

Fc
ac
r
2
r = mv .
Fc
 Fc r v
Fc r′

2
F c = mv
r
2 (900 kg)(25.0 m/s) 2
F c = mv
r = = 1125 N.
(500 m)

µs N µs
N = mg

F c = f = µ sN = µ smg.
Fc

2 ⎫
F c = m vr ⎬,
F c = mrω 2⎭
2
m vr = µ smg.
µs
 2
µ s = vrg .

(25.0 m/s) 2
µs = = 0.13.
(500 m)(9.80 m/s 2)

2 ⎫
F c = m vr ⎬, m, v, r
2⎭
F c = mrω

µs N

w N

mv 2 /r
 2
N sin = mv
r .

N cos

N cos = mg.
N
N = mg / (cos )
2
mg sin = mv
r
cos
2
mg tan( ) = mv
r
tan = v2
rg.

⎛ 2⎞
= tan −1⎝vrg ⎠ (ideally banked curve, no friction).

v r v
r

2
tan = vrg
 v = (rg tan ) 1 / 2.

⎡
1/2
v = ⎣(100 m)(9.80 m/s 2)(2.14)⎤⎦
= 45.8 m/s.

seem

you seat

forced
you car
F net = 0 F centripetal
do
g = GM M,
r2
M.
g
 m M r

F = G mM ,
r2
F G G

2
G = 6.673×10 −11 N ⋅ m
kg 2

G F = G mM
r2

6.673×10 −11 N

entire Earth 6×10 24 kg

G

g 9.80 m/s 2
mg mg F

mg = G mM ,
r2
m M r
m g

g = G M2 .
r
 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 5.98×10 24 kg
g = ⎜6.67×10 −11 N ⋅ m ⎟× ,
⎝ kg 2 ⎠ (6.38×10 6 m) 2

g = 9.80 m/s 2.

and is independent of the body's mass

m m
F
F ma m a m a
m m

a a m
m

g = GM
r2
g = G M2
r
⎛ 2 ⎞ 7.3×10 22  kg
= ⎜6.67×10 −11 N·m2 ⎟×
⎝ kg ⎠ ⎛1.7×10 6  m⎞2
⎝ ⎠

= 1.685 m/s 2

g = G M2
r
⎛ 2 ⎞ 50 kg
= ⎜6.67×10 −11   N·m2 ⎟×
⎝ kg ⎠ (1 m) 2

= 3.34×10 −9  m/s 2

r
3.84×10 8 m

g M

⎛ 2 ⎞ 5.98×10 24 kg
g = G M2 = ⎜6.67×10 −11 N ⋅ m ⎟×
r ⎝ kg 2 ⎠ (3.84×10 8 m) 2
= 2.70×10 −3 m/s. 2

2⎫
a c = vr ⎬.
a c = rω 2⎭

a c = rω 2,
ω
 1 d×24 hr ×60 min ×60 s = 86,400 s
d hr min

ω=Δ = 2π rad = 2.66×10 −6 rad

Δt (27.3 d)(86,400 s/d) s .

a c = rω 2 = (3.84×10 8 m)(2.66×10 −6 rad/s) 2

= 2.72×10 −3 m/s. 2
 90º

90º
 G

G
M

mg = G mM ,
r2
m M r
m g

g = G M2 .
r
M
gr 2
M= .
G
M r
G
G

m
M

A small mass m orbits a much larger mass M M

M m M

The system is isolated from other masses

 f1 f2

m M

T 12 r 13
= ,
T 22 r 23
T r
 m m
M

3.84×10 8 m

T 12 r 13
= T2
T 22 r 23
r 1 = 3.84×10 8 m
T 1 = 27.3 d
r 2 = (1500 + 6380) km = 7880 km T2

T 12 r 13
= .
T 22 r 23
T2

⎛r ⎞
3
T 22 = T 12 ⎝r 2 ⎠
1

⎛r ⎞
3/2
T 2 = T 1 ⎝r 2 ⎠ .
1

⎛ 7880 km ⎞
3/2
T 2 = 27.3 d× 24.0 h ×
d ⎝3.84×10 5 km ⎠
= 1.93 h.
 what

m M
m
2
F net = ma c = m vr .

m F net
2
G mM2
= m vr .
r
m

GM 2
r =v .
m
r
T
T v

v = 2πr .
T

GM 4π 2 r 2 .
r =
T2
T2
2
T 2 = 4π r 3.
GM

T 12 r 13
= .
T 22 r 23

M
2
T 2 = 4π r 3 r3 / T 2
GM
M
r 3 = G M.
T 2 4π 2
r T M
r3 / T 2
r 3 / T 2 = GM / 4π 2
r3 / T 2
r T
 r T(y) r T

3.84×10 5
1.01×10 19

5.79×10 7 3.34×10 24

1.082×10 8 3.35×10 24

1.496×10 8 3.35×10 24

2.279×10 8 3.35×10 24

7.783×10 8 3.35×10 24

1.427×10 9 3.35×10 24

4.497×10 9 3.35×10 24

5.90×10 9 3.33×10 24

4.22×10 5 3.19×10 21

6.71×10 5 3.20×10 21

1.07×10 6 3.19×10 21

1.88×10 6 3.20×10 21
 ω

Δs

G
 Δ = Δs
r

Δ = Δs
r ,
Δs r
Δ
2π rad = 360º= 1 revolution.
1 rad = 57.3º
ω
ω=Δ ,
Δt
Δ Δt
v ω
v = rω or ω = vr .

ac
v
2
a c = vr ; a c = rω 2.
m / s2

Fc
v
F c = ma c,

2 ⎫
F c = m vr ⎪
or ,⎬
⎪
2 ⎭
F c = mrω

F = G mM ,
r2
G
G = 6.673×10 –11 N ⋅ m 2/kg 2

m M

T 12 r 13
= ,
T 22 r 23
T r
M
2
T 2 = 4π r 3
GM

r 3 = G M.
T 2 4π 2
 m/s 2

9.80 m/s 2
 4×10 9
1.5 ×10 11 m

6.4×10 6 m

g
9.80 m/s 2

1.00×10 −15 kg
 10 g

v r
10 g
= tan –1 2
v / rg

v
r
 6.418×10 23 kg 3.38×10 6 m

ac = v2 / r

6.29×10 11 m

9.830 m/s 2 4.50×10 12 m

1.4×10 22 kg

5.979×10 24 kg
2.50×10 12 m

8.62×10 25 kg
2.60 x 10 8 y
3.00 x 10 4

90º

8.0×10 11
6.0×10 4

6.0×10 7

g = GM G
r2
 gSM
gSE
 E mc

ferent rates. Power is defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out of, or within a system.
 the product of the component of the force in the
direction of motion and the distance through which the force acts
W = ∣ F ∣ (cos ) ∣ d ∣ ,
W d F
d
W = Fd cos .

the product of the component of the force in the direction of motion times
the distance through which the force acts
W = Fd cos ,
W F d
F d
 F Fd cos F cos
is
F

F
d

d=0 W=0
but they are doing no work on the system of interest
 cos 90º = 0
W=0
is

= 180º cos 180º = –1 W

1 J = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2

75.0 N
35º 25.0 m
10,000 kJ 2400 kcal
calorie 1ºC 4.184 J food
calorie 4184 J

W = Fd cos W

W = Fd cos .

W = (75.0 N)(25.0 m) cos (35.0º)

= 1536 J = 1.54×10 3 J.
W = (1536 J)(1 kcal / 4184 J) = 0.367 kcal

W = 1.53×10 −4.
2400 kcal
 F net
W net = F netd cos

F cos d F cos
Fd cos
(F cos ) i(ave) (F cos ) i(ave)d i
Wi

F cos d F cos
F cos d
 d

F app f
= 0º cos =1
W net = F netd.
F net v0 v

F net = ma
W net = mad.
d = x − x0

d a v 2 = v 0 2 + 2ad a
2 2
v − v0
a= a W net
2d

⎛v 2 − v 2 ⎞
W net = m⎜ 0 ⎟d.
⎝ 2d ⎠

W = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 02 .
2 2
in general

1 mv 2
2

1 mv 2
2

W net = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 02
2 2

1 mv 2 m
2
v Translational rotational

KE = 1 mv 2,
2
 m v
1
KE = mv 2
2

KE = 1 mv 2.
2

KE = 0.5(30.0 kg)(0.500 m/s) 2,

KE = 3.75 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2 = 3.75 J.

 F net = 120 N – 5.00 N = 115 N
W net = F netd = (115 N)(0.800 m)
= 92.0 N ⋅ m = 92.0 J.

W app = F appd cos(0º) = F appd

= (120 N)(0.800 m)
= 96.0 J
= 180º
W fr = F frd cos(180º) = −F frd
= −(5.00 N)(0.800 m)
= −4.00 J.

W gr = 0,
W N = 0,
W app = 96.0 J,
W fr = − 4.00 J.

W total = W gr + W N + W app + W fr = 92.0 J.

W total W net

W net
1 mv 2 1 mv 2 v
2 0 2
 W net = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 0 2.
2 2
1 mv 2
2
1 mv 2 = W + 1 mv 2.
2 net 2 0

1 mv 2 = 92.0 J+3.75 J = 95.75 J.

2

2(95.75 J) 191.5 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2

v = m =
30.0 kg
= 2.53 m/s.

= 180º W fr

W fr = −95.75 J W fr = f d′ cos = – f d′ d′
W fr
d′ = − = − −95.75 J ,
f 5.00 N

d′ = 19.2 m.

m h PE mgh
 m h
mg
W = Fd = mgh (PE g)

PE g

difference

mgh
PE g KE
 change ΔPE g

ΔPE g = mgh,

h Δh h

mgh = ⎛⎝0.500 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(1.00 m)

= 4.90 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2 = 4.90 J.

without directly considering the force of gravity that does the work

ΔPE g = mgh h
mgh

h m
mgh
 (ΔPE g) ΔPE g = mgh

PE g
KE

W = Fd cos = −Fd,

(cos = cos 180º = − 1)

h
KE = −ΔPE g = −mgh,

d h

W
W = −KE = mgh.
W
−Fd = mgh.
h down
⎛ ⎞⎛ 2⎞
mgh ⎝60.0 kg⎠⎝9.80 m/s ⎠(−3.00 m)
F=− =− = 3.53×10 5 N.
d 5.00×10 −3 m
 ΔPE g
KE

loss downward
h gain −ΔPE g = ΔKE
PE g KE v

ΔKE = 1 mv 2
2
ΔPE g = mgh h ΔPE g = −mg ∣ h ∣

−ΔPE g = ΔKE

mg ∣ h ∣ = 1 mv 2.
2
v
v = 2g ∣ h ∣ .

v = 2⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(20.0 m)

= 19.8 m/s.

− ΔPE g = ΔKE ΔKE = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 0 2

2 2

mg ∣ h ∣ = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 0 2.
2 2

1 mv 2 = mg ∣ h ∣ + 1 mv 2.
2 2 0

v = 2g ∣ h ∣ + v 0 2.

v = v 0 2 + 2ad

v = 2(9.80 m/s 2)(20.0 m) + (5.00 m/s) 2

= 20.4 m/s.

any h
 (PE)

conservative
 (PE)

PE s

F ΔL F = kΔL
ΔL F x
F = kx k
kx kx / 2
⎛ ⎞
W s = Fd = ⎝kx ⎠x = 1 kx 2
2 2
F x
1 kx 2 PE s
2

PE s = 1 kx 2,
2
k x
on x
PE s x

PE s x
F = kx 1 kx 2
2
(PE s) F x k 1 kx 2
2
1 kx 2
2

PE s = 1 kx 2
2
 PE s = 1 kx 2 k
2
x

W net = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 0 2 = ΔKE.
2 2

W net = W c,
Wc
W c = ΔKE.

W c = −ΔPE
−ΔPE = ΔKE

ΔKE + ΔPE = 0.

KE + PE = constant ⎫
or ⎬(conservative forces only),
KE i + PE i = KE f + PE f ⎭

(KE + PE)
KE PE
 KE i +PE i = KE f + PE f

1 mv 2 + mgh + 1 kx 2 = 1 mv 2 + mgh + 1 kx 2,
2 i i 2 i 2 f f 2 f
h x

hi hf vi
xf

1 kx 2 = 1 mv 2.
2 i 2 f

vf = k
m xi
= 250.0 N/m (0.0400 m)
0.100 kg
= 2.00 m/s.
 1 kx 2 = 1 mv 2 + mgh .
2 i 2 f f

vf

kx i 2
vf = m − 2gh f
⎛250.0 N/m ⎞ 2 2
= ⎝ 0.100 kg ⎠(0.0400 m) − 2(9.80 m/s )(0.180 m)
= 0.687 m/s.

PE
 adds or removes mechanical energy from a
system

Mechanical may

W net = ΔKE
 W net = W nc + W c,

W nc + W c = ΔKE,
W nc Wc

W c = −ΔPE
W nc
W nc = ΔKE + ΔPE.
(KE + PE)

W nc = ΔKE + ΔPE
KE i +PE i + W nc = KE f + PE f .
W nc
W nc
W nc

KE i +PE i + W nc = KE f + PE f

KE i + PE i + W nc = KE f + PE f
 d
fd

f = 180º
cos = −1 W nc = − fd
1 mv 2 − fd = 0
2 i

fd = 1 mv 2.
2 i
d

d
mv i 2
d =
2f
(65.0 kg)(6.00 m/s) 2
=
(2)(450 N)
= 2.60 m.

5.00º
 5.00º

d h
h = d sin 5.00º
KE + PE i + W nc = KE f + PE f .

W nc = − fd PE i = mg ⋅ 0 = 0
KE i = 1 mv 2
KE f = 0 PE f = mgh = mgd sin
2 i

1 mv 2 + 0 + ⎛ − fd⎞ = 0 + mgd sin .

2 i ⎝ ⎠

d
⎛1 ⎞ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠mv i
d =
f + mg sin
(0.5)(65.0 kg)(6.00 m/s) 2
=
450 N+(65.0 kg)(9.80 m/s 2) sin (5.00º)
= 2.31 m.

d
mgh

µk
f µk N N
fd
Total energy is constant in any process. It may change in form or be transferred from one system to another, but the total
remains the same.

(KE + PE)
(W nc) many many

OE

KE i + PE i + W nc + OE i = KE f + PE f + OE f .
KE
PE W nc
OE OE

OE

OE
 KE i + PE i = KE f + PE f .

KE i + PE i + W nc + OE i = KE f + PE f + OE f .
Wc
PE

eliminate terms wherever possible h=0

PE g
Check the answer to see if it is reasonable

not
 10 68

10 44

10 34

4×10 20

3.8×10 16

6.4×10 14

8.0×10 13

4.2×10 13

1.1×10 10

5.9×10 9

4.2×10 9

1.2×10 8

7×10 7

1.2×10 7

3.1×10 5

3.9×10 4

3.2×10 4

1.7×10 4

1.7×10 4
22
⎛ –2
⎝10 g at 0.5 m/s⎞⎠ 1.3×10 −6

4.0×10 −15

10 −19

useful energy

useful energy or work output W out

Efficien ( )= = .
total energy input E in
Power
 Endeavor

P=W
t
W (1 W = 1 J/s).
 W= KE + PE KE PE g
W = KE f + PE g = 1 mv f 2 + mgh h
2
W

W P = W /t
1 mv 2 + mgh
P=W 2 f
t = t .

0.5⎛⎝60.0 kg⎞⎠(2.00 m/s) 2 + ⎛⎝60.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(3.00 m)

P =
3.50 s
= 120 J + 1764 J
3.50 s
= 538 W.

(1 hp = 746 W)

aerobic

(kW/m 2).

10 6 W
 5×10 37

10 37

10 28

4×10 26

4×10 15

2×10 12

3×10 9

10 8

2×10 6

8×10 4

5×10 3

4×10 3
100
60
8
3

10 −3

P = W /t = E/t E
t
 E = Pt.
(kW ⋅ h),

kW ⋅ h

E E = Pt
kW ⋅ h kW

kW ⋅ h
E = Pt = (0.200 kW)(6.00 h/d)(30.0 d)
= 36.0 kW ⋅ h,

cost = (36.0 kW ⋅ h)($0.120 per kW ⋅ h) = $4.32 per month.

rate
at rest

work done on the outside world

KE + PE

energy
Time = ⎛ energy ⎞
= 1000 kJ = 2500 s = 42 min.
400 W
⎝ time ⎠
 ⎛1.0 g fat ⎞
Fat loss = (1000 kJ)⎝
39 kJ ⎠
= 26 g,
CO 2
 1 hp = 746 W

(kW ⋅ h)

1 mv 2
2
m v

1 kx 2 x k
2
 1 W = 1 J/s

W F F d

W = Fd cos .
1 J = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2

W net

m v KE = 1 mv 2
2
W net
W net = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 0 2
2 2

ΔPE g ΔPE g = mgh h g

ΔPE g

ΔKE= −ΔPE g

(PE) PE g

PE s = 1 kx 2 k x
2

KE + PE
 KE + PE = constant ⎫
or ⎬
KE i + PE i = KE f + PE f ⎭

W nc
W nc = ΔKE + ΔPE KE i + PE i + W nc = KE f + PE f

KE i + PE i + W nc + OE i = KE f + PE f + OE f OE

W out
= W out E in
E in

P W t
P = W /t
1 W = 1 J/s
1 hp = 746 W

rate
not
 25.0º

60.0º

20.0º

and
 50.0 km 3
mass = 5.00×10 13 kg)

30º

5.00×10 5-kg

2.50×10 4 N/m

7 × 10 9 kg

ΔPE >> KE i
ΔPE KE i
2.5º

10 11

kW ⋅ h

kW ⋅ h

5.00 kW ⋅ h

6.00×10 6 J
kW ⋅ h

8.00×10 4 J

1.00×10 −3 W

1.50×10 5
2.10×10 5 J

2.00º

4.00×10 26 W.)

1.30 kW/m 2
km 2

(1.05×10 20 J)? (5.4×10 18 J)?

(6.3×10 19 J)?
 7×10 9 kg

Daedalus 88
 3.0º

0.800 m/s 2
 x
x
 p = mv.

p v
kg · m/s

p = mv.

p = mv

p player = ⎛⎝110 kg⎞⎠(8.00 m/s) = 880 kg · m/s

p ball = ⎛⎝0.410 kg⎞⎠(25.0 m/s) = 10.3 kg · m/s

 p player 880
p ball = 10.3 = 85.9.

Δp
F net = ,
Δt
F net Δp Δt

Δp
F net =
Δt

F net =ma
Δp
Δp = Δ⎛⎝mv⎞⎠.

Δ(mv) = mΔv.

Δp mΔv
F net = = .
Δt Δt
Δv = a
Δt
F net =ma
when the mass of the system is constant
 Δp
F net = .
Δt

Δp = mΔv = m(v f − v i).

Δp
Δp F net =
Δt

Δp = m(v f – v i)
= ⎛⎝0.057 kg⎞⎠(58 m/s – 0 m/s)
= 3.306 kg · m/s ≈ 3.3 kg · m/s
Δp
F net =
Δt
Δp 3.306 kg ⋅ m/s
F net = =
Δt 5.0×10 −3 s
= 661 N ≈ 660 N,

F net = ma
 Δp = mΔv = mv' - mv = m(v' + ( - v))

Δp
Δp
F net =
Δt
Δp = F netΔt,

F net Δt

Δp = F netΔt
F net Δt
 Δp = FΔt = (15 N)(0.24 s) = 3.6 kg•m/s

p initial = mv initial = (1.2 kg)( − 3.0 m/s) = − 3.6 kg•m/s

Δp = 1 (base)(height) = 1 (0.24 s)(30 N) = 3.6 kg•m/s

2 2
 30º
30º

x
y

+x
−x y
x

−x
−x

u m x
y

p xi = mu; p yi = 0
p xf = −mu; p yf = 0

x −2mu y

p xi = mu cos 30º; p yi = –mu sin 30º

p xf = – mu cos 30º; p yf = −mu sin 30º

px py x
−2mu cos 30º y

2mu = 2 = 1.155.
2mu cos 30º 3

x
- x

Δt Forces are usually not

constant
F

t1 t2
F t1 t2
 x y

Δp = FΔt = (480)(0.017) = 8.16 kg•m/s

mv f − mv i = 8.16 kg • m/s
(0.150 kg)v f − (0.150 kg)( − 32 m/s) = 8.16 kg • m/s
v f = 22 m/s
m 2) m 1).
 m1 v1 m2 v2
v′ 1 v′ 2
p tot

Δp 1 = F 1Δt,
F1 Δt

Δp 2 = F 2Δt,
F2 Δt
F2 = – F1
Δp 2 = −F 1Δt = −Δp 1.

Δp 1 + Δp 2 = 0.

p 1 + p 2 = constant,
p 1 + p 2 = p′ 1 + p′ 2,
p′ 1 p′ 2

p tot = constant,

p tot = p′ tot,
p tot p′ tot
 ⎛
F net = 0⎞⎠.
⎝

p tot = constant
p tot = p′ tot (isolated system)

⎛
F net = 0⎞⎠.
⎝

(m) v

v
2
v
2

k i = 1 mv 2(1st cart)+0(2nd cart)=1 mv 2

2 2
m v

⎛ ⎞
2
k f = 1 (2m)⎝ v ⎠ = 1 mv 2
2 2 4

v
2
v
2

v
 Δp tot ⎛
F net = F net = 0⎞⎠
⎝ Δp tot = 0 p tot
Δt
x y z

F x – net
F y – net
 p 1 + p 2 = p′ 1+ p′ 2 ⎛⎝F net = 0⎞⎠

m 1 v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1v′ 1 + m 2v′ 2 ⎛⎝F net = 0⎞⎠,

1 m v 2 + 1 m v 2 = 1 m v′ 2 + 1 m v′ 2 (two-object elastic collision)

2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2

(m A + m B)v cm = m A v A + m B v B
(3.0)v cm = (1)(12) + (2)( − 12)
v cm = − 4.0 m/s
 (m A + m B)v cm = (m A + m B)v f inal
(3.0)v cm = (3)( − 4.0)
v cm = − 4.0 m/s

m A v A + m B v B = (1)(12) + (2)( − 12) = − 12 kg • m/s

(m A + m B)v f inal = (3)( − 4) = − 12 kg • m/s

m 1 = 0.500 kg, m 2 = 3.50 kg, v 1 = 4.00 m/s, and v 2 = 0.

v′ 1 v′ 2

v2 = 0

v2 = 0
p 1 = p′ 1 + p′ 2

m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 + m 2v′ 2.
v2 = 0
1 m v 2 = 1 m v′ 2 + 1 m v′ 2.
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
v′ 2
m
v′ 2 = m 1 ⎛⎝v 1 − v′ 1⎞⎠.
2

v′ 2
v′ 1

v′ 1 = 4.00 m/s

v′ 1 = −3.00 m/s.

(v′ 1 = −3.00 m/s)

v′ 1
 m 0.500 kg ⎡
v′ 2 = m 1 ⎛⎝v 1 − v′ 1⎞⎠ = ⎤
⎣4.00 − (−3.00)⎦ m/s
2 3.50 kg

v′ 2 = 1.00 m/s.
1 mv 2 + 1 mv 2 = mv 2
2 2
 p 1 + p 2 = p′ 1 + p′ 2

m 1 v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1v′ 1 + m 2v′ 2.
v2 = 0
v′ 1 = v′ 2 = v′
m 1 v 1 = (m 1 + m 2)v′.
v′
m
v′ = m +1m v 1.
1 2

⎛ 0.150 kg ⎞
v′ = ⎝ (35.0 m/s) = 7.48×10 −2 m/s.
70.0 kg + 0.150 kg ⎠

KE int
KE int

KE int = 1 mv 2 = 1 ⎛⎝0.150 kg⎞⎠(35.0 m/s) 2

2 2
= 91.9 J.

2
KE′ int = 1 (m + M)v 2 = 1 ⎛⎝70.15 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝7.48×10 −2 m/s⎞⎠
2 2
= 0.196 J.
 KE′ int − KE int = 0.196 J − 91.9 J
= − 91.7 J

KE int

(c)
c
1/2
c c = (h / H) h
H c
 c = 0.85

m1

2.00 m/s
m2 −0.500 m/s
−4.00 m/s

F net = 0

m 1 v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1v′ 1 + m 2v′ 2 .
v′ 2 v′ 2
m 1 v 1 + m 2v 2 − m 1 v′ 1
v′ 2 = m2
⎛
0.350 kg⎠(2.00 m/s) + ⎛⎝0.500 kg⎞⎠(−0.500 m/s) ⎛⎝0.350 kg⎞⎠(−4.00 m/s)
⎞

= ⎝ −
0.500 kg 0.500 kg
= 3.70 m/s.

KE int = 1 m 1 v 21 + 1 m 2 v 22
2 2
= ⎝0.350 kg⎞⎠(2.00 m/s) 2 + 1 ⎛⎝0.500 kg⎞⎠( – 0.500 m/s) 2
1 ⎛

2 2
= 0.763 J.

KE′ int = 1 m 1 v′ 21 + 1 m 2 v′ 22
2 2
= ⎝0.350 kg⎠(-4.00 m/s) 2 + 1 ⎛⎝0.500 kg⎞⎠(3.70 m/s) 2
1 ⎛ ⎞

2 2
= 6.22 J.

KE′ int − KE int = 6.22 J − 0.763 J

= 5.46 J.
 x y

F net = 0 p

x y (p x and p y) py px

m2 v1 x

x
p 1x + p 2x = p′ 1x + p′ 2x.

m 1 v 1x + m 2v 2x = m 1v′ 1x + m 2v′ 2x.

m 1 v 1x = m 1v′ 1x + m 2v′ 2x.

 x v cos x
v 1x = v 1
x
m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 cos 1 + m 2v′ 2 cos 2,

1 2

x
m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 cos 1 + m 2v′ 2 cos 2

y
p 1y + p 2y = p′ 1y + p′ 2y

m 1 v 1y + m 2v 2y = m 1v′ 1y + m 2v′ 2y.

v 1y x v 2y
y
0 = m 1v′ 1y + m 2v′ 2y.

y v sin
y
0 = m 1v′ 1 sin 1 + m 2v′ 2 sin 2.
y
0 = m 1v′ 1 sin 1 + m 2v′ 2 sin 2

x y

x
y

x y
m(40) + m(0) = (2m)v fina (x)
v fina (x) = 20 m/s
m(0) + m(80) = (2m)v fina (y)
v fina (y) = 40 m/s
 (m 1)
(m 2)
45.0º

(v′ 2 2)

m2 x x
y
v′ 2 2

x y

m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 cos 1 + m 2v′ 2 cos 2 v′2 cos 2 0 = m 1v′ 1 sin 1 + m 2v′ 2 sin 2
v′ 2 sin 2
⎛ ⎞
⎝tan = sin ⎠
cos
v′ 1 sin 1
tan 2 = .
v′ 1 cos 1 − v 1

(1.50 m/s)(0.7071)
tan 2 = = −1.129.
(1.50 m/s)(0.7071) − 2.00 m/s

2 = tan −1(−1.129) = 311.5º ≈ 312º.

m2
x y
v′ 2
m sin
v′ 2 = − m 1 v′ 1 1
2 sin 2

⎛0.250 kg ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v′ 2 = − ⎝ (1.50 m/s)⎝ 0.7071 ⎠.
0.400 kg ⎠ −0.7485

v′ 2 = 0.886 m/s.
 m1
m2 m1

(m 2)

1 mv 2 = 1 mv′ 2 + 1 mv′ 2.
2 1 2 1 2 2

m1 = m2 = m
x y
1 mv 2 = 1 mv′ 2 + 1 mv′ 2 + mv′ v′ cos⎛⎝ ⎞
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 − 2⎠.

mv′ 1 v′ 2 cos⎛⎝ ⎞
1 − 2⎠ = 0.

v′ 1 = 0
v′ 2 = 0
cos( 1 − 2) =0 ( 1 − 2) 90º

90º
angular momentum
 m v
mv Δt Δm
ve (m − Δm) (v + Δv)
Δt
Δp = −mgΔt

Δt

v
a = me Δm − g
Δt
g

v
a = me Δm − g,
Δt
a ve m Δm
Δt
 m v −mg ,
Δt

ve ve
2.5×10 3 m/s
Δm / Δt (Δm / Δt)v e
m
m

ve

2.80×10 6 kg 1.40×10 4 kg/s

2.40×10 3 m/s

a
 v
a = me Δm − g
Δt
3
= 2.40×10 6m/s ⎛⎝1.40×10 4 kg/s⎞⎠ − 9.80 m/s 2
2.80×10 kg
= 2.20 m/s 2 .

m ve Δm
Δt
3.36×10 7 N

m
v = v e ln m0 ,
r

ln⎛⎝m 0 / m r⎞⎠ (m 0) (m r)
v

11.2×10 3 m/s
v e = 2.5×10 3 m/s
m 3
ln m0 = vv = 11.2×103 m/s = 4.48
r e 2.5×10 m/s
m0 / mr
m0 4.48
mr = e = 88.

m0
mr = .
88
1 / 88 87 / 88

mr m 0 / 180
 momentum
p
p = mv,
m v
kg · m/s

Δp
F net = ,
Δt
F net Δp Δt

Δp = F netΔt.

p tot = constant

p tot = p′ tot (isolated system),

p tot p′ tot
⎛
F net = 0⎞⎠.
⎝

x m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 cos 1 + m 2v′ 2 cos 2

y 0 = m 1v′ 1y +m 2v′ 2y

1 mv 2 = 1 mv′ 2 + 1 mv′ 2 + mv′ v′ cos⎛⎝ ⎞

2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 − 2⎠.
 v
a = me Δm − g
Δt
 1
1 b

1
b
 7.50 m/s

600 m/s
7.40 m/s

1.60×10 9 kg · m/s
48.0 km/h?

1200 m/s
2.00×10 4-kg
1.60×10 9 kg · m/s

60.0 m/s

4.00×10 3 m/s 6.00×10 – 8 s

1.20×10 4 kg 10.0 m/s

5.4 m/s

5.972×10 24 kg
1.496×10 11 m

1.00×10 7 kg

1.76×10 4 N 5.50×10 –2 s
 4.00×10 3 kg 7.50×10 3 kg

60º +x
60º −x

55º

−0.120 m/s

6.00×10 7 kg
A car moving at 10 m/s
crashes into a tree and stops in 0.26 s. Calculate the force
the seatbelt exerts on a passenger in the car to bring him to a
halt. The mass of the passenger is 70 kg.

4.00×10 3 kg 7.50×10 3 kg
 1.20×10 4 kg

⎛ 239
⎝ Pu⎞⎠

⎛4
⎝ He + 235 U⎞⎠
30.0º
– 13
8.40×10 J
1− 2 = 90º

6.68×10 – 27 kg
3.92×10 – 25 kg
x y

20.0º

5.00×10 12 kg

7.36×10 22 kg 85.0º
 ⎛4 ⎞
⎝ He⎠ 2.00×10 3 m/s
⎛ 197
⎝ Au⎞⎠

8.00×10 −13 J
6.68×10 −27 kg
3.29×10 −25 kg 8.00×10 6 m/s
120º

4.50×10 −6 kg/s

8.00 m/s
17.0 m/s

x
y 2.40×10 3 m/s

⎛
⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
m 1 v 1 = m 1v′ 1 cos 1 + m 2v′ 2 cos 2
0 = m 1v′ 1 sin 1 + m 2v′ 2 sin 2
x y

1 mv 2 = 1 mv′ 2+ 1 mv′ 2+mv′ v′ cos ⎛⎝ ⎞

2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 − 2⎠

8.00 km/s
2.20×10 3 m/s?

30.0 m

2.50×10 3 m/s? 20.0º

12.0 m/s
2
1.6 m/s
2.20×10 3 m/s?
 x

x
x
 A B

A mA

B
A B
 B

mA
B

+v −v x x
2 2 x
+v
2
+v +v
2 2
x x x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x
 x

x x
x
x

x x
x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x
x

x
x x

x
x

x
 F ma

equilibrium
 net F = 0
F any
x y
net F x = 0 and F y = 0

net F = 0

F app
 net F = 0

net F = 0
not net F = 0
F r⊥
F′

90º = 0º

τ = rF sin
τ r
F

r⊥
r ⊥ = r sin

τ = r⊥ F.
 r F
r F
F

r⊥ F
r⊥ F
r⊥ r
τ =r ⊥F τ = rF sin
N·m
32 N·m(0.800 m×40 N×sin 90º)
16 N·m

τ=FA*d
ϴ

F⊥ F⊥=FCsinθ.
F∥
τ=F⊥*d
 d

the second condition necessary to achieve equilibrium the net external torque on a system must be zero

net τ = 0

Fp
 τ = rF sin .
= 90º sin =1 r⊥ =r

τ 1 = r 1w 1

τ 2 = – r 2w 2

τ p = r pF p
= 0 ⋅ Fp
= 0.

Fp rp

τ 2 = – τ 1,

r 2 w 2 = r 1w 1.
mg w
r 2 m 2 g = r 1 m 1 g.
r2 :
m
r2 = r1m1.
2
r2
26.0 kg
r 2 = (1.60 m) = 1.30 m.
32.0 kg

Fp

net F = 0.

net F y = 0
y

F p – w 1 – w 2 = 0.

F p = w 1 + w 2.

F p = m 1g + m 2g.
 F p = ⎛⎝26.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ + ⎛⎝32.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
= 568 N.

Fp
Fp

This will not always be

the case

r1 r2

Torque plays the same role in rotational

motion that force plays in linear motion.

three types of equilibrium stable unstable neutral

 restoring

same
above
acceleration of the system is zero and accelerated rotation does not occur
draw a free body diagram for the system of interest
 net F = 0 net τ = 0
choose the pivot point to simplify the solution
r=0
=0
Check the solution to see if it is reasonable

(net F = 0) (net τ = 0)

FR = FL = w / 2
 FL = FR

FL FR

FR FL

(net F = 0
(net τ = 0)

τw
τR
net τ cw = –net τ ccw.

τ R = –τ w

τ = rF sin = 90º
(0.900 m)⎛⎝F R⎞⎠ = (0.600 m)(mg).

F R = (0.667)⎛⎝5.00 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠

= 32.7 N.

F L + F R – mg = 0
 F L + F R = w = mg
FL
F L = mg − F R
= mg − 32.7 N
= ⎛⎝5.00 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ − 32.7 N
= 16.3 N

FL FR FL FR
 Fo
MA =
Fi

Fo Fn
Fo li l0

Fi Fo
Fi , Fo , N Fn Fo Fo
N
Fi Fn
(net τ = 0) Fi
Fn
l i F i = l oF o
li lo

Fo li
= .
Fi lo
Fo
Fi

Fo li
MA = = .
Fi lo

Fo d1
MA = MA =
Fi d2
 Fo li
=
Fi lo
l
Fi = Fo o.
li

F i = ⎛⎝45.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠0.075 m = 32.4 N.

1.02 m
Fi + N = W
N = (45.0 kg)⎛⎝9.80 2⎞
m/s ⎠ − 32.4 N = 409 N N
409 N

MA = 1.02 / 0.0750 = 13.6

 360º
ri / r0

2.0 cm 24.0 cm
MA = 2.0 / 24.0 = 0.083 12,000 N
1000 N

360º

T
 2T MA ≈ 2

4T MA ≈ 4
 FB

FB FE wa wb
FB FE FB
FE FB

(net τ = 0)
r 2 w a + r 3w b = r 1F B.
sin =1 = 90º FB

r 2 w a + r 3w b
FB = r1 .
 (0.160 m)⎛⎝2.50 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ + (0.380 m)⎛⎝4.00 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
FB =
0.0400 m

F B = 470 N.

6.50 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = 63.7 N

⎛
⎝

FB 470
w a + w b = 63.7 = 7.38.

FE
FE

470 N – 407 N = 63 N
 rb ⊥ Fb

FB –

FV –

FB – w ub
w box – FB –

(net τ = 0)

(0.350 m)⎛⎝55.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ + (0.500 m)⎛⎝30.0 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = (0.0800 m)F B.
 FB

F B = 4.20×10 3 N.

FB 4200 N
w ub + w box = 833 N = 5.04.

FV
net F = 0 y x

net F y = 0 and net F x = 0.

y
F Vy – w ub – w box – F B sin 29.0º = 0.

F Vy = w ub + w box + F B sin 29.0º

= 833 N + (4200 N) sin 29.0º

F Vy = 2.87×10 3 N.

x
F Vx – F B cos 29.0º = 0

F Vx = 3.67×10 3 N.
FV
2
F V = F Vx 2
+ F Vy = 4.66×10 3 N.

FV

⎛F Vy ⎞
= tan – 1
⎝F Vx ⎠ = 38.0º.
FV
FV 4660 N
w ub + w box = 833 N = 5.59.
F
net F = 0

τ = rF sin
τ r F
F
r⊥
r⊥ = r sin

τ = r⊥ F.
r⊥ F
(N·m)

net τ = 0
 F1

F2

F1 F2

(net τ = 0)
Fp
 F
w T

(net τ = 0)

45 cm 1.8 cm

1250 N

1.10 cm
27.5 cm
 115 kg

7.00 kg
FV

90º

120º
 k = 600 N/m

FB

25º
 A E
P

3
7
5
2
25
7
30
7

A
B
C
D
E

w
 ω

ω=Δ ,
Δt
ω v

v = rω

ω = vr ,
r

ω
 = Δω ,
Δt
Δω Δt (rad/s)/s
2
rad/s ω ω

rad/s 2
– 87.3 rad/s 2

= Δω
Δt
Δω Δt

= Δω
Δt
250 rpm
= .
5.00 s
Δω rad/s 2
Δω

Δω = 250 rev ⋅ 2πrev

rad ⋅ 1 min
min 60 sec
rad
= 26.2 s .

= Δω
Δt
= 26.2 rad/s
5.00 s
= 5.24 rad/s 2.

Δt

Δt = Δω .

26.2 rad/s Δω – 26.2 rad/s

2
– 87.3 rad/s

Δt = – 26.2 rad/s
– 87.3 rad/s 2
= 0.300 s.
 tangent
at

a a
at

ac

at ac at

ac

at

a t = Δv .
Δt
v = rω
Δ(rω)
at = .
Δt
r Δ(rω) = r(Δω)

a t = r Δω .
Δt

= Δω
Δt
at = r ,
 a
= rt .

at
a
= rt

a t = Δv
Δt
= 30.0 m/s
4.20 s
= 7.14 m/s 2.
a
at r = rt
at
= r
2
= 7.14 m/s
0.320 m
= 22.3 rad/s 2.

,ω
x, v a

x = xr

ω v ω = vr
a
a = rt
 rad/s 2

t
ω

ω t

v = v 0 + at (constant a)
a = at a
a a=r
v = rω a=r
rω = rω 0 + r t.
r
ω = ω 0 + at (constant a),
 ω0 kinematic relationship ω t

= ωt
¯ x = v- t
ω = ω0 + t v = v 0 + at a

= ω 0t + 1 t 2 x = v 0t + 1 at 2 a
2 2

ω2 = ω02 + 2 v 2 = v 0 2 + 2ax a

0 x0 t0
-
ω v-
ω0 + ω v +v
ω̄ = and v̄ = 0 .
2 2
a

Examine the situation to determine that rotational kinematics (rotational motion) is involved

Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns)
Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns)
Solve the appropriate equation or equations for the quantity to be determined (the unknown)

Substitute the known values along with their units into the appropriate equation, and obtain numerical solutions
complete with units
Check your answer to see if it is reasonable: Does your answer make sense

110 rad/s 2
 t ω ω = ω0 + t

ω = ω 0 + t.
ω0 = 0

ω = 0 + ⎛⎝110 rad/s 2⎞⎠(2.00s) = 220 rad/s.

ω v
v = rω,
r
v = (0.0450 m)(220 rad/s) = 9.90 m/s.

m×rad = m

1 rev = 2π rad
t ω0

= ω 0t + 1 t 2
2

= ω 0t + 1 t 2
2
= 0 + (0.500)⎛⎝110 rad/s 2⎞⎠(2.00 s) 2 = 220 rad.

= (220 rad) 1 rev = 35.0 rev.

2π rad

x
x = r = (0.0450 m)(220 rad) = 9.90 m.
– 300 rad/s 2

t
ω 0 = 220 rad/s
ω = −300 rad/s 2
t ω = ω 0 + t,

ω = ω 0 + t.
t
ω − ω0
t= = 0 − 220 rad/s = 0.733 s.
−300 rad/s 2

0.250 rad/s 2

x ω v
r

x
= xr .
x
x=r .

= (200 rev) 2π rad = 1257 rad.

1 rev
x=r
x = r = (0.350 m)(1257 rad) = 440 m.

t ω
2 2
ω = ω0 + 2 ω

ω2 = ω02 + 2
 ⎡
1/2
ω = ⎣0 + 2(0.250 rad/s 2)(1257 rad)⎤⎦
= 25.1 rad/s.
v ω
v = rω = (0.350 m)(25.1 rad/s) = 8.77 m/s.

x = ω̄ t
-
ω

= ω̄ t
- t = ⎛6.0 rpm⎞(2.0 min) = 12 rev.
=ω ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞
= (12 rev)⎝2π rad ⎠ = 75.4 rad.
1 rev
x
x = r = (0.15 m)(75.4 rad) = 11 m.
 F m r
r F
a=m F
F = ma a=r
F = ma
F = mr .
 F r
τ = Fr r
rF = mr 2

τ = mr 2α.
F = ma
2
mr mr 2
m r

F r r

I
mr 2
I = ∑ mr 2
I m
r
I
MR 2 M R
M R m r
I
I kg ⋅ m 2

net τ = I

= net τ ,
I
τ

τ=I , = net τ
I
any any any

distribution
Examine the situation to determine that torque and mass are involved in the rotation

Determine the system of interest

Draw a free body diagram

Apply net τ = I , = net τ , the rotational equivalent of Newton's second law, to solve the problem
I

As always, check the solution to see if it is reasonable

 = net τ
I
= τ.
I
τ I

τ = rF sin θ = (1.50 m)(250 N) = 375 N ⋅ m.

1 MR 2,
2
M = 50.0 kg R = 1.50 m

I = (0.500)(50.0 kg)(1.50 m) 2 = 56.25 kg ⋅ m 2.

= τ = 375 N ⋅ m 2 = 6.67 rad .

I 56.25 kg ⋅ m s2

I Ic

I c = MR 2 = (18.0 kg)(1.25 m) 2 = 28.13 kg ⋅ m 2.

I
I = 28.13 kg ⋅ m 2 + 56.25 kg ⋅ m 2 = 84.38 kg ⋅ m 2.

= τ = 375 N ⋅ m 2 = 4.44 rad .

I 84.38 kg ⋅ m s2

τ  =  rF sin    =  (0.300 m)(20.0 N)  =  6.00 N·m

I  =   1  MR 2   =   1 ⎛⎝8.0 kg⎞⎠(0.300 m) 2   =  0.36 kg ⋅ m 2

2 2

  =   τ   =   6.00 N ⋅ m2   =  17 rad/s 2
I 0.36 kg ⋅ m
 τ  =  rF sin    =  (0.120 m)(15.0 N)  =  1.80 N⋅m
6.00  N⋅m − 1.80 Ν⋅m = 4.20 Ν⋅m

  =   τ   =   4.20 N ⋅ m2   =  12 rad/s 2
I 0.36 kg ⋅ m

net W = (net F)Δs.

r
 net W = (r net F) Δs
r .
r net F = net τ Δs / r =
net W = (net τ) .

net W = (net τ)

net τ = I
net W = I .

(net F)Δs

ω2 = ω02 + 2 .

ω2 − ω02
= .
2
W

net W = 1 Iω 2 − 1 Iω 0 2.
2 2

⎛1 ⎞ 2
⎝2 ⎠Iω KE rot
I ω

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2
I m
ω v
 KE rot
KE rot

1.00 rad(57.3º)

net W = (net τ)

KE rot = 1 Iω 2
2

net W = (net τ) ,
τ (rF)
r
net W = rF = (0.320 m)(200 N)(1.00 rad)
= 64.0 N ⋅ m.
1 N·m = 1 J
net W = 64.0 J.

ω
ω2 = ω02 + 2 .
 ω0 = 0

ω = (2 ) 1 / 2.

= net τ ,
I

net τ = rF = (0.320 m)(200 N) = 64.0 N ⋅ m.

I = 1 MR 2 = 0.5⎛⎝85.0 kg⎞⎠(0.320 m) 2 = 4.352 kg ⋅ m 2.

2

= 64.0 N ⋅ m 2 = 14.7 rad .

4.352 kg ⋅ m s2
ω

⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1/2
) 1 / 2 = 2 14.7 rad = 5.42 rad
ω = (2
⎣⎝ s2 ⎠
(1.00 rad)
⎦ s .

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2
I ω
KE rot = (0.5)⎛⎝4.352 kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠(5.42 rad/s) 2 = 64.0 J.

net τ  =  I ,  I  ∝  mr 2,  and ω  =   vr

Determine that energy or work is involved in the rotation

Determine the system of interest
Analyze the situation to determine the types of work and energy involved
For closed systems, mechanical energy is conserved KE i + PE i = KE f + PE f . KE i KE f

For open systems

OE

Eliminate terms wherever possible to simplify the algebra

Check the answer to see if it is reasonable

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2
KE rot
ω

ω = 300 rev ⋅ 2π rad ⋅ 1.00 min = 31.4 rad

s .
1.00 min 1 rev 60.0 s
I

2 ⎛
50.0 kg⎞⎠(4.00 m) 2
I = 4 Mℓ = 4× ⎝ = 1067 kg ⋅ m 2.
3 3
ω I
KE rot = 0.5(1067 kg ⋅ m 2)(31.4 rad/s) 2
= 5.26×10 5 J

KE trans = 1 mv 2 = (0.5)⎛⎝1000 kg⎞⎠(20.0 m/s) 2 = 2.00×10 5 J.

2

2.00×10 5 J = 0.380.
5.26×10 5 J

KE rot = PE grav

1 Iω 2 = mgh.
2
h
2
1 Iω
2
h = mg = 5.26×10 5 J = 53.7 m.
1000 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
⎛
⎝

KE

PE grav KE
KE KE trans KE rot KE
 PE i = KE f .

PE grav = KE trans + KE rot

mgh = 1 mv 2 + 1 Iω 2.
2 2
mgh I
ω=0

mgh = 1 mv 2 + 1 Iω 2.
2 2
v I v ω
ω = v/R

⎛ ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞
mgh = 1 mv 2 + 1 ⎝1 mR 2⎠ v 2 .
2 2 2 ⎝R ⎠
R m

gh = 1 v 2 + 1 v 2 = 3 v 2.
2 4 4
v
 ⎛4gh ⎞
1/2
v=⎝
3 ⎠
.

⎡4⎛9.80 m/s 2⎞(2.00 m) ⎤1 / 2

⎝ ⎠
v=⎢ ⎥ = 5.11 m/s.
⎣ 3 ⎦

⎛ ⎞
1/2
m R v = ⎝4 gh⎠
3

1 mv 2 = mgh v = (2gh) 1 / 2 (4gh / 3) 1 / 2

2
 L
L = Iω.
p = mv kg ⋅ m/s
2
kg ⋅ m /s I
ω

L = Iω

2
I = 2MR
5

2
L = Iω = 2MR ω .
5
M 5.979×10 24 kg R 6.376×10 6 m ω
ω

L ω
⎛ ⎞ 2
L = 0.4⎛⎝5.979×10 24 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝6.376×10 6 m⎞⎠ ⎝1 rev ⎠
d
= 9.72×10 37 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ rev/d.

2π 1 8.64×10 4 s
⎛ ⎛ 2π rad/rev ⎞
kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠
⎝8.64×10 4 s/d ⎠(1 rev/d)
37
L = ⎝9.72×10

= 7.07×10 33 kg ⋅ m 2/s.
 L

net τ = ΔL .
Δt
F = Δp / Δt
net τ = ΔL
Δt

net τ = ΔL
Δt

net τ = ΔL ΔL
Δt

ΔL = L ω L L = Iω

net τ = ΔL ΔL
Δt
ΔL = (net τ)Δt.
r net τ = rF
L = rFΔt = (0.260 m)(2.50 N)(0.150 s)
= 9.75×10 −2 kg ⋅ m 2 / s.

L = Iω.
ω

ω = L = L 2.
I 1 MR
2
 9.75×10 −2 kg ⋅ m 2/s
ω= = 0.721 rad/s.
(0.500)⎛⎝4.00 kg⎞⎠(0.260 m)

1.25 kg ⋅ m 2

57.3º

F r

= net τ / I
I

= net τ .
I

net τ = r⊥ F
= (0.0220 m)(2000 N)
= 44.0 N ⋅ m.
 = 44.0 N ⋅ m2 = 35.2 rad/s 2.
1.25 kg ⋅ m

ω2 = ω02 + 2

ω2 = 2

KE rot = 1 Iω 2
2
ω2

KE rot = 0.5⎛⎝1.25 kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠⎛⎝70.4 rad 2 / s 2⎞⎠

.
= 44.0 J

ΔL = (net τ)Δt

zero
conserved net τ = ΔL
Δt
netτ = 0

ΔL = 0.
Δt
ΔL
L = constant (net τ = 0)

L = L′(netτ = 0).

F r τ
 L = L′.

Iω = I′ω′,
I′
ω′

2.34 kg ⋅ m 2 0.363 kg ⋅ m 2

ω′

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2

Iω = I′ω′

L = L′

Iω = I′ω′
ω′
⎛ 2.34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⎞
ω′ = I ω = ⎜ ⎟(0.800 rev/s)
I′ ⎝0.363 kg ⋅ m 2 ⎠
= 5.16 rev/s.

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2
KE rot = (0.5)⎛⎝2.34 kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠⎛⎝(0.800 rev/s)(2π rad/rev)⎞⎠ 2
= 29.6 J.

KE rot ′ = 1 I′ω′ 2.
2

KE rot′ = (0.5)⎛⎝0.363 kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠⎡⎣(5.16 rev/s)(2π rad/rev)⎤⎦ 2

= 191 J.
r
 Iω

L = L′,

L = Iω,

I ω I = mr 2
ω = v/r
L = mr 2 vr = mvr.

L′ = I ′ω′.
ω′
I′ω′ = mvr.

ω′   =   mvr
I′
I′
I = Mr 2 / 3
2 ⎛ ⎞
I ′ = mr 2 + Mr = ⎝m + M ⎠r 2.
3 3

I′ = ⎛⎝0.0500 kg + 0.667 kg⎞⎠(1.20 m) 2 = 1.032 kg ⋅ m 2.

I′ ω′
⎛
0.0500 kg⎞⎠(30.0 m/s)(1.20 m)
ω′ = mvr = ⎝

I′ 1.032 kg ⋅ m 2
= 1.744 rad/s ≈ 1.74 rad/s.

KE = 1 mv 2 = (0.500)⎛⎝0.0500 kg⎞⎠(30.0 m/s) 2 = 22.5 J

2

⎛ ⎞
2
KE′ = 1 I′ω′ 2 = (0.5)⎛⎝1.032 kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠⎝1.744 rad
s ⎠
2
= 1.57 J.
 p = mv = ⎛⎝0.0500 kg⎞⎠(30.0 m/s) = 1.50 kg ⋅ m/s.

v′ = rω′
⎛ ⎞
v CM = ⎝ r ⎠ω′ = v′
2 2

p′ = mv′ + Mv CM = mv′ + Mv′ .

2

⎛ ⎞
p′ = ⎝m + M ⎠v′
2

⎛ ⎞
p′ = ⎝m + M ⎠rω′.
2

p′ = ⎛⎝1.050 kg⎞⎠(1.20 m)(1.744 rad/s) = 2.20 kg ⋅ m/s.

τ  =   ΔL ΔL
Δt
Δt

L  =  Iω

percussion point

no
 has direction as well as magnitude

L
ω

L = Iω L ω

ω L

net τ = ΔL .
Δt
ΔL τ

L
L L L
ΔL L
perpendicular to the forces exerted on it
 r F
F

ΔL
ΔL L

precesses L
not L = ΔL
 ΔL ΔL L

I = mr 2

KE 1
KE 2 W
 ω=Δ
Δt

= Δω
Δt
a t = Δv
Δt
v = rω
Δ(rω)
at = .
Δt
Δ(rω) = rΔω

a t = r Δω .
Δt
Δω / Δt =
at = r

a
= rt .

x0 t0
-
ω v-
ω0 + ω v +v
ω̄ = and v̄ = 0 .
2 2

F m r
r a = F/m F
F = ma,
a=r
F=ma
F=mr
F r τ = rF
r
rF = mr 2

τ = mr 2 .
2
I MR

I = ∑ mr 2.

τ=I

= net τ ⋅
I
 KE rot I ω

KE rot = 1 Iω 2.
2

net W = 1 Iω 2 − 1 Iω 0 2.
2 2

L
L = Iω.
p = mv
net τ = ΔL .
Δt

L L = Iω
net τ = ΔL .
Δt
L = constant (net τ = 0) L = L′ (net τ = 0)

r F
F

L
L = ΔL

ML 2 /3
M L/2
2
ML /4
M R
M R
 7.00 m/s 2

95.0 rad/s

rad/s 2

m/s 2 g

100 rad/s 2

1.50 m/s 2

0.700 rad/s 2

2.00×10 3 N

120 rad/s 2
 ⎛
⎝I = Mℓ 2 / 3⎞⎠
30.00 rad/s 2
0.750 kg ⋅ m 2 I = Mℓ 2 / 12

0.050 kg ⋅ m 2

4.00×10 7 N

0.500 kg ⋅ m 2

3.75 kg ⋅ m 2
 0.900 kg ⋅ m 2

20.0º

60.0º

0.250 kg ⋅ m 2

0.400 kg ⋅ m 2

MR 2 M
R

0.720 kg ⋅ m 2
L
 M
R R

M M
 A
uA RA B
uB

R
R
 phases of matter

solids

resists

liquids
flow

gases
 ρ = m,
V
ρ m V

ρ = m,
V
ρ m V

kg/m 3
1 g/cm 3 10 3 kg/m 3
ρ(10 3 kg/m3 or g/mL) ρ(10 3 kg/m3 or g/mL) ρ(10 3 kg/m3 or g/mL)

1.29×10 −3

1.98×10 −3

1.25×10 −3

0.090×10 −3

0.18×10 −3

0.72×10 −3

1.25×10 −3

1.98×10 −3

1.43×10 −3

(100º C) 0.60×10 −3
 50.0 km 2

V ρ
m
ρ = m.
V

ρ = m/V m m = ρV
V A h
V = Ah = ⎛⎝50.0 km 2⎞⎠(40.0 m)
⎡ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
2
= ⎢⎛⎝50.0 km 2⎞⎠⎝10 m ⎠ ⎥(40.0 m) = 2.00×10 9 m 3
⎣ 1 km ⎦

ρ 1.000×10 3 kg/m 3 V ρ

m = ⎛
⎝1.00×10
3
kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝2.00×10 9 m 3⎞⎠
= 2.00×10 12 kg.

mg = 1.96×10 13 N g 9.80 m/s 2

 P

P=F
A
F A

P = F.
A

pascal

1 Pa = 1 N/m 2.

100 mb = 1×10 4 Pa .
⎛
⎝lb/in
2
or psi⎞⎠
 6.90×10 6 Pa

P=F A
A

F = PA.
P A A = πr 2
⎛
F = ⎝6.90×10
6
N/m 2⎞⎠(3.14)(0.0750 m) 2
= 1.22×10 5 N.

F = PA

withstand exert
and

mg A

mg
P= .
A

m = ρV.
 V
V = Ah,
A h
m = ρAh.

⎛
⎝ ρAh⎞⎠g
P= .
A

P = hρg.
pressure due to the weight of a fluid

P = hρg average density ρ

h

1.96×10 13 N

¯ ¯
P h

¯ ¯
P = h ρg.
¯
h
¯ ⎛ kg ⎞⎛ ⎞
P = (40.0 m) 10 3 3 9.80 m2
⎝ m ⎠⎝ s ⎠
= 3.92×10 5 N2 = 392 kPa.
m
 ¯
F = P A.

¯
P A = 80.0 m×500 m = 4.00×10 4 m 2

F = (3.92×10 5 N/m 2)(4.00×10 4 m 2)

= 1.57×10 10 N.

1.96×10 13 N
0.0800%

not

Atmospheric pressure air

standard atmospheric pressure P atm

1 atmosphere (atm) = P atm = 1.01×10 5 N/m 2 = 101 kPa.

1.00 m 2
1.01×10 5 N 1 atm
 1.01×10 5 Pa 1 m2
1.01×10 5 N

P = hρg

ρ̄ = P .
hg

P h g ρ̄

ρ̄

ρ̄ = 1.01×10 5 N/m 2 = 8.59×10 −2 kg/m 3.

3 2
(120×10 m)(9.80 m/s )

1.29 kg/m 3

P = hρg h
P.
h = ρg

P ρ

h= 1.01×10 5 N/m 2 = 10.3 m.

(1.00×10 3 kg/m 3)(9.80 m/s 2)
total

total

undiminished

the total pressure in a fluid is the sum of the pressures from different sources

hydraulic system
F1 F2
F1

F1
F1 A1 P1 = P=F
A1 A

P2 P1 P1 = P2
F2 F1 F2
P2 = =
A2 A1 A2
F2 A1 A2

F2

F1 A1 A2
F1 F2
= F2 F2
A1 A2

F1 F2
=
A1 A2

A2 πr 2 (1.25 cm) 2
F2 = F 1 = 22 F 1 = ×500 N = 1.25×10 4 N.
A1 πr 1 (0.250 cm) 2

1.25×10 4 N.
 greater

P abs = P g + P atm P abs Pg P atm

P atm

P g = −P atm P abs
 P = hρg.
manometer

P abs
P abs
P abs P abs
hρg ρ P abs
h hρg
Pg h P abs
hρg Pg
P g = hρg
h

P g = hρg
h Pg
hρg

h
h
1.0 mm Hg = 133 Pa

1.0 mm Hg = 133 Pa
 P = 18 mm Hg× 133 Pa = 2400 Pa.
1.0 mm Hg
Pg
P g = hρg h h = ρg

h = 2400 N/m 2
⎛
⎝1.0×10
3
kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠
= 0.24 m.

barometer

hρg = P atm

hρg
h
1.0 atm = 1.013×10 5 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1.013×10 5 N/m 2

1.0 dyne/cm 2 = 0.10 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1.013×10 6 dyne/cm 2

1.0 kg/cm 2 = 9.8×10 4 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1.013 kg/cm 2

1.0 lb/in. 2 = 6.90×10 3 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 14.7 lb/in. 2

1.0 mm Hg = 133 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 760 mm Hg

1.0 cm Hg = 1.33×10 3 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 76.0 cm Hg

1.0 cm water = 98.1 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1.03×10 3 cm water

1.0 bar = 1.000×10 5 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1.013 bar

1.0 millibar = 1.000×10 2 N/m 2 1.0 atm = 1013 millibar

 P = hρg
FB

FB FB
FB w
FB = w

w
w

FB = w ,
FB w
 FB = w ,
FB w

Humm …

(1.00×10 7 kg)

1.00×10 5 m 3

ρ=m
V

m 1.00×10 7 kg
V st = ρ st = 3 3
= 1.28×10 3 m 3.
st 7.8×10 kg/m
Vw

m w = ρ wV w = (1.000×10 3 kg/m 3)(1.28×10 3 m 3)

= 1.28×10 6 kg.
mw g

F B = w w = m wg = ⎛⎝1.28×10 6 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠

= 1.3×10 7 N.
m w g = 9.80×10 7 N
 m w = ρ wV w = ⎛⎝1.000×10 3 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝1.00×10 5 m 3⎞⎠
= 1.00×10 8 kg.

F B = w w = m wg = ⎛⎝1.00×10 8 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠

= 9.80×10 8 N.

V sub V
fraction submerged = = .
V obj V obj

V
ρ=m
V
V m /ρ
= ,
V obj m / ρ̄
obj obj

ρ̄ obj ρ

ρ̄ obj
fraction submerged = ρ .
 ¯
ρ
specific ravity = ρ ,
w
¯
ρ ρw
ρ

97.0%

ρ̄ obj
fraction submerged = ρ

ρ̄ obj = ρ̄ person = (fraction submerged) ⋅ ρ .

⎛ kg ⎞ kg
⎝
ρ̄ person = 0.970 ⋅ 10 3
m 3⎠
= 970 3 .
m
 appears apparent weight
apparent weight loss
apparent mass loss
apparent weight loss = weight of fluid displace

apparent mass loss = mass of fluid displaced

 1.000 g/cm 3

Vw ρ=m V
V

m
Vw = ρ w mw
w
m w = 8.630 g−7.800 g = 0.830 g
0.830 g
Vw = = 0.830 cm 3
1.000 g/cm 3

mc 8.630 g
ρc = = = 10.4 g/cm 3.
V c 0.830 cm 3
 F ST

F L

= F.
L
w
w = L sin L

P
4γ
P= r ,
r
F = L = (2l) two
 0ºC
20ºC
100ºC

37ºC
37ºC
1070ºC
−193ºC
−269ºC

2.00×10 −4 m

P
4γ
P= r

4γ
r P= r

4γ 4(0.037 N/m)
P= r = = 740 N/m 2 = 740 Pa.
2.00×10 −4 m

1.00 mm Hg
P = ⎛⎝740 N/m 2⎞⎠ = 5.56 mm Hg.
133 N/m 2

increase

alveoli
hyaline membrane disease
 capillary tube

90º
90º
 90º

0º

140º
0º
107º
90º
0º
0º
26º

h
2γ cos
h= ρgr .

r
ρ
 1050 kg/m 3
20.0º C

2γ cos
h= ρgr
r

r
2γ cos 2(0.0728 N/m)cos(0º)
r = = ⎛
ρgh
⎝1050 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(100 m)
= 1.41×10 −7 m.

xylem 2.5×10 −5 m
100 m

does

fluids can push but can exert only negligible pull

can
P = −F / A

Maximum (systolic)
Minimum (diastolic)

While filling
When full

Esophagus
Stomach
Intestines
 (P = hρg)

ΔP = Δhρg = (1.4 m)⎛⎝1050 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = 1.4×10 4 Pa = 108 mm Hg.

ΔP = Δhρg = (1.4 m)⎛⎝1050 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠ = 1.4×10 4 Pa = 108 mm Hg.
 6.0 cm 2
F = PA F m2 1 m 2 = 10 4 cm 2

F = hρgA = ⎛⎝85.0×10 −3 m⎞⎠⎛⎝13.6×10 3 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠⎛⎝6.0×10 −4 m 2⎞⎠ = 6.8 N.

F = hρgA = ⎛⎝85.0×10 −3 m⎞⎠⎛⎝13.6×10 3 kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠⎛⎝6.0×10 −4 m 2⎞⎠ = 6.8 N.

 1.00 cm 2

P g = F / A = 3.00 N / (1.00×10 −4 m 2 ) = 3.00×10 4 N/m 2.

⎛1.0 mm Hg ⎞
P g = 3.0×10 4 N/m 2
⎝ 133 N/m 2 ⎠ = 226 mm Hg.

P = hρg h = P / ρg P

h= 3.0×10 4 N/m 2 = 3.06 m.

(1.00×10 3 kg/m 3)(9.80 m/s 2)
 −4 −8 mm Hg

500 cm 3

10 cm 2
P = F / A = (5000 N) / (10 −3 m 2 ) = 5.0×10 6 N/m 2
 ρ = m.
V
kg/m 3

P = F.
A
1 Pa = 1 N/m 2

mg A
mg
P= .
A
 P = hρg,
P h ρ g
not
 N/m 2

3.00×10 9 N/m 2 ?

89.0 cm 3

hρg N/m 2

3.00×10 5 N/m 2

1.10-cm 2

50.0 cm 2
N/m 2 1.00×10 6 Pa

10 3 kg/m 3
10 −5
15.0 cm 2.

7×10 8 m

1.50 cm 2
 square
F = ρgh 2L / 2
ρ h
L

h = 0.0500 m

(P = hρg)

25.0 cm

3.50×10 5 Pa

1000 kg/m 3

20.0%

0.750 g/mL 92.0%

995 kg/m 3

1027 kg/m 3
 45.0 g
3.60 g
F2 − F1
A
(h 2 − h 1)A
3.00%
5.00%

2.50×10 −4 m

2.00×10 −4
1.40×10 3 Pa

1015 kg/m 3

4.00% h

2.50×10 −5 m
h
955 kg/m 3
1050 kg/m 3

20.0º C

3.16×10 −3 N
 −2.00 mm Hg
+20.0 mm Hg

600 cm 2

20.0 cm 2
500 N
2
1.00 mm

50.0 cm 2
1.5×10 9 N/m 2

−3.00 cm

70.0 cm 2

90.0 cm 2
 F

P = −F / A

15.0 m/s

11.0 km
6.90×10 5 Pa
 Q

Q = Vt ,

V t
m 3 /s Q

10 −3 m 3 10 3 cm 3

A P
¯ ¯
t Ad v = d/t Q = Ad / t = A v

Q V

Q = V /t
V = Qt.

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ ⎞
V = ⎝5.00 L ⎠(75 y) 1 m 5 min
1 min ⎝10 3 L ⎠⎝5.26×10 y ⎠
= 2.0×10 5 m 3 .
 ¯
Q v
¯
Q = Av,
¯
A v

V = Ad,
P t t
V = Ad .
t t
¯ ¯
Q = V /t v = d/t Q = Av

⎫
Q1 = Q2 ⎬.
¯ ¯ ⎭
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2

m = ρV
 V1 V2
t1 = t2
ρV 1 ρV 2
t1 = t2
m1 m2
t1 = t2
⎛ Δm ⎞
⎝ Δt ⎠

¯
Q = Av v1 A = πr 2
¯ Q Q
v1 = = .
A 1 πr 2
1

¯ (0.500 L/s)(10 −3 m 3 / L)
v1 = = 1.96 m/s.
π(9.00×10 −3 m) 2

¯
v2

¯ ¯
A 1 v 1 = A 2 v 2,
¯
v2 πr 2

¯ A1 ¯ πr 2 ¯ r 2¯
v2 = v 1 = 12 v 1 = r 1 2 v 1.
A2 πr 2 2

¯ (0.900 cm) 2
v2 = 1.96 m/s = 25.5 m/s.
(0.250 cm) 2

⎛ Δm ⎞
⎝ Δt ⎠

m= ρV
 ˙ρV
Δm = m =
Δt t t = ρQ = ρAv

⎛d 1 ⎞
2
π⎝ π(0.275) 2 = 0.238 m 2
2⎠
A1 = =

A 2 = π(0.155) 2 = 0.0755 m 2

A A

A1 v1 = A2 v2

v2 =
⎛A1 ⎞
⎝ A 2 ⎠v 1 =
⎛ 0.238 ⎞
⎝0.0755 ⎠(1.8) = 5.7 m s
/
A
A

⎛Δm ⎞
⎝ Δt ⎠1 = ρA 1 v 1 = (880)(0.238)(1.8) = 380 kg s
/
⎛Δm ⎞
⎝ Δt ⎠2 = ρA 2 v 2 = (880)(0.75538)(5.7) = 380 kg s
/

square

sum

¯ ¯
n 1 A 1 v 1 = n 2 A 2 v 2,
n1 n2

8.0 µm
 ¯
Q = Av

¯ ¯ Q
Q = Av v =
πr 2

¯ (5.0 L/min)⎛⎝10 −3 m 3 /L⎞⎠(1 min/60 s)

v = = 0.27 m/s.
π(0.010 m) 2

¯ ¯
n 1 A 1 v 1 = n 2A 2 v 1 n2
¯
n1 A1 v 1
n2 = ¯
A2 v 2

2
(1)(π)⎛⎝10×10 −3 m⎞⎠ (0.27 m/s)
n2 = 2
= 5.0×10 9 capillaries.
(π)⎛⎝4.0×10 −6 m⎞⎠ ⎛⎝0.33×10 −3 m/s⎞⎠

mm 3
200×10 6 4×10 9

⎛d 1 ⎞
2
π⎝ π(0.006) 2 = 1.13 × 10 −4  m 2
2⎠
A1 = =

⎛d 2 ⎞
2
π⎝ π(0.0012) 2 = 4.52 × 10 −6  m 2
2⎠
A2 = =

v
A1 v1 = A2 v2
⎛A1 ⎞
v2 =
⎝ A 2 ⎠v 1

v2 =
⎛1.13×10 −4 ⎞
⎝4.52×10 −6 ⎠(0.004) = 0.10 m s /
Q1 = A 1 v 1 = ⎛⎝1.13×10 −4⎞⎠(0.004) = 4.52×10 −7 m 3 s /
Q2 = A2 v2 = ⎛ −6⎞
⎝4.52×10 ⎠(0.10) = 4.52×10 −7
m 3
/s
 ⎛4.52×10 −7 m 3 ⎞⎛10 6 mL ⎞
⎝ 1 s /
⎠⎝ 1 m 3 ⎠ = 0.452 mL s

W net = 1 mv 2 − 1 mv 20.
2 2

pressure will drop in a

rapidly-moving fluid

v2 v1 Pi Po
 P + 1 ρv 2 + ρgh = constant,
2
P ρ v h
g

P 1 + 1 ρv 21 + ρgh 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 +ρgh 2.
2 2

m ρ
ρ = m/V
1 2
1 ρv 2 = 2 mv = KE .
2 V V
1 ρv 2
2
mgh PE g
ρgh = = ,
V V
ρgh P
P = F/A N/m 2
N ⋅ m/m 3 = J/m 3

KE PE g

v1 = v2 = 0
P 1 + ρgh 1 = P 2 + ρgh 2.
h2 = 0

P 2 = P 1 + ρgh 1.

h1 P2 P1 ρgh 1 P1
P = ρgh P = ρgh ΔPE g = mgh.
ρgh

h1 = h2
 P 1 + 1 ρv 21 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 .
2 2

v2 v1 P2 P1

1.01×10 5 N/m 2

P1

P1

P 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 − 1 ρv 21 = P 2 + 1 ρ(v 22 − v 21).
2 2 2

P 1 = 1.01×10 5 N/m 2
+ 1 (10 3 kg/m 3)⎡⎣(25.5 m/s) 2 − (1.96 m/s) 2⎤⎦
2
= 4.24×10 5 N/m 2 .

v
P2

entrainment
P front P back

v1 = 0 v2
P1 + 1 ρv 2 = P2 + 1 ρv 2
2 1 2 2

P 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 .
2

P2 1 ρv 2 h
2 2

h ∝ 1 ρv 22.
2
∝ v2

v 2 ∝ h.
 v 1 ρv 2
2 2
h 1 ρv 2
2 2

P 1 + 1 ρv 21 + ρgh 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 + ρgh 2.
2 2
P1 P2 P1
P2

1 ρv 2 + ρgh = 1 ρv 2 + ρgh .
2 1 1 2 2 2

v 22 ρ

v 22 = v 21 + 2g(h 1 − h 2).

h = h1 − h2

v 22 = v 21 + 2gh

h h
Torricelli's theorem
h
 1.62×10 6 N/m 2

P 1 + 1 ρv 21 + ρgh 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 + ρgh 2,
2 2

v1 v2 Q = A 1v 1

Q −3 3
v1 = = 40.0×10 −2m /s2 = 12.4 m/s.
A 1 π(3.20×10 m)

v 2 = 56.6 m/s.
h1 P2

P 2 = P 1 + 1 ρ⎛⎝v 21 − v 22⎞⎠−ρgh 2.
2

P 2 = 1.62×10 6 N/m 2 + 1 (1000 kg/m 3)⎡⎣(12.4 m/s) 2 − (56.6 m/s) 2⎤⎦ − (1000 kg/m 3)(9.80 m/s 2)(10.0 m) = 0.
2

⎛d 1 ⎞
2
πr 12 = π⎝ π(0.005) 2 = 7.85×10 −5 m 2
2⎠
A1 = =
 ⎛d 2 ⎞
2
πr 22 = π⎝ π(0.0015) 2 = 7.07×10 −6 m 2
2⎠
A2 = =

1.0 atm = 101, 300 N/m 2

⎛Force ⎞
P 1 = 101, 300 +
⎝ A1 ⎠

P 1 = 101, 300 +
⎛ 2.2 N ⎞
⎝7.85x10 −5 m 2 ⎠ = 129, 300 N m
2
/
P 2 = 101, 300 N m 2 /
h1 = h2

P1 + 1 ρv 2 = P2 + 1 ρv 2
2 1 2 2

v1 ≈0

129, 300 + (0.500)(1000)(0) 2 = 101, 300 + (0.500)(1000)v 22

(129, 300 − 101, 300)
v 22 =
500
(129, 300 − 101, 300)
v 22 =
500
v 2 = 7.5 m/s

v1 =
⎛A2 ⎞
⎝A1 ⎠
⎛ −6 ⎞
v 2 = 7.07×10 −5 (7.5) = 0.17 m s
⎝7.85×10 ⎠ /
129, 300 + (0.500)(1000)(0.17) 2 = 101, 300 + (0.500)(1000)(7.5) 2
129, 300 + 14 = 101, 300 + 28, 000

1 ρv 2
K2 2 2 v 22
= =
K1 1 ρv 2 v 21
2 1

⎛d ⎞
2
v2 A2 π ⎝ 22 ⎠ d 22
v1 = A1
= =
⎛d ⎞
2
d 12
π ⎝ 21 ⎠

⎛d 2 ⎞ ⎛d 2 ⎞
2 4
⎛v 2 ⎞
K2 2
⎜ 2⎟ =
K1
= ⎝v 1 ⎠ =
⎝d 12 ⎠ ⎝d 1 ⎠
 d d
4
(6.7) ≈ 2000

rate

P + 1 ρv 2 + ρgh = constant.
2

(E / V)(V / t) = E / t
Q
⎛ 1 2 ⎞
⎝P + 2 ρv + ρgh⎠Q = power.

PQ
P 1 ρv 2 Q ρghQ
2

E/t

0.700×10 6 N/m 2

0.92×10 6 N/m 2 0.700×10 6 N/m 2 1.62×10 6 N/m 2

power = PQ
⎛
= ⎝0.920×10
6
N/m 2⎞⎠⎛⎝40.0×10 −3 m 3 /s⎞⎠.
= 3.68×10 4 W = 36.8 kW
viscosity

laminar

streamlines
 v

v
rate
A L

F v
F v
v F A
A F
L L
F the coefficient of viscosity

F = vA ,
L

= FL ,
vA
N ⋅ m/[(m/s)m 2 ] = (N/m 2)s or Pa ⋅ s

P2 − P1
Q= ,
R
P1 P2 R
R R
R R
R
 R r
l
8 l
R= .
πr 4

R
l
r

r fourth

2 4 = 16
P2 − P1 8 l
Q= R=
R πr 4
(P 2 − P 1)πr 4
Q= .
8 l

(P 2 − P 1)πr 4
Q= .
8 l
 Q1 Q2
= 4.
r 14 r2

Q 2 = 0.5Q 1 r 24 = 0.5r 41

r 2 = (0.5) 0.25r 1 = 0.841r 1

⎛
⎝P 2 − P 1⎞⎠
 η (mPa·s)
Gases

Liquids

(0.95) 4 = 0.81
 l r
Q P2 − P1
4
l r

0.120 cm 3 /s

20ºC

(P 2 − P 1)πr 4
Q= ,
8 l
P2 P1 P2

P2
8 l
P2 = Q + P 1.
πr 4
P1 1.066×10 3 N/m 2
⎡
8(1.00×10 −3 N ⋅ s/m 2)(2.50×10 −2 m) ⎤⎥
P2 = ⎢ (1.20×10 −7 m 3 /s) + 1.066×10 3 N/m 2
⎣ π(0.150×10 m)−3 4 ⎦
= 1.62×10 4 N/m 2 .

P1

P2 − P1
Q=
R

P 2 − P 1 = RQ,
P2 R
 Q P2 − P1 P1
P2 P 1 P 2 − P 1 = RQ

P1 P2
P2 ≈ P1

P 2 − P 1 = RQ

Q R
 1 cm 2
0.5 cm 2 10 cm 2
¯
Q = Av A
diameter = 1 cm 20µm

Korotkoff
sounds
 NR

2ρvr
NR = (fl w in tube),

ρ v r
NR NR NR
NR

1025 kg/m 3

¯
v v = Q / A = 1.70 m/s

2ρvr
NR =

2ρvr
NR =

2(1025 kg/m 3)(1.70 m/s)(0.150×10 −3 m)

=
1.00×10 −3 N ⋅ s/m 2
= 523.

NR

chaotic
chaos
 N′ R

ρvL
N′ R = (object in fluid)

L ρ v
N′ R
N′ R
turbulent wake
N′ R 10 6 N′ R
10 6

N′ R

ρvL
N′ R = N′ R

N′ R

ρvL (1.29 kg/m 3)(40.0 m/s)(0.0740 m)

N′ R = =
1.81×10 −5 1.00 Pa ⋅ s
= 2.11×10 5 .

FV

N′ R N′ R 10 6

N′ R 10 6
FV L v
 F S = 6πr v
R FS
F S = 6πR v.

N′ R
FV

F′ V N′ R N′ R
10 6

FV
 w FV
FB

x rms

x rms = 2Dt,
x rms D
D
2
m /s
 t

D
⎛ ⎞
H
⎝ 2⎠ 6.4×10 –5
⎛
O 2⎞⎠
⎝ 1.8×10 –5
⎛
O 2⎞⎠
⎝ 1.0×10 –9
⎛
⎝ C 6 H 12 O 6⎞⎠ 6.7×10 –10

6.9×10 –11

1.3×10 –12

D D
40 µm
10 10

1 mv 2
2

x rms = 2Dt t t

t
 2
x rms (0.010 m) 2
t = =
2D 2(6.7×10 −10 m 2 /s)
= 7.5×10 4 s = 21 h.

no
D

D
D

6.5×10 −9 10×10 −9
 ρgh
back pressure ρgh

ρgh
 P
pv pgh

P pv P pv

Q V t Q = V/t

Q P P πr ηl

R ηl πr

Q V t Q = Vt V t

m3
10 −3 m 3
¯ ¯
Q = Av A v
 Q1 = Q2 ⎫
⎪
A 1 v 1 = A 2 v 2 ⎬.
¯ ¯

¯ ⎪
n 1 A 1 v 1 = n 2 A 2 v 2⎭
¯

P 1 + 1 ρv 21 + ρgh 1 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22 + ρgh 2.
2 2
h

P 1 + 1 ρv 21 = P 2 + 1 ρv 22.
2 2

⎛ 1 2 ⎞
⎝P 1 + 2 ρv + ρgh⎠Q = power,

(N/m 2)s Pa ⋅ s

P2 − P1
Q= .
R

8 l
R= .
πr 4

(P 2 − P 1)πr 4
Q= .
8 l

P 2 − P 1 = RQ.

NR
2ρvr
NR = .
NR NR NR

ρvL
N′ R = (object in fluid)

N′ R
N′ R 10 6

x rms
 x rms = 2Dt,
D

Po Po
Pi
5º C 25º C
 5000 m 3 /s
cm 3 /s

2.00×10 –6-m
3.80×10 9 cm 3 /s
cm 3 /s
m 3 /s
90.0 cm 3 /s

cm 3 /s

1.00 cm 2

0.400 cm 2 100,000 m 3 /s

10.0 cm 2

10.0 µm
h
9
1×10
8 µm
 1.29 kg/m 3

220 m 2 1.14 kg/m 3

8.89×10 4 N/m 2

83.0 cm 3 /s

1.29 kg/m 3

3.00×10 5 N/m 2

v
⎛2ρ′gh ⎞
1/2
v=⎝ ρ ⎠ ,

h ρ′
ρ 20º C
g
2.50×10 −2 m 2
v h
v 6.00×10 −5 m
h

20º C
8.00 cm 2

4.00 cm 3 /min
3
650 m /s

1.1×10 −3 m
2.5×10 −5 m

37º C
100 cm 3 /s

1.62×10 4 N/m 2

and

3.00×10 5 N/m 2

F s = 6πr v
2R 2 g 5.00×10 5 N/m 2
v= (ρ s − ρ 1),
9
R ρs
ρ1

900 kg/m 3 1.00 (N/m 2 ) ⋅ s

1.00 Pa ⋅ s

F D = 1 ρAv 2 8.00×10 6 N/m 2

2

vt

5.50×10 −4 N
6.00 cm 2
 3.00×10 –2 m 3 /s
1.00×10 –3 (N/m 2 ) ⋅ s
680 kg/m 3

900 kg/m 3
1.00 (N/m 2 ) ⋅ s 1.00 Pa ⋅ s
NR

1.005×10 –3 ⎛⎝N / m 2⎞⎠ ⋅ s

1.62×10 6 N/m 2

D
–6 2
1.00×10 m /s
8.00×10 6 N/m 2
D
48.0 (N/m 2) · s
2300 kg/m 3

20º C
0.500 cm 3
37º C 1.00 cm 2

1025 kg / m 3

10 −2 m
 P T V
PV nRT

feel
95ºF 95ºF
96.8ºF

centigrade 0ºC
100ºC (ºC)
32ºF 212ºF
(ºF)
 180 / 100 = 9 / 5.
absolute temperature
kelvin

T(ºF) = 9 T(ºC) + 32 T ºF = 9 T ºC + 32
5 5

T(ºC) = 5 ⎛⎝T(ºF) − 32⎞⎠ T ºC = 5 ⎛⎝T ºF − 32⎞⎠

9 9
T(K) = T(ºC) + 273.15 T K = T ºC + 273.15

T(ºC) = T(K) − 273.15 T ºC = T K − 273.15

T(K) = 5 ⎛⎝T(ºF) − 32⎞⎠ + 273.15 T K = 5 ⎛⎝T ºF − 32⎞⎠ + 273.15

9 9

T(ºF) = 9 ⎛⎝T(K) − 273.15⎞⎠ + 32 T ºF = 9 ⎛⎝T K − 273.15⎞⎠ + 32

5 5

25ºC ºF

ºC ºF

T ºF = 9 T ºC + 32.
5
 T ºF = 9 25ºC + 32 = 77ºF.
5

ºC
T K = T ºC + 273.15.

T K = 25ºC + 273.15 = 298 K.

0ºR 80ºR 25ºC

80ºR 100ºC
100ºC = 80ºR 0º

T ºR = 0.8ºR × T ºC.
ºC

T ºR = 0.8ºR × 25ºC = 20ºR.

ºC

24ºC 44ºC (75ºF 111ºF

37.0ºC 98.6ºF
 4.5×10 –10 K
1.0×10 –10 K
(–89ºC)
 –273.15ºC absolute
zero
–273.15ºC
 own

thermal contact

does

zeroth law

intensive
 ΔL L

ΔL = LΔT,
ΔL L ΔT

1 / ºC
ΔT
ΔL = LΔT
 20ºC

(1 / ºC) (1 / ºC)

25×10 –6 75×10 –6

19×10 –6 56×10 –6

17×10 –6 51×10 –6

14×10 –6 42×10 –6

12×10 –6 35×10 –6

0.9×10 –6 2.7×10 –6

29×10 –6 87×10 –6

18×10 –6 54×10 –6

9×10 –6 27×10 –6

3×10 –6 9×10 –6

0.4×10 –6 1×10 –6

~12×10 –6 ~36×10 –6

2.5×10 –6 7.5×10 –6

1650×10 –6

1100×10 –6

950×10 –6

500×10 –6

180×10 –6

210×10 –6

3400×10 –6

–15ºC 40ºC

ΔL = LΔT ΔL
ΔT 55ºC

ΔL
 ⎛ −6 ⎞
ΔL = LΔT = 12×10
⎝ ºC ⎠(1275 m)(55ºC) = 0.84 m.

ΔA
ΔA = 2 AΔT,
ΔA A ΔT

ΔV ΔV = 3 VΔT
ΔV = VΔT,
≈ 3α
3α

decreases 4ºC(40ºF)
decreasing +4ºC 0ºC (40ºF 32ºF) +4ºC

4ºC
4ºC
4ºC

4ºC
+4ºC 0.0075% 2ºC 0.012% 0ºC

15.0ºC 35.0ºC

ΔV s = sV s ΔT.
 ΔV gas = gasV gas ΔT.

V spill = ΔV gas − ΔV s.

⎛ ⎞
V spill = ⎝ gas − s⎠VΔT
⎡
= ⎣(950 − 35)×10 −6 / ºC⎤⎦(60.0 L)(20.0ºC)
= 1.10 L.

15.0ºC 35.0ºC B
9 2
1.00×10 N/m

ΔV

ΔV = 1 F V 0 ,
BA
F/A V0 B
ΔV

P = F = ΔV B.
A V0

B = 1.00×10 9 N/m 2
ΔV = 1.10 L V 0 = 60.0 L

P = 1.10 L ⎛⎝1.00×10 9 Pa⎞⎠ = 1.83×10 7 Pa.

60.0 L

2500 lb/in 2 much

 l×w×h = L×2L×L
2L×2L×2L
l×w h

L×2L×L = 2L 3.
2L×2L×2L = 8L 3,

L×2L = 2L 2,
2L×2L = 4L 2.
 N2 O2

largest

same
 PV = NkT,
P V N
T k

k = 1.38×10 −23 J / K.

PV
V
N

P V
N PV = NkT
the number N of atoms and molecules

7.00×10 5 Pa
90.0 lb/in 2 18.0ºC 35.0ºC

P 0 = 7.00×10 5 Pa T 0 = 18.0ºC
T f = 35.0ºC Pf PV = NkT
V N
P 0 V 0 = NkT 0 P f V f = NkT f Pf Vf P0 V0
Pf
Pf Vf N kT
= f f
P 0 V 0 N 0 kT 0
 Vf V0 Nf N0 k

Pf T
= f.
P0 T0
Pf
Tf
Pf = P0 ,
T0
T0 Tf

T 0 = (18.0 + 273)K = 291 K

T f = (35.0 + 273)K = 308 K

Tf ⎛ ⎞
Pf = P0 = 7.00×10 5 Pa⎝308 K ⎠ = 7.41×10 5 Pa
T0 291 K

absolute absolute

0ºC

PV = NkT N

T = 0ºC = 273 K
P = 1.01×10 5 Pa
V = 1.00 m 3
k = 1.38×10 −23 J/K
N
N
PV = NkT
N = PV
kT
N
 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 3⎞
⎝1.01×10 Pa⎠⎝1.00 m ⎠
N = PV = ⎛ ⎞
= 2.68×10 25 molecules
kT 1.38×10 −23
J/K (273 K)
⎝ ⎠

N
3 19
1 cm 2.68×10 N

(N A)

N A = 6.02×10 23 mol −1 .

6.02×10 23

N A = 6.02×10 23 mol −1

(C 8 H 9 NO 2)

(8 moles of carbon)(12 grams/mole) + (9 moles hydrogen)(1 gram/mole)

+(1 mole nitrogen)(14 grams/mole) + (2 moles oxygen)(16 grams/mole) = 151 g

⎛ 325 mg ⎞⎛ 1 gram ⎞ −3
⎝151 grams/mole ⎠⎝1000 mg ⎠ = 2.15×10 moles

N = ⎛⎝2.15×10 −3 moles⎞⎠⎛⎝6.02×10 23 molecules/mole⎞⎠ = 1.30×10 21 molecules

 1.00 m 3

2.68×10 25
n
25 3
n mol/m 3 = N molecules/m 3 = 2.68×1023 molecules/m = 44.5 mol/m 3 .
23
6.02×10 molecules/mol 6.02×10 molecules/mol

⎛ 3
⎝10 L/m 3⎞⎠
= 22.5 L/mol.
44.5 mol/m 3

N2 O2 M = 28.8 g.
5 m×5 m×3 m,

(P = 1 atm T = 20ºC) 1.28 kg/m 3

0.64 kg/m 3

PV = NkT

P f = 0.50 atm.

n
N
PV = NkT,
NA

PV = N N A kT.
NA
n = N / NA R = N Ak

PV = nRT.
R
R = N Ak = ⎛⎝6.02×10 23 mol −1⎞⎠⎛⎝1.38×10 −23 J/K⎞⎠ = 8.31 J / mol ⋅ K.
 R = 1.99 cal/mol ⋅ K
R = 0.0821 L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K.
R

2.00×10 – 3 m 3(2.00 L), 7.00×10 5 Pa

90.0 lb/in 2 18.0ºC

PV = nRT n

P = 7.00×10 5 Pa
V = 2.00×10 −3 m 3
T = 18.0ºC = 291 K
R = 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K
n
⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ −3 3⎞
PV ⎝7.00×10 Pa⎠⎝2.00×10 m ⎠
n = =
RT (8.31 J/mol ⋅ K)(291 K)
= 0.579 mol

R 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K,

PV = NkT NkT N
T
PV

m3 N
n
 PV = NkT N
PV = nRT n
 PV = 1 Nmv 2,
3
P V N

m v2

PV = NkT.

PV = 1 Nmv 2
3

1 Nmv 2 = NkT.
3
 x y z

x –mv x +mv x
Δmv = +mv x –(–mv x ) = 2mv x
Δp 2mv x
F= = .
Δt Δt

Δt

2l) vx Δt = 2l / v x

2mv x mv 2x
F= = .
2l / v x l
one N

mv 2x
F=N ,
l
v
x

v 2 = v 2x + v 2y + v 2z .

v 2x = v 2y = v 2z .

v 2 = 3v 2x,

v 2x = 1 v 2.
3
 1v2 F
3

2
F = N mv .
3l
F / A,

2 2
P = F = N mv = 1 Nmv ,
A 3Al 3 V
V = Al

PV = 1 Nmv 2
3

1 mv 2 N
2

KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

KE KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

v 2 = v rms = 3kT
m ,
v rms

20.0ºC
(N 2)

KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

T = (20.0 + 273) K = 293 K.

KE = 3 kT = 3 ⎛⎝1.38×10 −23 J/K⎞⎠(293 K) = 6.07×10 −21 J.

2 2
 v 2 = v rms = 3kT
m ,
N2

2(14.0067)×10 −3 kg/mol
m= = 4.65×10 −26 kg.
6.02×10 23 mol −1

k v rms

3kT 3⎛⎝1.38×10 –23 J/K⎞⎠(293 K)

v rms = m = = 511 m/s.
4.65×10 –26 kg

mean free path

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

vp
v rms
 vp v rms
v rms

escape velocity

v
T m

m= molar mass .
number of atoms per mole
 T

KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

v 2 = v rms = 3kT
m

2
T = mv ,
3k
k m

molar mass 4.0026×10 −3 kg/mol

m= = = 6.65×10 −27 kg
number of atoms per mole 23
6.02×10 mol
2
⎛
⎝6.65×10
−27
kg⎞⎠⎛⎝11.1×10 3 m/s⎞⎠
T= = 1.98×10 4 K
3⎛⎝1.38×10 −23 J/K⎞⎠

(–25ºC –10ºF)
– 273.15ºC
 – 78ºC CO 2
(LN 2) LN 2
(–196ºC) LN 2

LN 2

PV
PV

PV = NkT (ideal gas).

PV = constant (ideal gas, constant temperature).

PV = constant
PV
isotherms

31.0ºC

PV P V
PV
 K ºC Pa atm

22.12×10 6

7.88×10 6

11.28×10 6

7.39×10 6

5.08×10 6

3.39×10 6

1.30×10 6

0.229×10 6

PT

100ºC 374ºC

100ºC critical point

– 118ºC

PT

0ºC
 CO 2

(0.01ºC)
(0.0ºC)

K ºC Pa atm

6.10×10 2

5.16×10 5

1.67×10 3

6.06×10 3

1.25×10 4

1.52×10 2

7.04×10 3

100ºC
100ºC

100ºC
20.0ºC

20.0ºC
 0ºC

the total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of the component gases
 (ºC)

1.04×10 2

2.60×10 2

6.10×10 2

8.68×10 2

1.19×10 3

1.69×10 3

2.33×10 3

3.17×10 3

4.24×10 3

6.31×10 3

7.34×10 3

1.23×10 4

1.99×10 4

3.12×10 4

4.73×10 4

7.01×10 4

8.59×10 4

1.01×10 5

1.99×10 5

4.76×10 5

1.55×10 6

2.32×10 6

20.0ºC 2.33×10 3 Pa.

g / m3

PV = nRT,
n n/V
 T = 20ºC=293 K
P 20ºC 2.33×10 3 Pa
18.0 g/mol
n/V
n = P
V RT
n/V

n = P = 2.33×10 3 Pa = 0.957 mol/m 3

V RT (8.31 J/mol ⋅ K)(293 K)

⎛ ⎞⎛18.0 g ⎞
ρ = 0.957 mol
⎝ m 3 ⎠⎝ mol ⎠
= 17.2 g/m 3

20.0ºC
3
17.2 g/m 20.0ºC
2.33×10 3 Pa,

m3 20.0ºC

vapor density
percent relative humidity = ×100
saturation vapor density

25.0ºC
3
m
25.0ºC – 10.0ºC

vapor density
percent relative humidity = ×100
saturation vapor density

9.40 g/m 3 23.0 g/m 3

9.40 g/m 3
percent relative humidity = ×100 = 40.9.%
23.0 g/m 3
 9.40 g/m 3 9.40 g/m 3
10.0ºC

– 10.0ºC
3
2.36 g/m – 10.0ºC 25.0ºC
23.0 g/m 3 25.0ºC

2.36 g/m 3
percent relative humidity = ×100 = 10.3%.
23.0 g/m 3

10.0ºC – 10.0ºC

0ºC

100ºC 100ºC 1.01×10 5 Pa

20ºC

100ºC

20ºC
100ºC
NA N A = 6.02×10 23

k k = 1.38×10 –23 J/K

0ºC 100ºC

1ºC

1ºC

32ºF 212ºF
 KE

T ºF = 9 T ºC + 32
5
5
T ºC = ⎛⎝T ºF − 32⎞⎠
9
T K = T ºC + 273.15
T ºC = T K − 273.15

ΔL = LΔT,
ΔL L ΔT

ΔA = 2 AΔT,
ΔA

ΔV = VΔT,
≈ 3α
 PV = NkT,
P V T N k
k = 1.38×10 –23 J/K.
NA

N A = 6.02×10 23 mol −1.

PV = nRT,
n R
R = 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K.

PV = 1 Nmv 2,
3
P V N

m v2
KE

KE = 1 mv 2 = 3 kT
2 2

v 2 = v rms = 3kT
m .
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

vapor density
percent relative humidity = ×100.
saturation vapor density
 down

shrink
 – 78.5ºC

– 78.5ºC
20ºC

1.01×10 5 N/m 2

40.0ºC
 1.00ºC.
39.0ºC

28.0ºF 15.0ºC
35.0ºC,

68.0ºF 78.0ºF
0ºC
22.0ºC

5.00ºC,
22.0ºC
134ºF

10.0ºC.
95.0ºC
40.0ºF
= 400×10 – 6 / ºC

95.0ºC.

350 cm 3

35.0ºC 95.0ºC 45.0ºC.

–10.0ºC
0ºC
3
1000 kg/m 999.84 kg/m 3
15ºC 0ºC 917 kg/m 3

37.0ºC 40.0ºC

≈ 3α,
35.0ºC ΔV L.

20 m × 30 m.
2.50×10 5 N/m 2 35.0ºC

20ºC
– 40.0ºC
 7.00×10 5 N/m 2 7.00×10 5 N/m 2
lb/in 2 . 18.0ºC
90.0 lb/in 2
100 cm 3

20.0ºC 1.40×10 7 N/m 2

60.0ºC 25.0ºC
(–78.5ºC)

10.0ºC
– 50.0ºC 35.0ºC
7 2
7.41×10 N/m
nRT
R 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K
1.99 cal/mol ⋅ K 0.0821 L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K

N / V = 2.68×10 25 m −3
25.0ºC

N / V = 2.68×10 19 cm −3 ,
µm 3 25.0ºC
25.0ºC

10 6 atoms/m 3 ,
37.0ºC m3

100 cm 3

7.50×10 4 N/m 2 ?

km 3 v rms

(v rms)
v rms

1.00×10 – 7 N/m 2 20ºC

5500ºC
11 −3
1.00×10 m ,
– 10 2
2.75×10 N/m 6.00×10 5 K

v rms
 70.0ºC?
v rms
80.0ºC

25.0ºC
3
18.0 g/m
6.40×10 – 14 J g/m 3
(v rms) 40.0ºC

1.05×10 5 m/s

v rms 1.01×10 5 N/m 2

2.00×10 6 N/m 2
1.5×10 7 K
v rms
40.0ºC
3 2
7.34×10 N/m
235
U
g/m 3
238
U
235
U
(51.1 g/m 3).
37.0ºC
v rms UF 6 3
44.0 g/m
235 238
U UF 6 U UF 6

6.31×10 3 N/m 2

20.0ºC
30.0ºC

1.01×10 5 N/m 2
20.0ºC
20.0ºC
10.0ºC
20.0ºC

20.0ºC 1.20 kg/m 3 3.30×10 4 N/m 2

120.0ºC 1.01×10 5 N/m 2 ?

8.59×10 4 N/m 2 ? 20.0ºC

7.00×10 4 N/m 2 ?
 25.0ºC

15.0ºC

150ºC

0ºC

95.0ºC

150ºC

1.00×10 14 N/m 2 0ºC

22.0ºC

2.00×10 13 K v rms

30.0ºC
25.0ºC
 P
T

two
 T T

T T
rms T T

rms
rms
rms
 joule calorie
1.00ºC 14.5ºC 15.5ºC

1.00ºC

1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories

 T1 T2
T′

v̄
1 m v̄ 2
2

2( 12 m v̄ 2)
T= ,
3k
k k = 1.38×10 −23 J/K

the work needed to produce the same effects as heat transfer

1.000 kcal = 4186 J.

 Q

Q ΔT

Q = mcΔT,
Q m ΔT
c
1.00ºC c
J/(kg ⋅ K) J/(kg⋅ºC). (ΔT)
the unit of specific heat kcal/(kg⋅ºC).

20.0ºC 80.0ºC
 ΔT = T f − T i = 60.0ºC.
1000 kg/m 3
m w = 0.250 kg

Q w = m wc w ΔT = ⎛⎝0.250 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝4186 J/kgºC⎞⎠(60.0ºC) = 62.8 kJ.

Q Al = m Alc Al ΔT = ⎛⎝0.500 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝900 J/kgºC⎞⎠(60.0ºC)= 27.0 × 10 4 J = 27.0 kJ.

Q Total = Q W + Q Al = 62.8 kJ + 27.0 kJ = 89.8 kJ.

27.0 kJ ×100% = 30.1%,

89.8 kJ

62.8 kJ ×100% = 69.9%.

89.8 kJ
 800 J/kg ⋅ ºC

(Mgh)

Mgh = ⎛⎝10,000 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠(75.0 m) = 7.35×10 6 J.

Q=Mgh
Q
ΔT = mc ,
m m = 100 kg c = 800 J/kg ⋅ ºC
⎛
⎝7.35×10
6
J⎞⎠
ΔT = ⎛ = 92ºC.
⎝100 kg 800 J/kgºC⎞⎠
⎞⎛
⎠⎝
 c
⋅ ⋅

Liquids

Gases

20.0ºC
150ºC

∣ Q hot ∣ = Q cold

25ºC
cal/g⋅ºC
cv 20.0ºC cp
 Q = mcΔT

Q hot = m Alc Al⎛⎝T f − 150ºC⎞⎠.

Q cold = m Wc W⎛⎝T f − 20.0ºC⎞⎠.

Q hot < 0 Q cold > 0

Q cold +Q hot = 0,
Q cold = –Q hot,
m W c W ⎛⎝T f − 20.0ºC⎞⎠ = −m Al c Al⎛⎝T f − 150ºC.⎞⎠
Tf
Tf Tf
m c (150ºC) + m c (20.0ºC)
T f = Al Al m c + mW cW ,
Al Al W W

⎛
0.500 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝900 J/kgºC⎞⎠(150ºC)+⎛⎝0.250 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝4186 J/kgºC⎞⎠(20.0ºC)
⎝
Tf = ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
⎝0.500 kg⎠⎝900 J/kgºC⎠ + ⎝0.250 kg⎠⎝4186 J/kgºC⎠

= 88430 J
1496.5 J/ºC
= 59.1ºC.

calorimetry
20.0ºC
150ºC

50%

25ºC 30ºC
45ºC 50ºC
 0ºC 0ºC

Q m
Q = mL f (melting/freezing),
Q = mL v (vaporization/condensation),
Lf Lv
 Lf Lv
Lf Lv latent

Lf Lv

0ºC 0°C
Q = mL f = (1.0 kg)(334 kJ/kg) = 334 kJ

0ºC 79.8ºC
100ºC
 Lf Lv

35.0ºC

−20ºC
0.50 cal/g⋅ºC 0ºC

0ºC
1.00 cal/g⋅ºC 100ºC

0.482 cal/g⋅ºC

37.0ºC Lv
37.0ºC Lv
 0ºC
100ºC

100ºC 100ºC

100ºC

20ºC m soda = 0.25 kg 0ºC

0ºC

0ºC

Q ice = −Q soda.
Q ice = m iceL f + m icec W(T f − 0ºC)
Q soda = m soda c W(T f − 20ºC) Q ice = −Q soda

m ice L f + m icec W ⎛⎝T f − 0ºC⎞⎠ = - m sodac W⎛⎝T f − 20ºC⎞⎠.

Tf
Tf
m soda c W (20ºC) − m iceL f
Tf = .
(m soda + m ice)c W

m ice = 3×6.0 g = 0.018 kg

m soda = 0.25 kg

m soda c W (20ºC) = ⎛⎝0.25 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝4186 J/kg⋅ºC⎞⎠(20ºC) = 20,930 J

 m ice L f = ⎛⎝0.018 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝334,000 J/kg⎞⎠=6012 J.

(m soda + m ice)c W = ⎛⎝0.25 kg + 0.018 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝4186 K/(kg⋅ºC⎞⎠=1122 J/ºC.

T f = 20,930 J − 6012 J = 13ºC.

1122 J/ºC

−6ºC

Q = mL v

(0ºC)
 0ºC

Q = mL s Ls
Ls Lf Lv
Examine the situation to determine that there is a change in the temperature or phase. Is there heat transfer into or out of
the system?

Identify and list all objects that change temperature and phase.
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).
Make a list of what is given or what can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).
Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown).

Substitute the knowns along with their units into the appropriate equation and obtain numerical solutions complete with
units.

Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

0ºC
cocoa
 ΔΤ = Τ hot − T cold

T2 T1
 T2 T1 T2 T1
A T2 − T1 k
d

Q kA(T 2 − T 1)
t = d
,

Q/t k A
d (T 2 − T 1)

0.950 m 2
0ºC
35.0ºC

A = 0.950 m 2 ; d = 2.50 cm = 0.0250 m; T 1 = 0ºC; T 2 = 35.0ºC, t = 1 day = 24 hours = 86,400 s.

m
Q

Q kA(T 2 − T 1)
t = d
.

Q = mL f .

⎛ 2⎞
Q (0.010 J/s ⋅ m⋅ºC)⎝0.950 m ⎠(35.0ºC − 0ºC)
t = = 13.3 J/s.
0.0250 m
1 day = 86,400 s
 Q = ⎛⎝Q / t⎞⎠t = (13.3 J/s)(86,400 s) = 1.15×10 6 J.
Q = mL f m

Q 6
m= = 1.15×10 J = 3.44kg.
L f 334 ×10 3 J/kg

k (J/s⋅m⋅ºC)

k
d d/k d/k R
R R
R

R
R
 Q⎛ ⎞
T 2 − T 1 = t ⎝ d ⎠.
kA

d = 0.800 cm = 8.0×10 −3 m,
A = π(0.14 / 2) 2 m 2 = 1.54×10 −2 m 2 k = 220 J/s ⋅ m⋅°C.

Q = mL v = ⎛⎝1.00×10 −3 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝2256×10 3 J/kg⎞⎠ = 2256 J.

Q / t = 2256 J/s or 2.26 kW.

Q⎛ ⎞ 8.00 × 10 −3m
T 2 − T 1 = t ⎝ d ⎠ = (2256 J/s) = 5.33ºC.
kA (220 J/s ⋅ m⋅ºC)⎛1.54×10 −2 m 2⎞
⎝ ⎠

Q / t = 2.26kW or 2256 J/s

100ºC
⎛
⎝A fina = (2d) 2 = 4d 2 = 4A initial⎞⎠

⎛Q ⎞ kA fina ⎛⎝T 2 − T 1⎞⎠ k⎛⎝4A initial⎞⎠⎛⎝T 2 − T 1⎞⎠ kA initial⎛⎝T 2 − T 1⎞⎠ ⎛Q ⎞

⎝ t ⎠fina =
d fina
=
2d initial
= 2
d initial
= 2⎝ t ⎠initial.

A d

T (T 1 = 0° C)

t
m
Lf
d(mL f )
k= , k
tA(T 2 − T 1)
 12.0m×18.0m×3.00m
10.0ºC

Q = mcΔT Q/t t
ΔT 10.0ºC
Q
c = c p ≅ 1000 J/kg⋅ºC

m = ρV = ⎛⎝1.29 kg/m 3⎞⎠(12.0 m×18.0 m×3.00 m) = 836 kg.

Q = mcΔT

Q = ⎛⎝836 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝1000 J/kg⋅ºC⎞⎠(10.0ºC)= 8.36×10 6 J.

Q t
t = 0.500 h = 1800 s
Q 8.36×10 6 J
t = 1800 s = 4.64 kW.

0ºC
−18ºC
(ºC) 2 5 10 15 20
5 3 −1 −8 −10 −12
2 0 −7 −12 −16 −18
0 −2 −9 −15 −18 −20
−5 −7 −15 −22 −26 −29
−10 −12 −21 −29 −34 −36
−20 −23 −34 −44 −50 −52
−40 −44 −59 −73 −82 −84

when convection is accompanied by a phase change

Q = mL v
Q mL v
t = t = 120 W = 120 J/s.
Lv
 m = 120 J/s .
t Lv

L v = 2430 kJ/kg = 2430 J/g

m = 120 J/s = 0.0494 g/s = 2.96 g/min.
t 2430 J/g
ideal radiator ideal absorber
 Q 4
t = σeAT ,
σ = 5.67×10 −8 J/s ⋅ m 2 ⋅ K 4 A T
e
e=1 e=0
e 0.5
0.99
fourth power
 T4
thermographs

net
T1
T2
Q net ⎛ 4 4⎞
t = σeA⎝T 2 − T 1 ⎠,
e
T2 > T1
Q net / t

22.0ºC 33.0ºC 1.50 m 2

T 2 = 295 K T 1 = 306 K
Q ⎛ 4 4⎞
t =σeA⎝T 2 − T 1 ⎠
=⎛
⎝5.67×10
−8
J/s ⋅ m 2 ⋅ K 4⎞⎠(0.97)⎛⎝1.50 m 2⎞⎠⎡⎣(295 K) 4 − (306 K) 4⎤⎦
= −99 J/s = −99 W.
 e

CO 2 H2 O
40ºC
 3K(−454ºF)

T 1 = 20ºC
T 2 = 40ºC

absolute temperature T 1 = 293 K T 2 = 313 K

Examine the situation to determine what type of heat transfer is involved.

Identify the type(s) of heat transfer—conduction, convection, or radiation.
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns). A written list is very useful.
Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).
Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown).
Q kA(T 2 − T 1)
t = d
Q = mcΔT
Q = mL f Q = mL v

Q net ⎛ 4 4⎞
t = σeA⎝T 2 − T 1 ⎠
Insert the knowns along with their units into the appropriate equation and obtain numerical solutions complete with
units.
Check the answer to see if it is reasonable. Does it make sense?
 1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories

Q net ⎛ 4 4⎞
t = σeA⎝T 2 − T 1 ⎠

Q 4
t = σeAT , σ A
T e

14.5ºC
15.5ºC
1.00 kcal = 4186 J.

Q ΔT m Q = mcΔT c

Q = mL,
L
 Q/t T2 − T1
A d
⎛ ⎞
Q kA⎝T 2 − T 1⎠
t = d
.

Convection that occurs along with a phase change

Q 4
t = σeAT ,
σ = 5.67×10 −8 J/s ⋅ m 2 ⋅ K 4 e
e=1 e=0 e

Q net ⎛ 4 4⎞
t = σeA⎝T 2 − T 1 ⎠
T1 T2 e
object

ΔT v
ΔT

0ºC

0ºC 0ºC

35ºC(95ºF)
40.0ºC
 1.50ºC (1 watt = 1 joule/second or 1 W = 1 J/s and 1 MW = 1 megawatt)

(ºC/s)
1 cal/g ⋅ ºC = 1 kcal/kg ⋅ ºC
1.60×10 5 kg
0.3349 kJ/kgº ⋅ C
22.0ºC 95.0ºC
2000ºC

20.0ºC
5×10 5-kg

20.0ºC
65.0ºC

54.9ºC

40.0ºC

37.0ºC
⎛
1 watt = 1 joule/second or 1 W = 1 J/s ⎞⎠
⎝
0ºC
0ºC

0ºC

0ºC
30.0ºC?

0ºC
 0ºC
30.0ºC

1 watt = 1 joule/second (1 W = 1 J/s)

3.35 kJ/kg⋅ºC

25.0ºC

0ºC
0ºC
1 watt = 1 joule/second (1 W = 1 J/s) −30.0ºC
35.0ºC

1.50ºC
20.0ºC
−15.0ºC

−20.0ºC
130ºC
500ºC 15.0ºC
100ºC

917 kg/m 3

100 W/m 2

808 kg/m 3
95.0ºC
45.0ºC
3.00ºC cp

2.80×10 7 J
0ºC

20.0ºC 100ºC
300ºC
25.0ºC
 −1.00ºC
37.0ºC
2.00 m 2
120 m 2
18.0ºC
5.00ºC

3.00-m 2
0.635 cm
5.00ºC −10.0ºC

37.0ºC
34.0ºC
1.00 cm
10.0 m 2
1.40 m 2

2.00 m 2
80.0 cm 2
10.0ºC

33.0ºC

1.40 m 2

300 kg/m 3 25.0 cm 2

700ºC

25.0 cm 3

1.50-m 2

1.40-m 2 15.0ºC
−10.0ºC
32.0ºC −5.00ºC
 5×10 5 m 3 1200ºC

2700 kg/m 3
30ºC

ΔT
15.0ºC

2.00ºC 1.50 m 2

−10ºC
−29ºC

−5ºC
2.00ºC

90.0ºC 1050 kg/m 3

37.0ºC
−2
4.00×10 g
0.750ºC

1.00 kW/m 2 20.0ºC

500 m 3

10.0ºC
60.0ºC

275-m 2
30.0ºC
15.0ºC
 850ºC
2
0.200 m
18.0ºC
34.0ºC
33.0ºC

34.0ºC
20.0ºC
1.00 m 2 1200ºC 30.0ºC

110°C 50.0ºC
1.20-m 2

200 hp (1.5 kW)

10.0ºC −15.0ºC
2
1.60 m

50.0ºC
7.00×10 8-m
37.0ºC 3.80×10 26 W
1.50 m 2

1.50×10 11 m

1200ºC
450ºC 27.0ºC

1.00 m 2

450ºC
1200ºC

1000 W/m 2

27.0ºC
 34.0ºC
2.00ºC
0.400 m 2

34.0ºC

1.00 km 3
100ºC
30.0ºC 75.0%
1.00 km 3
20.0ºC

37ºC
37ºC

10 9 kg
80%

5.0ºC?

0ºC 50.0ºC 20.0ºC

3
20.0 kg 1.00 m 20.0ºC
50.0ºC

5.00ºC m 3 /s

20.0% 80.0%

1.00ºC 0ºC
 1.00 m 2
22.0ºC
35.0ºC

20.0ºC

m
d
A

T
thermodynamics
and the potential energy of the configuration of the objects that make up the system.

ferent rates. Power is defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out of, or within a system. [A piston filled with gas getting

Essential Knowledge 5.B.7 The first law of thermodynamics is a specific case of the law of conservation of energy involving the
 into by

ΔU = Q − W.
ΔU change in internal energy U Q net heat transferred into the system Q
W net work done by the system W
Q
W Q W
ΔU = Q − W

Q W ΔU

Q
Q into W W
by ΔU
ΔU = Q − W
Q W
Q W

ΔU
ΔU = Q − W.
ΔU = Q − W ΔU
U
not how it reached that state. U

U
 U1 U2
ΔU = U 2 − U 1 ΔU is independent
of path
ΔU = Q − W Q W depend on path ΔU
U

⎛
ΔU = Q − W ⎞⎠
⎝

Q = 40.00 J − 25.00 J = 15.00 J.

W = 10.00 J − 4.00 J = 6.00 J.

 ΔU = Q − W = 15.00 J − 6.00 J = 9.00 J.

ΔU 1 = Q 1 − W 1 = 40.00 J − 10.00 J = 30.00 J.

ΔU 2 = Q 2 − W 2= - 25.00 J − ( − 4.00 J ) = –21.00 J.

ΔU = ΔU 1 + ΔU 2 = 30.00 J + (−21.00 J ) = 9.00 J.

Q = – 150.00 J W = – 159.00 J
ΔU = Q – W = – 150.00 J – ( − 159.00 J) = 9.00 J.

ΔU Q W
same

ΔU = Q − W = 9.00 J
 Q
W
ΔU = Q − W

metabolizes

lowercase
dietary
capital
kilogram

ΔU = 0
ΔU
ΔU

irreversible
 Q W

ΔU=Q−W

U
P V T

Q Q

W W
Q out = 0
PV

PΔV.
 PΔV

W = Fd
F = PA
W = PAd.
A d Ad = ΔV

W = PΔV (isobaric process).

ΔV W by

P inside
P ext against
W = −P extΔV

ΔU = Q + W
W = PΔV

PV
PV
PV the
work done on or by a system in going from one state to another equals the area under the curve on a PV diagram
 W = PΔV

PV

P i(ave) W i = P i(ave)ΔV i Wi

ΔV
PV the work done depends on the path taken and not just the endpoints

ΔV = 0

PV
 W
W

PV

PV

PV
W = PΔV
 W AB = P ABΔV AB
= (1.50×10 6 N/m 2)(5.00×10 –4 m 3 ) = 750 J.
ΔV BC = 0 W BC = 0 ΔV CD

W CD = P CDΔV CD
= (2.00×10 5 N/m 2)(–5.00×10 –4 m 3) = –100 J.
ΔV DA = 0 W DA = 0
W = W AB + W BC + W CD + W DA
= 750 J+0 + ( − 100J) + 0 = 650 J.

area = (P AB − P CD)ΔV
⎡
= ⎣(1.50×10
6
N/m 2 ) − (2.00×10 5 N/m 2)⎤⎦(5.00×10 −4 m 3)
= 650 J.

area = 650 J = W.

PV

W W W

PV

PV = nRT
T PV

1 m v̄ 2 = 3 kT.
2 2

U = N 1 m v̄ 2 = 3 NkT, (monatomic ideal gas),

2 2
N
ΔU = 0
ΔU = Q − W = 0 Q=W

Q=0

U = 3 NkT.
2
Q = 0, ΔU = – W

ΔT = 0 Q=0
 W = PΔV
W=0
Q=W
Q=0
 Qh Qc W
Th Tc

Qh
W Qc

W Qh Qc = 0

W Qh
Qc
U
ΔU = 0
ΔU = Q − W,
Q net Q = Qh − Qc W
ΔU = 0
0 = Q − W,

W = Q.

W = Q h − Q c (cyclical process),
Qc
conversion efficiency
W
Qh

= W.
Qh
W = Qh − Qc
Qh − Qc Q
= = 1 − c (cyclical process),
Qh Qh
Qc = 0
Q Qc

2.50×10 14 J
1.48×10 14 J
C + O 2 → CO 2

2.5×10 6 J CO 2

W = Qh − Qc W

W = Q h − Q c.

W = 2.50×10 14 J – 1.48×10 14 J
= 1.02×10 14 J.

= W Qh W
Qh

= W W 1.02 × 10 14 J Qh
Qh
14
= 1.02×10 14 J
2.50×10 J
= 0.408, or 40.8%

2.50×10 14 J
C + O 2 → CO 2
CO 2
 2.50×10 14 J = 1.0×10 8 kg.
2.50×10 6 J/kg

44 kg CO 2
1.0×10 8 kg coal× = 3.7×10 8 kg CO 2.
12 kg coal
CO 2

CO 2

Qh

Qc

PV
PV
 100ºF

Qc

Qc

PV

Qh − Qc Q
= = 1 − c.
Qh Qh
Qc / Qh
Qc / Qh = Tc / Th C

Tc
C =1− ,
Th
Th Tc

Tc = 0 K

all
Tc / Th

PV

PV Qh
Th Qc
Tc W
Th Tc

300ºC

27ºC
 Tc
=1−
C Th

300ºC 27.0ºC T h = 573 K

T c = 300 K
Tc
=1−
C Th.

C = 1 − 300 K
573 K
= 0.476, or 47.6%.
Qc Qh
 Qc W
Qh = Qc + W Qh Qc W
Qh

Qc
 W
Qh Qc PV
Qc
Qh

Qh = Qc + W
W Qc

Qc

Qc
 W

Qh
W
COP hp

Qh
COP hp = .
W
= W / Qh COP hp = 1 /
COP hp
Qh
C = 1 − ⎛⎝T c / T h⎞⎠
COP hp COP hp = 1 /

not

(W)
COP hp W' W
⎛ ⎞
W ⎝Q f ⎠ W Qh

COP

COP hp
45.0ºC
−15.0ºC

COP hp = 1 /
 Tc
C =1− .
Th
T h = 318 K T c = 258 K

C = 1 − 258 K = 0.1887.
318 K

COP hp = 1 = 1 = 5.30,
0.1887

Qh
COP hp = = 5.30,
W

Q h = 5.30 W.

COP hp
Qh W
W

reverse cycle” split-system cooler”

 Qc W

(COP ref )
Qc
COP ref = .
W
Qh = Qc + W
COP hp = Q h / W Qh Qc

COP ref = COP hp − 1

COP ref
COP hp

COP EER

EERs

EERs COPs
EERs EER

EER
Qc / t1
EER = ,
W / t2
Qc t1 W
t2

Examine the situation to determine whether heat, work, or internal energy are involved.

Identify the system of interest and draw a labeled diagram of the system showing energy flow.
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).

Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).
Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown).
Substitute the known quantities along with their units into the appropriate equation and obtain numerical solutions
complete with units.
Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

Qc / Qh = Tc / Th

Qc Qh
=
Tc Th
Qc Qh Tc Th
 Q/T ΔS
⎛Q ⎞
ΔS = ⎝ ⎠rev,
T
Q T

T
ΔS
ΔS ΔS
S U

ΔS
ΔS

ΔS

ΔS h = −Q h / T h Q
ΔS c = Q c / T c

ΔS tot = ΔS h + ΔS c.
Qh / Th = Qc / Tc
Qh Qc
ΔS tot =– + = 0.
Th Tc
the total change in entropy for a system in any reversible process is zero.

Reversible processes do not

affect the total entropy of the universe.

T h = 600 K(327º C) T c = 250 K(−23º C)

 ΔS tot = ΔS h + ΔS c

ΔS tot = ΔS h + ΔS c
−Q h −4000 J
ΔS h = = = – 6.67 J/K.
Th 600 K

−Q c 4000 J
ΔS c = = = 16.0 J/K.
Tc 250 K

ΔS tot = ΔS h + ΔS c
= ( – 6.67 +16.0) J/K
= 9.33 J/K.

increase

Q/T

There is an increase in entropy for any system undergoing an irreversible process.

The total entropy of a system either increases or remains constant in any process; it never decreases.

not

Tc
C =1− .
Th

C = 1 − 100 K = 0.833.
600 K

= W.
Qh
W
W = C Qh
= (0.833)(4000 J) = 3333 J.

Tc
′C = 1 − = 1 − 100 K = 0.600,
T′ c 250 K

W = ′ CQ h
= (0.600)(4000 J) = 2400 J.

un
 permanently

W unavail = ΔS ⋅ T 0,
T0
W unavail = (9.33 J/K)(100 K) = 933 J

seemed

heat death of the

universe
10 100
 0º C 0º C

ΔS Q

Q
ΔS = .
T
Q
Q = mL f,

m Lf L f = 334 kJ/kg

Q = (1.00 kg)(334 kJ/kg) = 3.34×10 5 J.

Q 3.34×10 5 J
ΔS = = .
T T
T T = 0ºC=273 K
5
ΔS = 3.34×10 J
273 K
= 1.22×10 3 J/K.

20.0º C 40.0º C 30.0º C

 always

ΔS tot = ΔS syst + ΔS envir > 0.

ΔS syst ΔS envir

ΔS syst
ΔS envir ΔS tot = ΔS syst + ΔS envir > 0
not
5 heads, 0 tails
4 heads, 1 tail
3 heads, 2 tails
2 heads, 3 tails
1 head, 4 tails
0 head, 5 tails
 W

1.0×10 2

7.5×10 7

1.7×10 13

2.4×10 23

1.4×10 28

6.1×10 28

9.9×10 28

1.0×10 29

9.9×10 28

6.1×10 28

1.4×10 28

2.4×10 23

1.7×10 13

7.5×10 7

1.0×10 2

1.27×10 30

1.0×10 29

1.27×10 30

2×10 22 10 12

1.0 cm 3
0º C 2.7×10 19
 S = klnW,

k = 1.38×10 −23 J/K lnW W

W

S ΔS = Q / T

can

W
ΔS = S f − S i = klnW f - klnW i
 ΔS = S f – S i = klnW f – klnW i,

ΔS = (1.38×10 – 23 J/K)[ln(1.0×10 29 ) – ln(1.4×10 28)]

= 2.7×10 – 23 J/K

– 2.7×10 – 23 J/K
ΔS = – 92×10 – 23 J/K 1 in 10 30

0ºC 0ºC 1.22×10 3 J/K

ΔS of 10 – 21 J/K 1 in 10 30 10 3 J/K utter

Examine the situation to determine if entropy is involved.

Identify the system of interest and draw a labeled diagram of the system showing energy flow.
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).
Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).

Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown).

Substitute the known value along with their units into the appropriate equation, and obtain numerical solutions
complete with units.
To see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?
 Q/T

into
by

ΔU = Q − W ΔU Q
W
 Q W ΔU
U

W
W

W = Qh – Qc Qh Qc

= W
Qh

Qh
COP hp =
W
 S = klnW,
–23
k = 1.38×10 J/K lnW W

Q W U
ΔU = 0
 PV
net

PV

Th Tc COP
less low
 1.3×10 8 J/gal 1.75×10 6 N/m 2

PΔV

1.80×10 8 J 7.50×10 8 J

2.40×10 5 N/m 2
4.50×10 5 J 3.00×10 6 J
8.00×10 6 J

6.00×10 2 kJ

450º C 150º C

0.0380 m 3
2.20×10 5 N/m 2
 2.50×10 14 J

200ºC

700ºC 27.0ºC

2.56×10 6 J
1.50×10 5 J
27.0ºC

27.0ºC
6.00×10 9 J

425ºC

150ºC
450ºC
8 270ºC
2.00×10 J

270ºC
9
6.00×10 J
150ºC

1.25×10 14 J 450ºC
150ºC

550ºC

2.50×10 14 J 20ºC
 22.0ºC
270ºC

5.06×10 7 J

EER
450ºC
3.60×10 6 J

EER

−25.0ºC 40.0ºC COP ref = COP hp − 1

COP
−20.0ºC
Qh Qc W.
50.0ºC

−200ºC
35.0ºC 5.00×10 8 J

5.00ºC 35.0ºC
21.0º C
5.00º C

50.0ºC
−20.0ºC 4.00×10 6 J
7
3.60×10 J
10.0kW ⋅ h 35.0º C 45.0º C
10.0 cents/kW ⋅ h

1100º C 40.0º C
1.055×10 8 J
1.60×10 5 J
−30.0ºC 20.0º C
45.0ºC
3.80×10 26 W
3.60×10 6 J 5500º C

−270º C

−10.0ºC
 40.0º C
20.0º C

20.0º C

35.0º C

20.0º C

Qh
Qc W
35.0º C

18.0º C 20.0º C

18.0º C Qc

90.0º C 10.0º C
50.0º C

90.0º C 10.0º C
90.0º C
10.0º C

10.0º C

2×10 22

1.22×10 30
 →
→
a   =  ∑ m
F

includes charged object in electric fields and examining changes in internal energy with changes in configuration.]

Essential Knowledge 6.D.3 Standing waves are the result of the addition of incident and reflected waves that are confined to a
region and have nodes and antinodes. Examples should include waves on a fixed length of string, and sound waves in both

confined.
 F = −kx.
F x k

k
 k k

k
 x=0
x = −1.20×10 −2 m F
⎛ ⎞⎛ 2⎞
w = mg = 80.0 kg 9.80 m/s
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ = 784 N F F
x k

F = −kx k:
k = − Fx .
k

k = − 784 N
−1.20×10 −2 m
= 6.53×10 4 N/m.

F x

PE el = 1 kx 2
2

PE el = 1 kx 2,
2
PE el x
k

F app F app = kx
x
(1 / 2)kx 2
kx (1 / 2)kx
2
x W = F appd = [(1 / 2)kx](x) = (1 / 2)kx
 W = (1 / 2)kx 2

x
PE el

k x

k x

PE el = 1 kx 2 = 1 (50.0 N/m)(0.150 m) 2 = 0.563 N ⋅ m

2 2
= 0.563 J
 KE f = PE el or 1 / 2mv 2 = (1 / 2)kx 2 = PE el = 0.563 J
v

⎡2PE ⎤ ⎡2(0.563 J) ⎤
1/2 1/2
=⎣ = 23.7⎛⎝J/kg⎞⎠ 1 / 2
0.002 kg ⎦
v = ⎣ m el ⎦

23.7 m / s
 T

f = 1.
T
cycle per second hertz
cycle
1 Hz = 1 sec or 1 Hz = 1s

T f f
T

0.400 µs T f = 1
T
f = 1 = 1 .
T 0.400×10 −6 s

f = 2.50×10 6 Hz.

f = 1.
T
T

T = 1.
f

T=1= 1 = 1 = 3.79×10 −3 s = 3.79 ms.

f 264 Hz 264 cycles/s
damping

X
 X T
T T

T f

m k only

period of a simple harmonic oscillator

T = 2π m
k
f = 1/T frequency of a simple harmonic oscillator

f = 1 mk.
2π
T f
 k 6.53×10 4 N/m

f = 1 mk
2π

k m

f = 1 mk = 1 6.53×10 4 N/m .
2π 2π 900 kg

1 72.6 / s –2 = 1.3656 / s –1 ≈ 1.36 / s –1 = 1.36 Hz.

2π
T = 2π m T = 1/ f
k
f

T=1= 1 = 0.738 s.
f 1.356 Hz

T f
 t

x(t) = X cos 2πt ,

T
X t=0 x0 = X T.
t=T x=X cos 2π = 1 x v

⎛ ⎞
v(t) = −v max sin ⎝2πt ⎠,
T
v max = 2πX / T = X k / m v=0 t=0
x=X v(t)

x(t), v(t), t, a(t)

a = F / m = kx / m . a(t)

a(t) = − kX 2πt
m cos T .
a(t) x(t)
x(t),v(t), a(t)
 x(t), v(t), a(t) t
X
v

x
x

s −mg sin

s
−mg sin mg mg cos mg sin
mg cos net
 =0

15º sin ≈ sin 15º

F
F ≈ −mgθ.
s
L
s=L ,

= s.
L

mg
F≈− s
L

F = −kx,
k = mg / L x=s 15º

15º

T = 2π m = 2π m .
k mg / L

T = 2π L
g

T
15º
T g

g T L T = 2π L
g g
15º

T = 2π L
g g

g = 4π 2 L2 .
T

g = 4π 2 0.75000 m2 .
(1.7357 s)
g
 g = 9.8281 m / s 2.

g
sin θ ≈
0.5º

g g

g
g

10º
g

10 kg
100 kg 12º

PE el = 1 kx 2.
2
 KE

KE + PE el = constant

1 mv 2 + 1 kx 2 = constant.
2 2
all

v = Lω k = mg / L
x=L
1 mL 2ω 2 + 1 mgL 2
= constant.
2 2

v
x=X
1 kX 2.
2

1 mv 2 + 1 kx 2 = 1 kX 2.
2 2 2
v
k ⎛X 2 − x 2⎞.
v=± m ⎝ ⎠
 k X 1 − x2
v=± m
X2

2
v = ±v max 1 − x 2 ,
X

k X.
v max = m

v max x=0 v(t) = − v max sin 2πt .

T

v max;
k
m

g
ω max = max.
L

m k
F  =   − kv

KE  =   1 mv 2
2

k = 6.53×10 4 N/m

v max kX
v max = m m
k X

kX
v max = m

4
v max = 6.53×10 N/m (0.100 m).
900 kg
v max= 0.852 m/s.

v max

y
 y(t) = a sin ωt,

a ω t ω = 2π
T
⎛ ⎞
yt = a sin⎝2πt ⎠.
T

⎛ ⎞
v(t) = 2aπ cos ⎝2πt ⎠,
T T

ω
 ω

x v
v̄ max v̄ max x v x

ω
v̄ max v

x
x = X cos ,
= ωt ω X
x = X cos ωt.
ω 2π T
ω = 2π / T ω x
⎛ ⎞
x(t) = cos⎝2πt ⎠.
T

x
 x t

X, x, X 2 − x2

v X 2 − x2 = 1 − x2 .
v max = X X2
v
2
v = v max 1 − x 2 .
X

T
2πX v max T

T = v2πX .
max

k X.
v max = m

X / v max
X m
v max = k .
T
T = 2π m .
k
 W nc = Δ(KE + PE),
W nc W nc

increase
X=0

µk

v=0 k = 50.0 N/m

 f = µ kmg

f = (0.0800)(0.200 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 ).
f = 0.157 N.

PE el,i = (1 / 2)kX 2
W nc = – fd d f = µ kmg
PE e1,f = (1 / 2)kx 2
x
F el = f
kx = µ k mg .
µ mg
x = k
k
d
 ⎛⎛ µ mg ⎞2 ⎞
W nc = Δ(KE + PE) = PE el,f − PE el,i = 1 k⎜⎝ k ⎠ − X 2⎟.
2 ⎝ k ⎠
W nc = – fd
f = µ kmg W nc = – fd
W nc = – µ k mgd.

⎛ ⎞
1 k⎜⎛ µ k mg ⎞ − X 2⎟ = −µ mgd.
2
2 ⎝⎝ k ⎠ ⎠
k

d
⎛ 2⎞
d= k ⎜X 2 – ⎛ µ k mg ⎞ ⎟.
2µ k mg ⎝ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎠

⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎛ 2⎞ ⎞ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛
50.0 N/m 2 ⎜(0.0800)⎝0.200 kg⎠⎝9.80 m/s ⎠ ⎟
2(0.0800)⎛⎝0.200 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠⎜⎝ ⎟.
d= (0.100 m) −
⎝ 50.0 N/m ⎠ ⎠
d
d = 1.59 m.

x=0
d / X = (1.59 m) / (0.100 m) = 15.9
x=0

x=0
 periodic driving
force

f0
Studio 360
 .

T f = 1/T

vw
propagation velocity or propagation speed,
vw

vw

vw =
T

vw = f .
vw vw
vw

vw = 10.0 m T = 5.00 s
vw =
T

vw =
T

v w = 10.0 m .
5.00 s
vw v w = 2.00 m/s.

X
vw

a combination of the two

 vw

1 = 2L
f1 = vw / 1 = v w / 2L
2 =L
f2 = vw / 2 = v w / 2L = 2 f 1 f3 = 3 f 1
vw
 beats

⎛ ⎞
x = X cos⎝2π t ⎠ = X cos⎛⎝2π ft⎞⎠,
T
f = 1/T

x = x 1 + x 2.

x = X cos⎛⎝2π f 1 t⎞⎠ + X cos⎛⎝2π f 2 t⎞⎠.

x = 2X cos⎛⎝π f B t⎞⎠cos⎛⎝2π f ave t⎞⎠,

fB = ∣ f1 − f2 ∣
f ave f1 f2

fB
f ave
 x F = kx W
Fx

W ∝ Fx = kx 2.

I=P
A
P A
W/m 2
1300 W/m 2
10 −3 W/m 2

700 W/m 2
0.500 m 2 4.00 h

P = Et I = P = E/t
A A

I = P.
A
P E/t

I = E / t.
A
E
E = IAt.

E = ⎛⎝700 W/m 2⎞⎠⎛⎝0.500 m 2⎞⎠⎡⎣(4.00 h)(3600 s/h)⎤⎦.

E
5.04×10 6 J,

I′ = P′ / A′ = A ⎛The powers cancel because P′ = P⎞.

I P/A A′ ⎝ ⎠

A = 200A′,
I′ = 200.
I

I′ = 200I = 200⎛⎝700 W/m 2⎞⎠.

I′
I′ = 1.40×10 5 W/m 2.

1.00 W/m 2

X
2X

I ′ ∝ (X ′) 2 = (2X) 2 = 4X 2.

I ∝ X 2.
 I ′ = 4.
I
I′
I ′ = 4I = 4.00 W/m 2.

1.00 W/m 2 4.00 W/m 2

4.00 W/m 2

1.00 W/m 2
2
4.00 W/m
 k

F = −kx,
F x k

PE el

PE el = (1 / 2)kx 2.

T
 f

f = 1.
T

X T f

T = 2π m f = 1 mk m
k 2π
x(t) = X cos 2πt .
T
v(t) = − v max sin 2πt v max = k / mX
T
a(t) = − kX 2πt
m cos T .

m L
15º.

T = 2π L
g,
L g

1 mv 2 + 1 kx 2 = constant.
2 2

k X.
v max = m

vw

vw = vw = f .
T
 f1 f2

fB = ∣ f1 − f2 ∣ .

I=P W/m 2
A
 m

2.00 mg

10.0 N/m

1.30×10 5 N/m

60.0 Hz

2.50×10 −3 s

8.00×10 −5 s
 9.79 m/s 2

9.82 m/s 2

⎛
⎝g = 9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠

1.63 m/s 2

1.63 m/s 2

1.40×10 4 N/m

g = 9.80 m / s 2
 4.00×10 5 kg µ s = 0.100

µ k = 0.0850

1.00×10 8 N/m

1.00×10 4 J

1.50×10 6 N/m

x/X
v = ±v max / 2 X

3.0%

3.00×10 8 m/s
5.00×10 4 N/m
 1.50×10 2 W/m 2

0.05 m 2

0.1 W/m 2

W/m 2

1.30 kW/m 2.
1.8×10 9 J 1.00 m 2

700 W/m 2,

2.00×10 –5 W/m 2,

W/m 2

700 W/m 2
 A

A
A
A

F  =   − kx

m
k

π
 g  =   2πL
T2
2
g  =   4π 2L
T
g  =   2πL
T
2
g  =   2π L
T

x  =  A sin wt,
x

A A

t t

µ k   =  0.06
 A

A
A

A
Essential Knowledge 6.D.3 Standing waves are the result of the addition of incident and reflected waves that are confined to a

confined.
 vw = f ,
vw f
f vw

f
 f

v fλ

f air column height

 v

Gases at 0ºC

Liquids at 20ºC

Solids (longitudinal or bulk)

v w = (331 m/s) T ,
273 K
T
v rms

v rms = 3kT
m ,
k 1.38×10 −23 J/K m

0ºC 20.0ºC
 vw = f .
vw f

30.0ºC

vw = f

vw

v w = (331 m/s) T .
273 K

v w = (331 m/s) 303 K = 348.7 m/s.

273 K

vw
= .
f

max = 348.7 m/s = 17 m.

20 Hz
 min = 348.7 m/s = 0.017 m = 1.7 cm.
20,000 Hz

f f

vw f
vw = f
 I

I = P,
A
P A I W/m 2

Δp⎞⎠ 2
⎛
⎝
I= .
2ρv w
Δp
N/m 2 p
2
P mv
2
ρ
kg/m 3 vw
I (Δp) 2
 I

⎛ ⎞
(dB) = 10 log 10 I ,
⎝I 0 ⎠

I 0 = 10 –12 W/m 2 I0

level 10 –12 W/m 2

β I

0 1×10 –12
10 1×10 –11
20 1×10 –10
30 1×10 –9
40 1×10 –8
50 1×10 –7
60 1×10 –6
70 1×10 –5
80 1×10 –4
90 1×10 –3
100 1×10 –2
110 1×10 –1
120 1
140 1×10 2
160 1×10 4

10 – 12 W/m 2 = 0 dB log 10 1 = 0

1 cm 2 10 – 16

10 – 9
10 12
 1.00×10 – 11
⎛ 2
⎝Δp⎞⎠
I=
2ρv w

10 3 10 7

I2 I1 2 – 1

0ºC

Δp I I = ⎛⎝Δp⎞⎠ 2 / ⎛⎝2pv w⎞⎠ 2 I

⎛ ⎞
(dB) = 10 log I/I
10⎝ 0⎠

0ºC
1.29 kg/m 3 0ºC

I = ⎛⎝Δp⎞⎠ 2 / ⎛⎝2ρv w⎞⎠

Δp⎞⎠ 2
⎛
⎝ (0.656 Pa) 2
I= = = 5.04×10 −4 W/m 2.
2ρv w 2⎛1.29 kg/m 3⎞(331 m/s)
⎝ ⎠

I I0 (dB) = 10 log 10⎛⎝I / I 0⎞⎠

10 log 10⎛⎝5.04×10 8⎞⎠ = 10 ⎛⎝8.70⎞⎠ dB = 87 dB.

 I2
= 2.00.
I1

2− 1 = 3 dB.

⎛ ⎞
log 10 b − log 10a = log 10⎝ba ⎠.

⎛I ⎞
2− 1 = 10 log 10⎝ 2 ⎠ = 10 log 10 2.00 = 10 (0.301) dB.
I1

2− 1 = 3.01 dB.

I2 / I1
 vw = f vw
vw f

f
⎛ vw ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v ± ,
w vs⎠

fs vs vw

f obs
⎛v w ± v obs ⎞
f obs = f s⎝ v w ⎠,
v obs
 ⎛ vw ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v ± ,
w vs⎠

⎛ v ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v –w v ⎠.
w s

⎛ vw ⎞ ⎛ 340 m/s ⎞
= (150 Hz)⎝
340 m/s – 35.0 m/s ⎠
f obs = f s⎝v −
w vs⎠

f obs = (150 Hz)(1.11) = 167 Hz

⎛ vw ⎞ ⎛ 340 m/s ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v +
w vs⎠
= (150 Hz)⎝
340 m/s + 35.0 m/s ⎠

f obs = (150 Hz)(0.907) = 136 Hz

v s = v obs = 35.0 m/s.

⎡ ⎛v w ± v obs ⎞⎤⎛ v w ⎞
f obs = ⎣ f s ⎝ v w ⎠⎦⎝v w ± v s ⎠.

v obs;
vs
v s = v obs fs
f obs = f s.
 fs vs
f obs vs f obs
⎛ vw ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v ± vs⎠
w

c = 3.00×10 8 m/s 0.75c

 L

= 4L

= 4L
L = (3 / 4) ′ ′ = 4L / 3

′ ′ = 4L / 3
= 4L
vw = f .
f
vw vw
f = = ,
4L
vw ′ = 4L / 3
vw
f′ = 3 = 3f.
4L
f′ = 3f

vw
fn = n , n = 1,3,5,
4L
f1 f3

22.0ºC

vw
L fn = n vw
4L

22.0ºC
vw
fn = n n=1
4L
vw
f1 =
4L

vw
L=
4f 1
 v w = (331 m/s) T
273 K

v w = (331 m/s) 295 K = 344 m/s

273 K
L
vw
L= = 344 m/s = 0.672 m
4 f 1 4(128 Hz)

n=3
n=5
n=7
n=9
vw
fn = n
4L
vw
f9 = 9 = 9 f 1 = 1.15 kHz
4L

open

vw
fn = n , n = 1, 2, 3...,
2L
f1 f2 f3
f = v f = v
2L 4L
 10 −12 W/m 2
10 12
relative to the normal threshold
presbycusis
10 3 10 5 W/m 2

cavitation
 10 3
10 4 W/m 2

pressure

Z
Z = ρv,

ρ kg/m 3 v Z
kg/(m 2 · s)
 ⎛ ⎛ 2
⎝kg/⎝m ⋅ s⎞⎠⎞⎠

429

1.5×10 6

1.66×10 6

1.34×10 6

1.70×10 6

5.7×10 6 7.8×10 6

30.8×10 6

difference

⎛
⎝Z 2 − Z 1⎞⎠ 2
a= ⎛ ⎞2
,
⎝Z 1 + Z 2⎠

Z1 Z2

1.34×10 6 kg/(m 2 ·s)

Z = ρv ρ v

Z = ρv

Z = ρv = ⎛⎝925 kg/m 3⎞⎠(1450 m/s)

1.34×10 6 kg/(m 2 ·s)

⎛
⎝Z 2 − Z 1⎞⎠ 2
a= ⎛ ⎞2
⎝Z 1 + Z 2⎠
 ⎛
Z 2 − Z 1⎞⎠ 2
⎝
a= ⎛
Z 1 + Z 2⎞⎠ 2
⎝

⎛ ⎞
2
⎛ 6 2 6 2
Z − Z 1⎞⎠ 2 ⎝1.34×10 kg/(m · s) − 1.70×10 kg/(m · s)⎠
⎝
a=⎛ 2 ⎞2
= 2
= 0.014
⎝Z 1 + Z 2⎠ ⎛ 6 2 6 2 ⎞
⎝1.70×10 kg/(m · s) + 1.34×10 kg/(m · s)⎠

10 −2 W/m 2
 vw
= = 15406m/s = 0.22 mm
f 7×10 Hz

500
500×0.22 mm
 FB = ∣ f1 − f2 ∣
f1 − f2
 ⎛ vw ⎞ ⎛v w ± v obs ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v ± vs⎠ f obs = f s⎝ vw ⎠
w

⎛v w ± v obs ⎞
f obs = f s⎝ v w ⎠.
vb v obs

⎛ ⎞
f obs = (2,500,000 Hz)⎝1540 m/s+0.2 m/s ⎠
1540 m/s

⎛ v ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v –w v ⎠.
w b
f obs
vb

⎛ 1540 m/s ⎞
f obs = (2,500,325 Hz)⎝
1540 m/s − 0.200 m/s ⎠
 fs f obs
f B = ∣ f obs − f s ∣ .

∣ 2,500,649 Hz − 2,500,000 Hz ∣

fs f obs f B = ∣ f obs − f s ∣ .
 vw f
vw = f ,

v w = (331 m/s) T .
273 K
vw
 I = P,
A
P A I
Δp

Δp⎞⎠ 2
⎛
⎝
I= ,
2ρv w
ρ vw

⎛ ⎞
(dB) = 10 log 10 I ,
⎝I 0 ⎠
I 0 = 10 –12 W/m 2

f obs
⎛ vw ⎞
f obs = f s⎝v ± ,
w vs⎠
fs vs vw

⎛v w ± v obs ⎞
f obs = f s⎝ v w ⎠,
v obs

vw
fn = n , n = 1, 3, 5...,
4L
f1 L

vw
fn = n , n = 1, 2, 3...
2L

Z = ρv,
ρ v
a
 ⎛
Z 2 − Z 1⎞⎠ 2
⎝
a= ⎛
.
Z 1 + Z 2⎞⎠ 2
⎝

10 5 W/cm 2
 4.00×10 −2 W/m 2
10 –12 W/m 2
10 –16 W/cm 2

4.00×10 –9 W/m 2

20.0ºC 4.00×10 –9 W/m 2

56.0ºC
134ºF

–8.00 dB
20.0ºC

10 –9 atm
24.0ºC

5.00ºC 35.0ºC

900 cm 2
0.500 cm 2

20ºC
15.0 cm 2
0.900 cm 2

20.0ºC

18.0ºC
25.0ºC

10.0ºC
30.0ºC

37.0ºC

37.0ºC

37.0ºC
 5.0×10 12

20.0ºC

10 −12

10 3
10 3

10 5 W/m 2

2.00×10 –2 W/m 2

0ºC
 T

0.750 µs
 A

A
A
A
A
 f

f λ
f λ
f λ
f λ
f λ
 f
f
f

L
L
L
L

f
 F q
→ → →
E F =q E
 electric
electron
 ∣ q e ∣ = 1.60×10 −19 C.
q e

1 proton
1.00 C× = 6.25×10 18 protons.
1.60×10 −19 C

6.25×10 18
∣ qe ∣
∣ qe ∣
−1 +2
3 3

− 1 q e + 2 q e + 2 q e = +1q e
3 3 3
 e

e e

Δm Δm = E2
c

E
Δm = E2
c
me
10 23
 E
E∥ F∥
q F∥ = 0
3×10 6
 F∥
F∥
 F = k | 1 2 2| .
q q
r
F q1 q2
r k
2 2
k = 8.988×10 9 N ⋅ m ≈ 8.99×10 9 N ⋅ m .
C2 C2

⎛
⎝F ∝ 1 / r 2⎞⎠

10 16

F q1 q2 r
q1
q2

F s = G mM
r2
 0.530×10 −10 m

F = k | 1 2 2|
q q
r

F = k | 1 2 2|
q q
r
(1.60×10 –19 C)(1.60×10 –19 C)
= ⎛⎝8.99×10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2⎞⎠×
(0.530×10 –10 m) 2

F = 8.19×10 –8 N.

8.99×10 22 m / s 2

F G = G mM ,
r2
G = 6.67×10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 m M

(9.11×10 –31 kg)(1.67×10 –27 kg)

F G = (6.67×10 – 11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2)× = 3.61×10 –47 N
(0.530×10 –10 m) 2

F = 2.27×10 39.
FG
 F E

q E
→ →
F =q E

F = k|q 1q 2| / r 2 F = k|qQ| / r 2 Q
q r
Q q

Q
Q q1 F1 q2 q1
F2 F1
q1 q2 Q

Q q

E=F
q,
 F q E
F q

q F = qE Q
2
q F = k|qQ| / r
E

E= F
|| qQ
||
|Q|
q = k 2 = k 2.
qr r

E = k | 2| .
Q
r
Q r
q

E = kQ / r 2

Q = 2.00×10 −9 r = 5.00×10 −3
Q
E = k
r2
(2.00×10 −9 C)
= (8.99×10 9 N ⋅ m 2/C 2 )×
(5.00×10 −3 m) 2
= 7.19×10 5 N/C.

Q
Q

–0.250 µC

E = F/q F = qE

q = −0.250 µC E = 7.20×10 5
F = −qE
= (0.250×10 –6 C)(7.20×10 5 N/C)
= 0.180 N.
q
 Q

q
 Q

E = k |Q| / r 2 r2

q1 q2

E1 E2 E tot

q
E1 E2
 q1 E1
⎛
q1 ⎛ 9 2 2⎞ ⎝
5.00×10 −9 C⎞⎠
E 1 = k 2 = ⎝8.99×10 N ⋅ m /C ⎠ 2
⎛
r1 2.00×10 −2 m⎞
⎝ ⎠
5
E 1 = 1.124×10 N/C.
E2
⎛
q2 ⎛ 9 2 2⎞ ⎝
10.0×10 −9 C⎞⎠
E2 = k = ⎝8.99×10 N ⋅ m /C ⎠
r 22 ⎛
4.00×10 −2 m⎞
2
⎝ ⎠
5
E 2 = 0.5619×10 N/C.
E1 E2
E1 E2

E1 E2
E tot

E tot = (E 12 + E 22 ) 1/2
= {(1.124×10 5 N/C) 2 + (0.5619×10 5 N/C) 2} 1/2
= 1.26×10 5 N/C.

⎛E 1 ⎞
= tan −1⎝
E2⎠
⎛ 5 ⎞
= tan −1 1.124×10 5N/C
⎝0.5619×10 N/C ⎠
= 63.4º,
63.4º x
q1 q2
 F ∝ 1 / r2

2q e 0.3×10 −9

H2 O

Na + , K+ , Cl –
 H2 O
− +

H2 O
 xeros
graphos
F E
 4.00×10 –15 kg 3.20×10 –19 C

3.00×10 5 N/C

w = mg.

w = (4.00×10 −15 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 3.92×10 −14 N.

F = qE.

3.20×10 –19 C

F = (3.20×10 −19 C)(3.00×10 5 N/C) = 9.60×10 −14 N.

 F net
a= m .

F net = F − w

a = Fm−w
−14
= 9.60×10 N − 3.92×10 −14 N
4.00×10 −15 kg
= 14.2 m/s 2.
 Q,

q
 ∣ qe ∣

∣ q e ∣ = 1.60×10 −19 C.

F = k | 1 2 2| ,
q q
r
q1 q2 r /
k ≈ 8.99×10 9 N · m 2 C 2
 r

E
F
E = q,
F q E
E Q

E = k | 2| .
Q
r
r Q E
 q

qa qb qc qd q

qa = qb qb = qc
q q qa = qc
qb = qc
qa = qd qb = qc q

q
qa = 0 q
 polar molecule

q
−2.5×10 −6 +2.5×10 −6
 –2.00 nC

0.500 µC

1.80×10 20

3.75×10 21

∣ qe ∣

1.0000×10 12

1.00×10 16

2.00 µC

10 12

x = 8.00 cm
q = 1.00 µC

x
x
 x = 1.00 cm q
q = 5.00 nC q = 1.00 µC q a = 2.00 µC
x = 11.00 cm q b = −3.00 µC q c = −4.00 µC q d =+1.00 µC

qa
q b = +10.00 µC q c = –5.00 µC
x = 5.00 cm qa q a = +1.50 nC
q = 1.00 µC

–2q

x,

x = 4.00 cm
q = 1.00 µC x

q
q a = q b=+7.50 µC q c = q d = −7.50 µC q a =+2.50 nC q b = −8.00 nC q c =+1.50 nC
q
q = 2.00 µC qa = qb = qc

0.700 µC –0.600 µC

q a = q b = −1.00 µC
q c = q d=+1.00 µC
q

qa
q b = q c = q d=+2.00 nC
q = −1.00 nC
 +2 µC
3.50 µC
+6 µC +4 µC

+6 µC

5.00×10 6 N/C

4.80×10 −17 N
q tot

+q
–3.00q

q1 q2

8.00 µC

5.00 µC –3.00 µC

q1 q2 3.00 m
20 µC

2.00×10 -5 N –1.75 µC
2.00 µC
 ω

0.530×10 –10 m

5.00×10 6 m/s
2.00×10 5 N/C
2.50×10 4 N/C

3.00×10 6 N/C

3.00%

1.00 µC

25.0 µC 45.0 µC
8.00º

q1 q2
q1 q2
 q
Q m
d
q
3.00×10 6 m/s Q m d
m

1.00 µm 920 kg/m 3

qe
 e e
e.
e
e
e
two
e
e

e e e
e e e
e e e
e e e

two
 F

F
F
F
F

F
F
F

n
n
n
n

E
 q q
r q E
r F q
q q
q
q
q
E F
E F
E F
E F
q q
q
q
E F
E F
E F
E F

q
P P d X Z

W X F

W Z
F
F
F
F

X W Y Z
F
F
F
F
 R S T
q q q
x d d

R T
S

R
T S
R T

E
x x

E x
x S
T q d

S T
 voltage

ions
charged object in electric fields and examining changes in internal energy with changes in configuration.]

and the potential energy of the configuration of the objects that make up the system.
q
q

W = –ΔPE
q

ΔPE
W = –ΔPE
W ΔPE
ΔPE W
 W = –ΔPE W
ΔPE. ΔPE W

W = Fd cos F
F = qE
ΔPE q.
V

V = PE
q.

V = PE
q

q q V q
ΔPE ΔV

ΔV = V B − V A = ΔPE
q .
VB – VA
q

1V=1 J
C

VB - VA q

1V=1 J
C

ΔV = ΔPE
q and ΔPE = qΔV.

ΔV = ΔPE
q and ΔPE = qΔV.
 ΔPE = qΔV

ΔPE = qΔV

q = 5000 C ΔV = 12.0 V
ΔPE cycle = (5000 C)(12.0 V)
= (5000 C)(12.0 J/C)
= 6.00×10 4 J.
q = 60,000 C
ΔPE car = (60,000 C)(12.0 V)
= 7.20×10 5 J.

ΔV = V B –V A = +12 V q
ΔPE = qΔV q
 ΔPE = qΔV
ΔPE = –30.0 J
ΔV = +12.0 V

q ΔPE = qΔV

q = ΔPE .
ΔV
ΔPE ΔV

q = –30.0 J = –30.0 J = –2.50 C.

+12.0 V +12.0 J/C
ne

ne = –2.50 C = 1.56×10 19 electrons.

–19 –
–1.60×10 C/e
ΔPE = qΔV,
 ⎛
1 eV = ⎝1.60×10
–19
C⎞⎠(1 V) = ⎛⎝1.60×10 –19 C⎞⎠(1 J/C)
= 1.60×10 –19 J.

.
⎛
1 eV = ⎝1.60×10
–19
C⎞⎠(1 V) = ⎛
⎝1.60×10
–19
C⎞⎠(1 J/C)
= 1.60×10 –19 J.

30,000 eV ÷ 5 eV per molecule = 6000 molecules

KE + PE = constant
 KE + PE = constant

KE i + PE i= KEf + PEf ,

KE i = 0, KE f = ½mv 2, PE i = qV, and PE f = 0.

KE i + PE i= KE f + PE f .

2
qV = mv .
2
v:
2qV
v= m .
q, V, and m

2⎛⎝–1.60×10 –19 C⎞⎠(–100 J/C)

v =
9.11×10 –31 kg
= 5.93×10 6 m/s.
 E
ΔV

ΔV E ΔV
E ΔV E

E ΔV E
 V E E = V /d ΔV = V AB

–ΔV = V A – V B = V AB

W = –ΔPE = – qΔV.

–ΔV = – (V B – V A) = V A – V B = V AB.

W = qV AB.
W = Fd cos cos =1 W = Fd F = qE
W = qEd
qEd = qV AB.

V AB = Ed⎫
V ⎬(uniform E - field on y),
E = AB ⎭
d
d

1 N / C = 1 V / m.

V AB = Ed⎫
V ⎬(uniform E - field on y),
E = AB ⎭
d
d
 3.0×10 6 V/m

E d
V AB = Ed

V AB = Ed.
E d
V AB = (3.0×10 6 V/m)(0.025 m) = 7.5×10 4 V

V AB = 75 kV.
 0.500 µC

V AB
E= F=qE
d
F=qE

V AB
E= .
d

V AB

E = 25.0 kV = 6.25×10 5 V/m.

0.0400 m
 F = qE.

F = (0.500×10 –6 C)(6.25×10 5 V/m) = 0.313 N.

1 V/m = 1 N/C

E V
E V V

E = – ΔV ,
Δs
Δs ΔV E
gradient

E = – ΔV ,
Δs
Δs ΔV E
gradient

ΔV Δs

V
 q
r Q
⎛ ⎞
W = – qΔV
⎝ ⎠ electric potential V of a point charge
kQ
V = r (Point Charge),

k 9.0×10 9 N · m 2 /C 2
V
V
kQ
V = r (Point Charge).

V E

kQ
E=F
q = 2.
r
V E

vectors V
E

⎛
(nC) µC⎞⎠
⎝

−3.00 nC

V = kQ / r

Q
V = kr
⎛ ⎛ –9 ⎞
N · m 2 / C 2⎞⎠ –3.00×10–2 C
⎝ 5.00×10 m ⎠
9
= ⎝8.99×10

= –539 V.
 kQ
V= r .

Q = rV
k
(0.125 m)⎛⎝100×10 3 V⎞⎠
=
8.99×10 9 N · m 2 / C 2
= 1.39×10 –6 C = 1.39 µC.

h=0 PE g = mgh
 equipotential surfaces equipotential

r V = kQ / r
r

Q
 r

equipotential lines are always perpendicular to electric field lines.

ΔV = 0
W = –ΔPE = – qΔV = 0.
E
E
W = Fd cos = qEd cos = 0.
E F
q E d cos 90º
E

conductor is an equipotential surface in static situations.

 +Q –Q
Q
 +Q
–Q

Q capacitor

Q
Q capacitor

Q
 E ∝ Q,
∝
V = Ed
V ∝ E.
V∝Q
Q ∝ V.

C Q C

Q = CV.

C V capacitance C is the amount of

charge stored per volt,
Q
C= .
V

C
Q
C= .
V
 1 F = 1 C.
1V

⎛
⎝1 pF = 10 –12 F⎞⎠
⎛
⎝1 mF = 10 –3 F⎞⎠

A
d V
Q A d

C A
C d

d A

A d C

C= A
0d.

C= A
0d
A d 0
– 12
0 = 8.85×10 F/m
2 2
C /N · m 0

1.00 m 2
3
3.00×10 V

C C= 0A / d C
Q = CV

C = A = ⎛8.85×10 –12 F ⎞ 1.00 m 2

d ⎝
0 m⎠
1.00×10 –3 m
–9
= 8.85×10 F = 8.85 nF.

Q = CV

Q = CV = ⎛⎝8.85×10 –9 F⎞⎠⎛⎝3.00×10 3 V⎞⎠

= 26.6 µC.

3.00×10 6 V/m

–70 mV
Na + Na +

–3
E = V = –70×10–9 V = –9×10 6 V/m.
d 8×10 m

d
E = V /d

d d

C= A relative permittivity
0d
 C= A (parallel plate capacitor with dielectric).
0d

3×10 6

24×10 6

8×10 6

12×10 6

14×10 6

16×10 6

24×10 6

14×10 6

15×10 6

8×10 6

60×10 6

except
E = V /d

V = E⋅d
= (3×10 6 V/m)(1.00×10 −3 m)
= 3000 V.
60×10 6

dielectric constant
 Q = CV
= C air V
= (2.1)(8.85 nF)(6.0×10 4 V)
= 1.1 mC.

V = Ed V Q C = Q/V
C
= E0 / E
⎛
H 2 O⎞⎠
⎝
 series parallel

Q
C=
V
Q
V
 Q
d

Q Q Q Q
C= V V= V1 = V2 =
V C C1 C2
Q
V3 =
C3
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3.
CS
Q
V= = V1 + V2 + V3 .
CS
V1 V2 V3
Q Q Q Q
= + + .
CS C1 C2 C3
Q CS
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...,
CS C1 C2 C3

CS C1 C2
 Cs
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
CS C1 C2 C3

µF

1 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
CS CS C1 C2 C3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.325
C S 1.000 µF 5.000 µF 8.000 µF µF
µF
CS CS = = 0.755 µF
1.325

Cs

1 = 40 + 8 + 5 = 53 ,
C S 40 µF 40 µF 40 µF 40 µF

40 µF
CS = = 0.755 µF.
53

Cp
V

Q = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3.
 Q = CV Q = C pV Q 1 = C 1V ,
Q 2 = C 2V , Q 3 = C 3V
C p V = C 1V + C 2V + C 3V.

V Cp

C p = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + ....
...

C p = 1.000 µF+5.000 µF+8.000 µF = 14.000 µF.

Cp

C p = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + ...

C1 C2 CS CS
C3 CS C3
 C 1 = 1.000 µF C 2 = 5.000 µF C 3 = 8.000 µF

C1
C2 CS C3

C1 C2 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
CS C1 C2 C3

1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 1.200 .
C S C 1 C 2 1.000 µF 5.000 µF µF

C S = 0.833 µF.

C tot = C S + C S
= 0.833 µF + 8.000 µF
= 8.833 µF.
 Q V
ΔPE = qΔV
ΔPE q ΔV

ΔV = 0 ΔV = V
V V /2
q V /2 E cap

QV
E cap = ,
2
Q V QV QV / 2
C Q = CV E cap

QV CV 2 Q 2
E cap = = = ,
2 2 2C
Q V C

QV CV 2 Q 2
E cap = = = ,
2 2 2C
Q V C
 4.00×10 2 J 1.00×10 4 V

E cap V C
E cap
2
E cap = CV .
2

C
2E cap 2(4.00×10 2 J)
C = = = 8.00×10 – 6 F
V2 (1.00×10 4 V) 2
= 8.00 µF.

1.00×10 4 V
 VB – VA q

ΔV

ΔV = ΔPE
q and ΔPE = qΔV.

⎛
1 eV = ⎝1.60×10
–19
C⎞⎠(1 V) = ⎛⎝1.60×10 –19 C⎞⎠(1 J/C)
= 1.60×10 –19 J.
KE + PE.

V AB = Ed⎫
V ⎬(uniform E - field on y),
E = AB ⎭
d
d

E = – ΔV ,
Δs
Δs ΔV E
gradient

V = kQ / r
 Q

C ,

Q
C= .
V
C= 0A 0
d

C = κε 0 A ,
d

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
CS C1 C2 C3
C p = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + ...

QV CV 2 Q 2
E cap = = = ,
2 2 2C
Q V C
 C V

K+
–
Cl
Na +
 2.00×10 2 m
5.00×10 2 N

1.67×10 – 27 kg.

6.64×10 –27 kg. 1.00×10 –12 m

⎛
⎝1.5×10
7
ºC⎞⎠

1.00×10 2 MV
1.50×10 4 V
15ºC

7.50×10 4 V/m

2.50×10 2 g 2.00×10 2 g
20.0ºC 90.0ºC

4.50×10 3 V/m

3.0×10 6 V/m
5.0×10 3 V
 3.0 µC

3.0×10 6 V/m

2.00×10 6 V/m

–3q

0.530×10 –10 m

1.00 µC
2.00×10 2 V ?

–2.00 V
5.00×10 2 V

q1 q2

2.00×10 – 14 m
 –1.00 nC/m 2

Narcine bancroftii

Narcine bancroftii

180 µF

2.00 µF
3.10 µC
 3.00 µC

5.00 m 2

1.50 m 2

80.0 µF

4.00 m 2

8.00 µF
5.00 µF

10.0 µF
9.00×10 3 V

8.00 µF

165 µF

2.00 µF
5.00 µF 8.00 µF
7.40 µF
1.00×10 2 m 2

Volume = A · d

9.60×10 3 J

x
x
 y

x
x

V
V
ferent rates. Power is defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out of, or within a system. [A piston filled with gas getting
 I
ΔQ
I= ,
Δt
ΔQ Δt
Δt = t
I = ΔQ / Δt
1 A = 1 C/s

I = ΔQ / Δt

ΔQ 720 C
I = = = 180 C/s
Δt 4.00 s
= 180 A.

I = ΔQ / Δt Δt
ΔQ 1.00 C
Δt = =
I 0.300×10 -3 C/s
= 3.33×10 3 s.
 The direction of conventional current is the direction
that positive charge would flow
 I A

I electrons = −0.300×10 −3 C/s (e − )

–1.60×10 −19 C

ΔQ electrons –0.300×10 −3 C
I electrons = = s .
Δt

e – = –0.300×10 – 3 C × 1 e–
s s
–1.60×10 −19 C
–
= 1.88×10 15 es .

10 8 m/s
much 10 −4 m/s
 vd

vd

The number of free charges per unit volume n

Ax nAx ΔQ
qnAx q q
−19
−1.60×10 C Δt
 ΔQ qnAx
I= = .
Δt Δt
x / Δt vd x Δt

I = nqAv d,
I A n
q vd

t vd = x / t

8.80×10 3 kg/m 3

I = nqAv d I = 20.0 A
q = – 1.60×10 – 19 C
A = πr 2, r
8.80×10 3 kg/m 3,
6.02×10 23 atoms/mol, n,

m3 n
3
1 e − × 6.02×10 23 atoms × 1 mol × 1000 g × 8.80×10 kg
n = atom
mol 63.54 g kg 1m 3

= 8.342×10 28 e − /m 3 .
 A = πr 2
⎛ m⎞
2
−3
= π ⎝2.053×10 ⎠
2
–6 2
= 3.310×10 m .
I = nqAv d

vd = I
nqA
= 20.0 A
(8.342×10 28/m 3)(–1.60×10 –19 C)(3.310×10 –6 m 2)
= –4.53×10 –4 m/s.

10 −4 m/s 10 12
10 8 m/s

V
directly
proportional to the voltage applied
I ∝ V.

I ∝ 1.
R

I = V.
R
 R V I resistor
Ω
I = V/R R = V/I

1 Ω = 1V .
A

V = IR
 I = V/R

I = V/R

R = V = 12.0 V = 4.80 Ω.
I 2.50 A

10 12 Ω 10 5 Ω
10 3 Ω 10 −5 Ω

I = V/R V,
V = IR.
V voltage drop across a resistor produced by the current I IR drop
IR

PE = qΔV q
 R L

R
A
 L A
A

ρ R
ρ ρ intrinsic R
L A ρ
ρL
R= .
A
ρ
 ρ 20ºC
ρ Ω ⋅m
Conductors

1.59×10 −8

1.72×10 −8

2.44×10 −8

2.65×10 −8

5.6×10 −8

9.71×10 −8

10.6×10 −8

20×10 −8

22×10 −8

44×10 −8

49×10 −8

96×10 −8

100×10 −8
Semiconductors

3.5×10 5

(3.5 − 60)×10 5

600×10 −3

(1 − 600)×10 −3
2300
0.1–2300
Insulators

5×10 14

10 9 − 10 14

>10 13

10 11 − 10 15

75×10 16

10 13 − 10 16

10 15

>10 13

10 8 − 10 14
 0.350 Ω

ρL
R= A
A

ρL
R=
A
ρL
A= .
R
ρ

(5.6×10 –8 Ω ⋅ m)(4.00×10 –2 m)
A =
0.350 Ω
= 6.40×10 –9 m 2 .
D
2
A = πD .
4
D A
1 1
⎛ 2⎞
2
⎛ ⎞
2 –9
D = 2⎝ A
p⎠ = 2⎝6.40×10 m ⎠
3.14
= 9.0×10 –5 m.

100ºC
ρ ΔT
ρ = ρ 0(1 + ΔT),
ρ0
ρ
Conductors

3.8×10 −3

3.9×10 −3

3.4×10 −3

3.9×10 −3

4.5×10 −3

5.0×10 −3

3.93×10 −3

4.3×10 −3

0.000×10 −3

0.002×10 −3

0.89×10 −3

0.4×10 −3
Semiconductors

−0.5×10 −3

−50×10 −3

−70×10 −3

R0 ρ
R = ρL / A L A R
ρ
L A
ρ
R = R 0(1 + ΔT)
R0 R
ΔT

ρ = ρ 0(1 + ΔT) R = R 0(1 + ΔT)

100ºC
20ºC
2850ºC

R = R 0(1 + ΔT)
R 0 = 0.350 Ω ΔT = 2830ºC

R
R = R 0(1 + ΔT)
= (0.350 Ω)[1 + (4.5×10 –3 / ºC)(2830ºC)]
= 4.8 Ω.
 PE = qV
q V

qV
P = PE
t = t .
I = q/t Δt = t
P = IV.
P
 1A⋅V=1W

P = IV = (20 A)(12 V) = 240 W

1 kA ⋅ V = 1 kW
P = IV I = V/R
2 2
P = (V / R)V = V /R V = IR P = I(IR) = I R

P = IV
2
P=V
R
P = I 2R.

p ∝ I2 p ∝ V2

/ /
R = P I 2 = 50 5 2 = 2 Ω
R=V 2
/ P = 10 / 50 = 2 Ω
2

P = V2/ R

P = V2/ R

P = IV
2
P = V /R

P = IV = (2.50 A)(12.0 V) = 30.0 W.

 0.350 Ω
2 (12.0 V) 2
P=V = = 411 W.
R 0.350 Ω

P = I 2R

I = P = 411 W = 34.3 A.
R 0.350 Ω

P = E/t
E = Pt
P t P
t kW ⋅ h
E = Pt

1 kW ⋅ h = 3.6×10 6 J
E

E = Pt
 E = Pt = (60 W)(1000 h) = 60,000 W ⋅ h.

E = 60.0 kW ⋅ h.

cost = (60.0 kW ⋅ h)($0.12/kW ⋅ h) = $7.20.

P = IV

rms
 V V
V = V 0 sin 2π ft

V = V 0 sin 2π ft,
V t , V0 f
I = V/R
I = I 0 sin 2π ft,
I t I 0 = V 0 /R

I = V/R

P = IV I V
P = I 0V 0 sin 2 2π ft
 Warning: Do not look directly at very bright light

I0 V0 (1 / 2)I 0 V 0

P ave

P ave = 1 I 0 V 0.
2
(1 / 2)I 0 V 0
I rms V rms

I0
I rms =
2

V0
V rms = .
2

P ave = I rmsV rms,

I0 V0 1
P ave = ⋅ = I V ,
2 2 2 0 0
I rms V rms P ave
V rms
I rms P ave = 1.0 kW

V rms
I rms = .
R
P ave
P ave = I rmsV rms,
2
V rms
P ave = ,
R

2
P ave = I rmsR.
 V0
V rms P ave V rms =
2

V0
V rms = V0 V rms
2
V 0 = 2V rms = 1.414(120 V) = 170 V.

–170 V

⎛ ⎞
P 0 = I 0V 0 = 2⎝1 I 0 V 0⎠ = 2P ave .
2

P 0 = 2(60.0 W) = 120 W.

1.00 Ω
P ave = 100 MW V rms = 200 kV R = 1.00 Ω
P = IV P = I 2R

P ave = I rmsV rms

P ave 100×10 6 W
I rms = = = 500 A.
V rms 200×10 3 V

2
P ave = I rmsR

2
P ave = I rmsR = (500 A) 2(1.00 Ω ) = 250 kW.

% loss= 250 kW ×100 = 0.250 %.

100 MW
 short
r P = V2/r V r
0.100 Ω much

r P = V2/r

r P = V2/r

P = I 2R w Rw
I I Rw
R w = 2.00 Ω 0.100 Ω
2
P = I R w = 200 W
0.100 - Ω
P = 1000 W
I
f f =0
 I = V/R

200 k Ω I = (120 V) / (200 k Ω )= 0.6 mA

10.0 k Ω

20 µA

f =0
 neurons
synapses dendrites
axon

Na + K + Cl -

K+ Cl - Na +
K+ Cl -
 K+ Cl -

Na +

Na +
+ +
Na , K

E = V /d

resting potential
 Na +
Na + depolarizes
Na + K+
repolarizes action potential

Na + K+
active transport

nerve impulse
 Na + K+

myelin

IR
sinoarterial (SA) node
 lead II potential

P wave
QRS complex

T wave
 I=I πft I t, I
f

V=V πft V t, V
f

I Q t

I V ∝V
I = V/R R

R = V/I

ρ
 I rms = I 0 / 2 I

V rms = V 0 / 2 V

I
ΔQ
I= ,
Δt
ΔQ Δt

1 A = 1 C/s.

vd
I vd I = nqAv d I
A n q
vd
10 12

is
I V R
I = V.
R
Ω 1 Ω = 1 V/A
IR V = IR

ρL
R L A R= ρ
A

ρ conductors, semiconductors, and insulators

ΔT ρ = ρ 0(1 + ΔT) ρ0
α

R R = R 0(1 + ΔT) R0
R

P
 P = IV,
2
P=V ,
R

P = I 2R.
P t E = Pt

V = V 0 sin 2π ft V t
V0 f
I = V/R I = I 0 sin 2π ft I t I 0 = V 0 /R

P ave = 1 I 0 V 0
2
I0 V0
I rms V rms I rms = V rms =
2 2

P ave = I rmsV rms

V rms
I rms =
R
2
V rms 2
P ave = I rmsV rms P ave = P ave = I rms R
R

A⋅h

vd = I n
nqA
 IR

IR

R = R 0(1 + ΔT) R
ρ = ρ 0(1 + ΔT) ρ

P = V2/ R
P = I 2R

dashed
Na +
 6.02×10 23

0.250 µC He ++
1.00 µs
He ++
0.500 - µs
He ++

P = I 2R

3.60 Ω

500 Ω

140 Ω
0.0600- Ω
= – 0.0600 / ºC
0.300 Ω
37.0ºC

1.00×10 9 Ω .

12×10 −6 / ºC

0.200 Ω 20.0ºC

1.00×10 2 MV

1.00 × 10 3 V 2.00 × 10 4 A

20.0ºC

20.0ºC

100ºC 20.0ºC

–10.0ºC to 55.0ºC

77.7 Ω
20.0ºC 150ºC

20.0ºC
6.00×10 2 C

0.500 Ω 20.0ºC 0.0600 - Ω

0.525 Ω

0.300 Ω .

P = IV
 1 V 2 / Ω = 1W
P = V2/ R 1.00×10 2 A
1 A2 ⋅ Ω = 1 W
P = I 2R

1 kW ⋅ h = 3.60×10 6 J

1.00×10 2 kV

12.0 cents/kW ⋅ h

9.0 cents/kW · h
1.00×10 2 MV

18.0ºC

10 cents/kWh

3.00×10 2 g 20.0ºC
90.0ºC
1.00 A ⋅ h

37.0ºC 100ºC

12.0 cents/kW ⋅ h
 8.00×10 3 A

5.30×10 4 kg

0.0580 Ω / km

1.00×10 2 -g
20.0ºC 95.0ºC

10.0ºC 40.0ºC
2.00×10 2 -m
9 cents/kW ⋅ h
5.00×10 2 N

5.00×10 2 N
1.00×10 2 MW

1.00 - Ω

1.00×10 2 MW
 t=0
V0 / 2
V0
t=0
V rms
−V rms

0.250 Ω

0.100 - Ω
2700ºC 2600ºC

300 k Ω
4000 k Ω

4000 Ω

20.0 µA
1.00 - Ω
300 Ω

9.00 cents/kW ⋅ h

0.500- Ω

0.200 cal/g⋅ºC

5.00mm 2
500º C
 two

R
R
R
R
Wire Length Diameter

R
E

R R
 R1
R2 R3 R4

V
V = IR I R (Ω)
V I R
R1 V 1 = IR 1 R2 V 2 = IR 2 R3 V 3 = IR 3

V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3.

PE = qV q V qV

qV 1 + qV 2 + qV 3.

qV = qV 1 + qV 2 + qV 3 q V = V1 + V2 + V3
 V = IR 1 + IR 2 + IR 3 = I(R 1 + R 2 + R 3).
Rs
V = IR s.
Rs Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Rs
R s = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ...,

12.0 V R 1 = 1.00 Ω
R 2 = 6.00 Ω R 3 = 13.0 Ω

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
= 1.00 Ω + 6.00 Ω + 13.0 Ω
= 20.0 Ω.

V = IR

I = V = 12.0 V = 0.600 A.
R s 20.0 Ω

IR

V 1 = IR 1 = (0.600 A)(1.0 Ω ) = 0.600 V.

V 2 = IR 2 = (0.600 A)(6.0 Ω ) = 3.60 V

V 3 = IR 3 = (0.600 A)(13.0 Ω ) = 7.80 V.

IR 12.0 V
V 1 + V 2 + V 3 = (0.600 + 3.60 + 7.80) V = 12.0 V.

P = IV
P
V = IR
P 1 = I 2R 1 = (0.600 A) 2(1.00 Ω ) = 0.360 W.
 P 2 = I 2R 2 = (0.600 A) 2(6.00 Ω ) = 2.16 W

P 3 = I 2R 3 = (0.600 A) 2(13.0 Ω ) = 4.68 W.

2
P = IV P=V V
R

P = IV V
P = (0.600 A)(12.0 V) = 7.20 W.

P 1 + P 2 + P 3 = (0.360 + 2.16 + 4.68) W = 7.20 W.

R s = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ....
 Rp

I1 = V I2 = V I3 = V I
R1 R2 R3

I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3.

⎛ ⎞
I= V + V + V =V 1 + 1 + 1 .
R1 R2 R3 ⎝R 1 R 2 R 3 ⎠

⎛ ⎞
I= V =V 1 .
Rp ⎝R p ⎠

Rp

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ....
R p R 1 R 2 R .3

Rp
 V = 12.0 V R 1 = 1.00 Ω R 2 = 6.00 Ω R 3 = 13.0 Ω

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 .
R p R 1 R 2 R 3 1.00 Ω 6.00 Ω 13.0 Ω

1 = 1.00 + 0.1667 + 0.07692 = 1.2436 .

Rp Ω Ω Ω Ω

Rp

Rp = 1 Ω = 0.8041 Ω .
1.2436
R p = 0.804 Ω .

Rp

Rp

I = V = 12.0 V = 14.92 A.
R p 0.8041 Ω

I 1 = V = 12.0 V = 12.0 A.
R 1 1.00 Ω

I 2 = V = 12.0 V = 2.00 A
R 2 6.00 Ω

I 3 = V = 12.0 V = 0.92 A.
R 3 13.0 Ω

I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = 14.92 A.

2
P=V
R
 2 (12.0 V) 2
P1 = V = = 144 W.
R1 1.00 Ω

2 (12.0 V) 2
P2 = V = = 24.0 W
R2 6.00 Ω

2 (12.0 V) 2
P3 = V = = 11.1 W.
R3 13.0 Ω

P = IV
P = IV = (14.92 A)(12.0 V) = 179 W.

P 1 + P 2 + P 3 = 144 W + 24.0 W + 11.1 W = 179 W.

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
Rp R1 R2 R3
 R1
R2 R3

IR

R1 R2 R3
IR R1 I2 R2 R2

R2 R3
R1

R2 R3 Rp R1

R tot = R 1 + R p.

Rp

1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 0.2436 .
R p R 2 R 3 6.00 Ω 13.0 Ω Ω
 Rp = 1 Ω = 4.11 Ω .
0.2436

R tot = R 1 + R p = 1.00 Ω + 4.11 Ω = 5.11 Ω .

20.0 Ω
0.804 Ω

IR R1 I R1 IR
V 1 = IR 1.
I V1 I

I = V = 12.0 V = 2.35 A.
R tot 5.11 Ω

V 1 = IR 1 = (2.35 A)(1.00 Ω ) = 2.35 V.

R2 R3 V1
R2 R3

R2 Vp
R2 R3 V1
V p = V − V 1 = 12.0 V − 2.35 V = 9.65 V.

I2 R2
Vp
I2 = = 9.65 V = 1.61 A.
R 2 6.00 Ω

R2

R2

P 2 = (I 2 ) 2R 2 = (1.61 A) 2(6.00 Ω ) = 15.5 W.

 IR

R3
IR
R1 R2

IR

R
r

r
r V
V = emf − Ir
r r
 P
V = qE

V = emf − Ir,
r I
I

R load
R load + r

I= emf .
R load + r

R load r

r
R load r r

0.100 Ω
 10.0- Ω 0.500- Ω
0.500- Ω 0.500 Ω
0.500- Ω

V = emf − Ir

I= emf = 12.0 V = 1.188 A.

R load + r 10.1 Ω
V = emf − Ir
V = emf − Ir = 12.0 V − (1.188 A)(0.100 Ω)
= 11.9 V.

10.0 Ω

R load = 0.500 Ω

I= emf = 12.0 V = 20.0 A.

R load + r 0.600 Ω

V = emf − Ir = 12.0 V − (20.0 A)(0.100 Ω)

= 10.0 V.

0.500 Ω

0.500 - Ω P = I 2R
P load = I 2R load = (20.0 A) 2(0.500 Ω) = 2.00×10 2 W.

V2 IV V
R

I= emf = 12.0 V = 12.0 A.

R load + r 1.00 Ω

V = emf − Ir = 12.0 V − (12.0 A)(0.500 Ω)

= 6.00 V,

P load = I 2R load = (12.0 A) 2(0.500 Ω ) = 72.0 W.

 R

R1
R2
R3
R4

V = emf – Ir.

V - I
 Nimitz

V = emf − Ir I

emf 1 + emf 2 r1 + r2
 series
⎛
emf 1 – emf 2⎞⎠
⎝
I= r1 + r2
R load
⎛ ⎞
⎝ emf 1 + emf 2⎠
I=
r 1 + r 2 + R load

⎛
emf 1 − emf 2⎞⎠
⎝
I= r1 + r2

⎛
⎝ emf 1 + emf 2⎞⎠
I=
r 1 + r 2 + R load

I= emf r tot
⎛
r tot + R load⎞⎠
⎝
 I= emf
⎛
r tot + R load⎞⎠
⎝

mV
m
mV
m

Carcharias taurus
100 mA/cm 2
 I1 = I2 + I3

I1 = I2 + I3 I1
I2 I3
V PE elec = qV

emf − Ir − IR 1 − IR 2 = 0 emf = Ir + IR 1 + IR 2
IR

I1 I2 I3 I

–1.
 −IR
+IR
–

– −

I1 I2 I3

I 1 = I 2 + I 3,
I1 I2 I3
 R2 I2
−I 2R 2 –
+emf 1 r1 −I 2r 1
−I 1R 1

−I 2R 2 + emf 1 − I 2r 1 − I 1R 1 = −I 2(R 2 + r 1) + emf 1 − I 1R 1 = 0.

−3I 2 + 18 − 6I 1 = 0.

+ I 1R 1 + I 3R 3 + I 3r 2 − emf 2= +I 1 R 1 + I 3⎛⎝R 3 + r 2⎞⎠ − emf 2 = 0.

+ 6I 1 + 2I 3 − 45 = 0.
I2
I 2 = 6 − 2I 1.
I3
I 3 = 22.5 − 3I 1.
I1
I 1 = I 2 + I 3 = (6 − 2I 1) + (22.5 − 3I 1) = 28.5 − 5I 1.

6I 1 = 28.5, and
I 1 = 4.75 A.
I1
I 2 = 6 − 2I 1 = 6 − 9.50
I 2 = −3.50 A.
I2
I1
I 3 = 22.5−3I 1 = 22.5 − 14.25
I 3 = 8.25 A.

I1 = I2 + I3
 ɛ R1 R2

I1 I2

E - I 1R 1 I1 = E/R1
E - I 2R 2 I2 = E/R2

E
R1
R2

I1

I2
 r

IG

50 µA 50 µA
25 µA
 25- Ω V = IR = ⎛⎝50 µA⎞⎠(25 Ω) = 1.25 mV

R
R
25-Ω 50-µA
50 µA

R tot = R + r = V = 10 V = 200 kΩ, or

I 50 µA
R = R tot − r = 200 kΩ − 25 Ω ≈ 200 k Ω .
R r
25-µA

R
R R r

25- Ω
50-µA R r
IG R
IR IR = I Gr IR = = r R IG 50 µA I
I

IG 50 µA
R=r = (25 Ω ) = 1.25×10 −3 Ω .
I 0.999950 A

R
R R I
R r
 R Voltmeter >>R

R Voltmeter ≅ R

10 6
 V
V = emf − Ir I r
r I
V = emf

R, IR

emf x Ex
 emf x
emf x = IR x Rx

emf x
emf s emf x
emf s = IR s I
emf x
I
emf s
emf x IR x R x
= = .
emf s IR s R s
emf x
Rx
emf x = emf s .
Rs

I
Ex R
Rx E x = IR x I

R Rx / Rs

emf x
Rx / Rs emf s
Rx Rs
I
 R=V V V
I
I I

R1 R2 R3
R3 Rx R3

IR
IR IR
I 1 R 1 = I 2R 3.
IR IR
I 1 R 2 = I 2R x.

I1 R1 I2 R3
= .
I1 R2 I2 Rx

R2
Rx = R3 .
R1

R3
Rx IR

R1 R2 R3
 Rx

RC
RC R C

RC

Vc = Q / C Q
C
I 0 = emf
R
IR

I 0 = emf IR
R
R
 RC

Q = C ⋅ emf t=0
q τ RC

t t=0

C R
V = emf(1 − e −t / RC) (charging),
V
RC
τ = RC,
τ RC R

C τ = RC
t = τ = RC
V = emf ⎛⎝1 − e −1⎞⎠ = emf(1 − 0.368) = 0.632 ⋅ emf.

τ = RC
τ
τ τ

V0
I0 = V0
R
V V C
R
V = V e −t / RC(discharging).
 C R
V = V0 t=0
τ

τ = RC
R
τ = RC
−1
V = V0 ⋅ e = 0.368V 0
τ τ

Selasphorus rufus

5.0×10 2 m/s
RC τ RC
10.0 Ω 8.0×10 –2 m.
 τ τ = RC

C τ
x v t
x = vt or t = vx .

5.0×10 2 m/s x 8.0×10 –2 m.

–2
t = vx = 8.0×102 m = 1.6×10 −4 s.
5.0×10 m/s
t τ
−4
C = t = 1.6×10 s = 16 µF.
R 10.0 Ω
C F
C

160 µs

RC
RC
RC
RC

RC

RC

RC τ
 RC

8.00-µF
3
1.00×10 Ω
2
5.00×10 V

5.00×10 2 V
5.00×10 2 V τ

τ τ = RC
s/ Ω
τ = RC = (1.00×10 3 Ω )(8.00 µF) = 8.00 ms.

V = 0.368V 0 = 3.680×10 3 V at t = 8.00 ms.

V′ = 0.368V
= (0.368)⎛⎝3.680×10 3 V⎞⎠
= 1.354×10 3 V at t = 16.0 ms.

V′′ = 0.368V ′ = (0.368)(1.354×10 3 V)

= 498 V at t = 24.0 ms.
 50 µA 50 µA

P e = IV

I1 = I2 + I3

IR
emf = Ir + IR 1 + IR 2

V = IR

R
R R
R s = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ....

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ....
Rp R1 R2 R3

r
V V = emf − Ir I
RC
τ RC τ = RC
V0 = 0 t=0

V = emf(1 − e −t / RC)(charging).
τ

V0 t=0

V = V 0e −t / RC (discharging).
τ

R
 R1 R2 R3
R2 R3
 R1
R2 R3

emf s

τ = RC
Ω ⋅F=s
RC
RC τ

RC RC
R C

t=0
t=0 Q0 τ

R R

R bl
 5.00×10 2 A

1.00×10 9 -Ω

275-Ω

1.00×10 2 -Ω 2.50-kΩ
4.00-k Ω

36.0-Ω 50.0-Ω 700-Ω

5.00×10 2 A
24.0-Ω 96.0-Ω 1.00×10 9 Ω

R1 R2
I3 R 1 >>R 2
I I2
R1
R3
R2

P3 145 Ω
P3
150 Ω

900 kΩ
0.400 Ω
0.500 MΩ
 0.0200 Ω
0.100-Ω
10.0 Ω

2.00 Ω

0.100 Ω 10.0 k Ω

2000 Ω

0.600-Ω

0.050 Ω

0.25 Ω
800 Ω

2.30 Ω
0.100-Ω

I 2 R bulb
V2 ºC/min
R bulb
0.300 kcal/kg ⋅ ºC

3.20-Ω 0.200-Ω

0.0400 Ω
0.200 Ω

15.0-Ω
0.0500 Ω
0.0100-Ω

0.0900 Ω

I1 I2
 I1 I3
25.0-k Ω

25.0-Ω 50.0-µA

25.0-Ω 50.0-µA

25.0-Ω 50.0-µA

25.0-Ω 50.0-µA

10.0-Ω 100-µA

10.0-Ω 100-µA

0.100 Ω
1.00-k Ω
I 1 = 5.00 A I 2 = 3.0 A I 3 = –2.00 A

5.00 Ω
1.00-k Ω

5.00×10 −5 Ω
10.0-Ω

1.00-M Ω
 1.00-MΩ emf x
75.0-k Ω Rx 10.0 Ω Rs
15.0 Ω emf x
75.0-k Ω
Rs 15.0 Ω
75.0-k Ω Rx

10.0 Ω 10.0 kΩ
0.0200-Ω R2
10.00-Ω = 2.000 R3
R1

10.00-Ω

10.00-Ω
RC
0.500-µF
R
40.0-Ω 25.0-µA

RC
40.0-Ω 0.100 µs
25.0-µA 0.0400 Ω

10.0-µA
800 kΩ
7.50-µF
100-kΩ
emf x RC

R x = 5.000 Ω
R s = 2.500 Ω C
R
emf x
500-Ω 1.50-µF
R x = 1.200 Ω
RC
R s = 1.247 Ω
Rx
RC
R2
R3 2500 Ω Rx = 0.625
R1
8.00-µF

R3
Rx
100 Ω R1 50.0 Ω R2 175 Ω 6.00×10 2 V
 RC
2 160-µF
1.00×10 µs
31.2-k Ω
1.00 kΩ
1.67 kJ
kg ⋅ ºC

RC
V0 100-Ω 3
1.00×10 s 0.100-Ω
0.865V 0

RC

250-µF
500-Ω

75.0-M Ω

RC

RC
600-µF

RC
 R

P two

R1 R2 R3 r E

R R

R
R
 R

b c d
d e f
f h j
a h i

b c d
d e f
f h j
a h i

Ia = Ii + Ic
two
Ii = Ij - If R
Ie = Ih - Ii
Ic = Ij - Ia
Id = Ih - Ij
R
R

R R

R R
 I I I

I I I a
I I I e
R3
R5.
R1
R

E1 + E2 + I1R1 - I2R2 + I1r1 - I2r2 + I1R5

- E 1 + E 2 + I 1 R 1 - I 2 R 2 + I 1 r1 - I 2 r2 - I 1 R 5
E1 - E2 - I1R1 + I2R2 - I1r1 + I2r2 - I1R5
E1 + E2 - I1R1 + I2R2 - I1r1 + I2r2 + I1R5
I I

R1 a b

R3 a j

R5 d e

I1 I3 I2

R R E)
R R

R R

E E E
 C
R1 E E
R1 C

R2

R R
R I I I

R R R r r E
E I I I
E
R
R R r E

t
 like poles repel and unlike poles attract

impossible to separate north and south poles

ferrum
(770ºC)
not do
B
B
 Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges

F q
v B
F = qvB sin ,
v B.
B
B
F = qvB sin B

B= F
qv sin
sin

1T= 1N = 1N
C ⋅ m/s A ⋅ m

1 G = 10 −4 T

5×10 −5 T
direction F v B

v B
F
 v B
q v B v B

F = qvB sin
 F = qvb sin .
sin =1 90º

F = ⎛
⎝20×10
–9
C⎞⎠(10 m/s)⎛⎝5×10 –5 T⎞⎠
⎛ N ⎞ = 1×10 –11 N.
= 1×10 –11 (C ⋅ m/s)⎝
C ⋅ m/s ⎠

B
F c = mv 2 / r sin =1
 F = qvB

F Fc
2
qvB = mv
r .
r
r = mv .
qB
r m q v
B v

(Don’t try this at

home, as it will permanently magnetize and ruin the TV.)
7
6.00×10 m/s
B = 0.500 T
 r r = mv
qB

v B
⎛
⎝9.11×10
−31
kg⎞⎠⎛⎝6.00×10 7 m/s⎞⎠
r = mv = ⎛ −19 ⎞
qB C⎠(0.500 T)
⎝1.60×10

= 6.83×10 −4 m

r = 0.683 mm.

Charged particles approaching magnetic field lines may get trapped in spiral orbits about the
lines rather than crossing them
tokamak
creates a voltage across across

–ε

B v l

F = qvB F e = qE
qE = qvB

E = vB.
E B
E = /l l

= vB.
l

= Blv (B, v, and l, mutually perpendicular),

l v
 B Hall
probes

B v
= Blv l v

B v l = Blv

B v l
= Blv = (0.100 T)⎛⎝4.00×10 −3 m⎞⎠(0.200 m/s)
= 80.0 µV
 vd
F = qv dB sin B l
F = (qv dB sin )(N) N l
N = nV n V
V = Al A F = (qv dB sin )(nAl)

F = (nqAv d)lB sin .

nqAv d = I
F = IlB sin
magnetic force on a length l of wire carrying a current I in a uniform magnetic field B
l
F = IB sin I
l
B F
 F = IlB sin

B = 1.50 T l = 5.00 cm I = 20.0 A

F = IlB sin I B
90º sin =1

F = IlB sin
F = IlB sin = (20.0 A)(0.0500 m)(1.50 T)(1).

1T= N
A⋅m
F = 1.50 N.
 The Hunt for Red October

w l

τ = rF sin F r r
F
r = w/2
 (w / 2)F sin

τ = w F sin + w F sin = wF sin

2 2

w/2 F
sin =1 sin = 0
=0

l B F = IlB F

τ = wIlB sin .
N N A = wl

τ = NIAB sin .

I N A
B
 τ = NIAB sin = 90º sin =1

sin =1
τ max = NIAB.

τ max = (100)(15.0 A)⎛⎝0.100 m 2⎞⎠(2.00 T)

= 30.0 N ⋅ m.

=0
reverses =0
=0
=0 brushes

=0

B I

A B
 B
I

point the thumb in the direction of the current, and the fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic field loops
 ⊙
⊗

µ0 I
B= (long straight wire),
2πr
I r µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m/A
(µ 0 µ0
r
 5.0×10 −5 T B 1.0×10 −4 T
µ0 I
B= I
2πr

I
2π ⎛⎝5.0×10 −2 m⎞⎠⎛⎝1.0×10 −4 T⎞⎠
I = 2πrB
µ0 =
4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A
= 25 A.

Each segment of current

produces a magnetic field like that of a long straight wire, and the total field of any shape current is the vector sum of the fields
due to each segment.

µ0 I
B= (at center of loop),
2R
R only

N B = Nµ 0I / (2R)
 l

B = µ 0nI (inside a solenoid),

n (n = N / l N l
B
 B = µ 0nI

n = N = 2000 = 1000 m −1 = 10 cm −1 .
l 2.00 m

B = µ 0nI = ⎛⎝4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A⎞⎠⎛⎝1000 m −1⎞⎠(1600 A)

= 2.01 T.
 define

F2
I1 r
µ 0 I1
B1 = .
2πr

F2 F = IlB sin
sin =1
F 2 = I 2lB 1.
F F2
F 1 = −F 2 F/l
B1

F = µ 0 I1 I2.
l 2πr
F/l I1 I2 r
 pinch effect

operational definition of the ampere

⎛ −7 ⎞ 2
F = ⎝4π×10 T ⋅ m/A⎠(1 A) = 2×10 −7 N/m.
l (2π)(1 m)

µ0 4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A 1 T = 1 N/(A ⋅ m)

2×10 −7 N/m

2×10 −7 N/m

1C=1A⋅s

r
r = mv
qB

v q B r m
 v
velocity selector
v

F = qE F = qvB qE = qvB q

v=E
B
v E
B
q q
resonance nuclei magnetic

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

 10 −6 10 −8 less

1 G = 10 –4 T

= Blv
 µ0 I
B= I
2πr
r µ0

µ0 I
B= R
2R

B = µ 0nI n
(n = N / l N l

µ 0 = 4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A

v
B

1T= 1N
A⋅m
 q
F = qvB sin ,
v B
B

1T= 1N = 1N .
C ⋅ m/s A ⋅ m
direction
v B F
v B v B

r = mv ,
qB
v B m q

= Blv (B, v, and l, mutually perpendicular)

l v

F = IlB sin θ,
I l B
I B I

τ
τ = NIAB sin ,
 N I A B

µ0 I
B= (long straight wire),
2πr
I r µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m/A

Point the thumb of

the right hand in the direction of current, and the fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field loops

µ0 I
B= (at center of loop),
2R
R B = µ 0nI / (2R) N

B = µ 0nI (inside a solenoid),

n

I1 I2 r

F = µ 0 I1 I2.
l 2πr

v = E.
B
 B
v

0.100-µC

0.500-µC

8.00×10 −5-T

B?
5.00×10 7 m/s
1.70×10 −16 N
45º

4.00×10 3 m/s

1.40×10 −16 N

1.00×10 −12 N
 7.50×10 6 m/s

1.00×10 −5 T 3.90×10 −25 kg 3.95×10 −25 kg

3.00×10 5 m/s
7.50×10 7 m/s

Star Trek
Enterprise

5.00×10 −5-T
5.00×10 7 m/s

2.66×10 −26 kg
5.00×10 6 m/s
8.00×10 −5 T?

4.00 x 10 6

1.00 µV
6.00×10 7 m/s
5.00×10 −5 T

2.66×10 −26 kg,

5.00×10 6 m/s
 30.0º 5.00×10 −5 -T

60º
−5
5.50×10 T
7.00×10 −3 N

B 90º

B I

3.00×10 −5-T
 4.00×10 −3 N/m

10.9º?

9.00 N ⋅ m.

300 N ⋅ m

τ = NIAB sin N⋅m

A ⋅ m2 T

0.650×10 −15 m 1.05×10 4 A

3.00×10 −5 T

45.0º
−5
6.00×10 T
 I1
I2

I1 / I2

0.650×10 −15 m
1.05×10 4 A

10 4
5.00×10 −5 T

(5.00×10 −5 T)?
 50 µA

0.250 µC 50 µA

60º

T = 2πm / (qB) f
ω

6.00×10 −7 m/s
proton

N/m 2 . 5.00×10 −5 T
3.00×10 −5 T

3.00×10 −5 T

5.00×10 −5 T

6.64×10 −27 kg
8.70×10 5 m/s

5.00×10 −5 T

5.00×10 −5 T
 x
x

x
y
y
x

x xy
 x

y
y y
x

xy
z z
⊙

y y

x
x  =  2.0 m
x  =  1.0 m
 Closing and opening the
switch change
emf induced by a changing magnetic field
 Φ
Φ = BA cos ,
B A
Φ
Φ T ⋅ m2 B cos =B⊥ B
A Φ = B ⊥A

Φ Φ = BA cos
Φ
Φ
B Φ
Φ
Φ
 ΔΦ Δt
Δt N N
N

emf = −N ΔΦ .
Δt

the emf creates a current I and magnetic

field B that oppose the change in flux Δ Φ —this is known as Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law—induction opposes any

change in flux B coil

change
 recording tapes

giant magnetoresistance

cochlear implant

transcranial magnetic stimulation

Sleep apnea
 B cos

magnitude emf = −N ΔΦ
Δt

emf = N ΔΦ .
Δt

N=1 Δt = 0.100 s ΔΦ

ΔΦ = Δ(BA cos ) = AΔ(B cos ).

Δ(B cos ) = 0.200 T B cos
A = πr 2 = (3.14...)(0.060 m) 2 = 1.13×10 −2 m 2

ΔΦ = (1.13×10 −2 m 2)(0.200 T).

(1.13×10 −2 m 2)(0.200 T)
Emf = N ΔΦ = = 22.6 mV.
Δt 0.100 s
 motional emf

F = qvB sin
emf = Bℓv B v

v
ℓ B B R

emf = Bℓv
B

emf = N ΔΦ .
Δt
 N=1 Φ = BA cos
= 0º cos =1 B A ΔΦ = Δ(BA) = BΔA B
ΔA = ℓ Δ x

emf = BΔA = B ℓΔx .

Δt Δt
Δx / Δt = v
emf = Bℓv (B, ℓ, and v perpendicular)

emf = Bℓv = (5.0×10 −5 T)(1.0 m)(3.0 m/s) = 150 µV

F = IℓB sin
 5.00×10 −5 T

emf = Bℓv

emf = Bℓv
emf = Bℓv
= (5.00×10 −5 T)(2.0×10 4 m)(7.80×10 3 m/s)
= 7.80×10 3 V.

= 90º
sin =1
 = 0º = 90º

Δt

emf = −N ΔΦ .
Δt
N = 200 Δt = 15.0 ms ΔΦ
 ΔΦ = Δ(BA cos ) = ABΔ(cos ).
Δ(cos ) = −1.0 0º 90º ΔΦ = − AB

emf = N AB .
Δt
A = πr 2 = (3.14...)(0.0500 m) 2 = 7.85×10 −3 m 2

(7.85×10 −3 m 2)(1.25 T)
emf = 200 = 131 V.
15.0×10 −3 s

w ℓ

emf = Bℓv v B
B B v sin
emf = Bℓv sin
emf = 2Bℓv sin .

ω = ωt
emf = 2Bℓv sin ωt.
v ω v = rω r = w/2 v = (w / 2)ω

emf = 2Bℓ w ω sin ωt = (ℓw)Bω sin ωt.

2
A = ℓw N
emf = NABω sin ωt
N A ω
B
emf = emf 0 sin ωt,
 emf 0 = NABω
f = ω / 2π T = 1 / f = 2π / ω .

emf 0 T = 1 / f = 2π / ω f

emf 0 = NABω
ω

emf 0

ω emf 0 = NABω emf 0

 ω=Δ .
Δt
π/2

ω = π / 2 rad
0.0150 s
= 104.7 rad/s.
ω
emf 0 = NABω
emf 0 = NABω
= 200(7.85×10 −3 m 2)(1.25 T)(104.7 rad/s).
= 206 V
 ω

IR

P = I 2R
ω

0.400 Ω
I = V/R = (48.0 V)/(0.400 Ω ) = 120 A
P = I 2R = 5.76 kW

I = V/R = (8.0 V)/(0.400 Ω ) = 20 A

P = IV = (20 A) / (8.0 V) = 160 W
primary secondary coils
 Vs Vp

Vs

V s = −N s ΔΦ ,
Δt
Ns ΔΦ Δt
V s = emf s
ΔΦ / Δt
Vp

V p = −N p ΔΦ .
Δt

Vp self-inductance

Vs Ns
= .
Vp Np

P p = I pV p = I sV s = P s.

Vs Ip
= .
Vp Is

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

Is Np
=
Ip Ns

Vs Ns
= Ns
Vp Np

Vs
Ns = Np
Vp

= (50) 100,000 V = 4.17×10 4 .

120 V
 Is Np
= Is
Ip Ns

Np
Is = Ip
Ns
= (10.00 A) 50 = 12.0 mA.
4.17×10 4

P p = I pV p = (10.00 A)(120 V) = 1.20 kW

P p = I sV s = (12.0 mA)(100 kV) = 1.20 kW

Vs Ns
= Ns
Vp Np

Vs
Ns = Np
Vp
= (200) 15.0 V = 25.
120 V
 Is Np
= Ip
Ip Ns

Ns
Ip = Is
Np
= (16.0 A) 25 = 2.00 A.
200

Pp = Ps

circuit breaker fuse

case
 R

three connections to earth or ground

neutral wire

earth/ground wire live

hot wire
doubly insulated

leakage current
ground fault interrupter
isolation transformer
 E2

ΔI/Δt I1
emf 2
ΔI 1
emf 2 = −M ,
Δt
M
M M
M (V ⋅ s)/A = Ω ⋅ s
1H=1 Ω ⋅s
I2 emf 1
ΔI 2
emf 1 = −M ,
Δt
M
M.
M

M
 ΔI

emf = −L ΔI ,
Δt
L

L
L
L
L = 1.0 H
emf = −L(ΔI / Δt)
emf = −L(ΔI / Δt) = (1.0 H)[(10 A) / (1.0 ms)] = 10,000 V
 L
L

emf = −N(ΔΦ / Δt) emf = −L(ΔI / Δt)

emf = −N ΔΦ = −L ΔI .
Δt Δt
L

L = N ΔΦ .
ΔI
L L
ΔΦ ΔI
A
ΔΦ = Δ(BA) = AΔB ΔB
B = µ 0nI = µ 0 NI n = N /ℓ N ℓ
ℓ
ΔΦ = AΔB = µ 0NA ΔI ΔΦ L = N ΔΦ
ℓ ΔI
µ 0 NA ΔI
L = N ΔΦ = N ℓ .
ΔI ΔI

µ0 N 2 A
L= (solenoid).
ℓ
A ℓ

µ0 N 2 A
L= L
ℓ

µ0 N 2 A
L= .
ℓ
A = πr 2 = (3.14...)(0.0200 m) 2 = 1.26×10 −3 m 2 N
ℓ µ 0 = 4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A
L
(4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A)(200) 2(1.26×10 −3 m 2)
L =
0.100 m
= 0.632 mH.

E ind

E ind = 1 LI 2.
2

E ind = 1 LI 2 E ind
2

L E ind = 1 LI 2
2

E ind = 1 LI 2
2
= 0.5(0.632×10 −3 H)(30.0 A) 2 = 0.284 J.
 L
will can

RL

t=0 I 0 = V/R R
L

I = I 0(1 − e −t / τ) (turning on),

RL
I 0 = V/R τ RL

τ = L,
R
τ 1 H=1 Ω·s τ 0.632I 0
−1
I = I 0(1 − e ) = I 0(1 − 0.368) = 0.632I 0 τ

τ τ

τ L R L
τ
R τ
L R
(1/2)LI 02
I2 R I
I = I 0e −t / τ (turning off)
τ = L/R
−1
I = I 0e = 0.368I 0 τ
τ

RL

3.00 Ω

RL τ = L/R

τ τ = L/R

τ = L = 7.50 mH = 2.50 ms.

R 3.00 Ω

I = I 0e −t / τ

I = 0.368I 0 = (0.368)(10.0 A)
= 3.68 A at t = 2.50 ms.

I′ = 0.368I = (0.368)(3.68 A)
= 1.35 A at t = 5.00 ms.

but the change in current lags the

change in voltage in an RL circuit RL
 after

90º

V = −L(ΔI / Δt)
I L

I= V,
XL
V XL
X L = 2π fL,
f
XL XL
1H=1Ω⋅s (cycles/s)( Ω ⋅ s) = Ω
XL L
XL f
ΔI/Δt f, Δt

X L = 2π fL XL
I = V / XL
 X L = 2π fL
X L = 2π fL = 6.28(60.0 / s)(3.00 mH) = 1.13 Ω at 60 Hz.

X L = 2π fL = 6.28(1.00×10 4 /s)(3.00 mH) = 188 Ω at 10 kHz.

I = V / XL

I = V = 120 V = 106 A at 60 Hz.

X L 1.13 Ω

I = V = 120 V = 0.637 A at 10 kHz.

X L 188 Ω

Q=0

90º
 I C

I= V ,
XC
V XC XL XC

XC = 1 ,
2π fC
XC XC
XC C
f

XC = 1 XC
2π fC
I = V / XC

XC = 1
2π fC

XC = 1
2π fC
= 1 = 531 Ω at 60 Hz.
6.28(60.0 / s)(5.00 µF)

XC = 1 = 1
2π fC 6.28(1.00×10 4 / s)(5.00 µF) .
= 3.18 Ω at 10 kHz

I = V / XC

I = V = 120 V = 0.226 A at 60 Hz.

X C 531 Ω

I = V = 120 V = 37.7 A at 10 kHz.

X C 3.18 Ω
XC
Capacitors have the
opposite effect on AC circuits that inductors have

in phase

0º

RLC
RLC
XL XC
 RLC

R XL XC
RLC

V0 V
I0 = or I rms = rms .
Z Z
I0 V0 Z

Z R XL XC
VR VL VC

R L C VL
VC
VR
V = VR + VL + VC
V
VR VL 90º VC 90º
VL VC 180º
V0 not
R L C

V 0 = V 0R 2 +(V 0L − V 0C) 2,

V 0R V 0L V 0C R L C
V 0 = I 0Z V 0R = I 0R V 0L = I 0X L
V 0C = I 0X C

I 0 Z = I 0 2 R 2 + (I 0 X L − I 0X C ) 2 = I 0 R 2 + (X L − X C) 2.

I0 Z

Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2,
RLC R=0
XL = 0 XC = 0
 RLC

RLC 40.0 Ω 5.00 µF

L C
V rms = 120 V I rms

Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2

X L = 1.13 Ω
X C = 531 Ω 40.0 Ω Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2

Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2
= (40.0 Ω ) 2 + (1.13 Ω − 531 Ω ) 2
= 531 Ω at 60.0 Hz.
X L = 188 Ω X C = 3.18 Ω

Z = (40.0 Ω ) 2 + (188 Ω − 3.18 Ω ) 2

= 190 Ω at 10.0 kHz.

XL XC

I rms I rms = V rms / Z

V rms
I rms = = 120 V = 0.226 A
Z 531 Ω

V rms
I rms = = 120 V = 0.633 A
Z 190 Ω
 RLC
RLC
I rms = V rms / Z Z Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2
V rms
I rms = .
R + (X L − X C) 2
2

XL XC
f0 Z=R
I rms f0
X L = X C.
XL XC

2πf 0 L = 1 .
2πf 0 C
f0

f0 = 1 ,
2π LC
f0 RLC natural frequency
f0 Z=R I rms

RLC
f0 f0
I rms f0

RLC f0
V0

RLC 40.0 Ω 5.00 µF

I rms V rms

f0 = 1
2π LC
 L C f0 f0 = 1
2π LC

f0 = 1
2π LC
= 1 = 1.30 kHz.
2π (3.00×10 −3 H)(5.00×10 −6 F)

V rms
I rms = = 120 V = 3.00 A.
Z 40.0 Ω

RLC
RLC

RLC ϕ V I

cos ϕ = R .
Z
Z=R cos ϕ = 1 ϕ=0º

I rms
average power
P ave = I rmsV rms cos ϕ,
cos ϕ
cos ϕ = 1

RLC 40.0 Ω 5.00 µF

V rms f = 60.0Hz

cos ϕ = R .
Z
Z= 531 Ω

cos ϕ = 40.0 Ω = 0.0753 at 60.0 Hz.

531 Ω
 ϕ = cos −1 0.0753 = 85.7º at 60.0 Hz.

90º
RC 90º

P ave = I rmsV rms cos ϕ.

I rms
P ave = (0.226 A)(120 V)(0.0753) = 2.04 W at 60.0 Hz.

cos ϕ = 1 I rms
P ave = (3.00 A)(120 V)(1) = 360 W

RLC

RLC
RLC

LC f0 RLC

LC
LC

XC = 1
2π fC
 τ RL τ=L L
R
R

emf = NABω sin ωt A N

ω B t

E ind = 1 LI 2
2

emf = −N ΔΦ
Δt

1H=1 Ω ⋅s

Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2

X L = 2π fL

Φ = BA cos B
A

emf 0 = NABω

cos ϕ

f0 = 1
2π LC
 Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

Φ Φ = BA cos B
A
Φ T ⋅ m2
Φ

emf = −N ΔΦ
Δt
ΔΦ Δt
N
I B oppose the change in flux ΔΦ

B motional emf

emf = Bℓv (B, ℓ, and v perpendicular),

ℓ v

emf = NABω sin ωt,

A N ω B
emf 0
emf 0 = NABω.

Vs Ns
= ,
Vp Np
Vp Vs Np Ns
Is Np
Ip Is =
Ip Ns
 ΔI 1 / Δt emf 2
ΔI 1
emf 2 = −M ,
Δt
M
ΔI 2 / Δt emf 1
ΔI 2
emf 1 = −M ,
Δt
M

emf = −L ΔI ,
Δt
L ΔI / Δt

1H=1Ω⋅s
L N

L = N ΔΦ .
ΔI

µ0 N 2 A
L= (solenoid),
ℓ
N A ℓ
−7
µ 0 = 4π×10 T ⋅ m/A
E ind

E ind = 1 LI 2.
2

RL

I = I 0(1 − e −t / τ) (turning on).

I0 = V / R
τ τ=L L R
R
τ 0.632I 0
τ

I = I 0e −t / τ (turning off)
I0
 0.368I 0 τ τ

90º

I= V,
XL
V
XL
X L = 2π fL,
f
XL

90º

I= V ,
XC
V
XC

XC = 1 .
2π fC
XC

V0 V
I0 = or I rms = rms ,
Z Z
I0 V0

Z = R 2 + (X L − X C) 2
f0 XL = XC

f0 = 1 .
2π LC
ϕ V I

cos ϕ = R ,
Z
ϕ = 0º RLC
RLC
P ave = I rmsV rms cos ϕ,
cos ϕ
T ⋅ m2 / A = Ω ⋅ s = H
 ΔΦ Δt
1 T ⋅ m2 / s = 1 V

0.250 m 2

5.00×10 −5 T
 2.00×10 6 A
25.0 µs

3.00×10 −5 T

B ℓ v
emf = Bℓvsin
v B ℓ
B ℓ B
v B

5.00×10 −5 T 7.80×10 3 m/s

5.00×10 −5 T

R
A ρ

v B
R
 ω
2π/ω

t=0 t = 0.100 ms

0.250 m 2
5.00×10 −5 T

2.00 Ω

N s / N p = 1000

0.100 Ω
 ΔI 1
emf 2 = −M
Δt
(V ⋅ s)/A = Ω ⋅ s

3.00 kΩ

0.200 Ω

200 J/kg·ºC

RL
500 Ω
 RL
5.00 MΩ 0.250 µF

2.00 kΩ

0.100 Ω
1.00 MΩ RL
100 kΩ

4.00 Ω

10.0 mΩ
I0
L R

2.00 Ω

15.0 Ω

0.500 Ω

τ RL 40.0 Ω
Z
Z

RC 40.0 Ω
100 Ω 5.00 µF
20.0 kΩ Z

LC 3.00 mH
2.00 MΩ 5.00 µF
Z
0.250 Ω

40.0 µF
 RLC

1.00 µH

2.00 µF

RLC 2.50 Ω 100 µH

80.0 µF

V rms = 5.60 V
I rms
I rms
RLC 1.00 kΩ
150 µH

V rms = 408 V I rms

I rms

RLC 2.50 Ω 100 µH

80.0 µF
f = 120 Hz

RLC 1.00 kΩ
150 µH
f = 7.50 Hz

RLC 200 Ω
45.0º

V rms = 408 V
θ

two
electromagnetic waves
0
 µ0

c= 1 .
µ0 0

µ0 0 c

c= 1 = 3.00×10 8 m/s,
(8.85×10 −12 C 2 )(4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m )
N ⋅ m2 A

RLC f0 = 1
2π LC

RLC
 RLC

υ= f

1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec
 E

E E

t=0

E
E c

( )
⎛
⎝ f ⎞⎠

E B

I
E B
 E B

V ) cos ( 4 πx)
E  =  (60 m
3

V ) sin (4.0π×10 6 t)
E  =  (30 m
 E B
E B
E
B
E

E =c
B
E B

B E
1000 V/m

B B

B=E
c.

E c B

B= 1000 V/m = 3.33×10 -6 T,

3.00×10 8 m/s
B
 vW = f

c vW = f vW
f vW = c
c= f .
 E

E
 c= f c = 3.00×10 8 m / s

= c.
f
f = 1530 kHz

= 3.00×10 8 m/s
1530×10 3 cycles/s
= 196 m.
f = 105.1 MHz

= 3.00×10 8 m/s
105.1×10 6 cycles/s
= 2.85 m.
f = 1.90 GHz

= 3.00×10 8 m/s
1.90×10 9 cycles/s
= 0.158 m.

/2
10 9 Hz LC 10 12 Hz
ΔT

ΔT

e = 0.97

e=1
 CO 2 H2 O

40ºC
CO 2

0.30 µm
34ºC
100ºC

100ºC

Q = mcΔT,
ΔT m
c
m
Q = m(4186 J/kg/K)(100ºC – 34ºC) = m(276,276 J/kg) = m(276 kJ/kg).
m
Q v = mL v = m(2256 kJ/kg).
m ρ = m/V ρ V
 m = ρV
= (1000 kg/m 3)(area×thickness(m 3 ))
= (1000 kg/m 3)(π(0.80×10 – 3 m) 2 / 4)(0.30×10 – 6 m)
= 0.151×10 – 9 kg.
Q Qv

Q tot = m(cΔT + L v) = (0.151×10 −9 kg)(276 kJ/kg + 2256 kJ/kg) = 382×10 −9 kJ.

Q tot ×400 = 150 mW

O3
 O3

CFCl 3 (hv)
CFCl 3 + hv → CFCl 2 + Cl.

Cl + O 3 → ClO + O 2 and ClO + O 3 → Cl + 2O 2.

37º
 -ray

-ray
 E B

E2 B2

I E2 B2
I ave
 2
c 0 E0
I ave = ,
2
c 0 E0
W/m 2
I ave
B = E/c 0 = 1 / µ 0c 2 µ0

cB 20
I ave = ,
2µ 0
B0
I ave
c ⋅ B0 = E0
E0 B0
I ave = .
2µ 0

I 0 = 2I ave

W/m 2 E0
B0

I=P= 1.00 kW .
A 0.300 m × 0.400 m
I = I ave

I ave = 1000 W2 = 8.33×10 3 W/m 2.

0.120 m

I 0 = 2I ave = 1.67×10 4 W / m 2.

E0 I ave

⎛2I ⎞
1/2
E 0 = ⎝ c ave ⎠ .
0

2(8.33×10 3 W/m 2)
E0 = 8
(3.00×10 m/s)(8.85×10 – 12 C 2 / N ⋅ m 2)
= 2.51×10 3 V/m.
 E
B 0 = c0 .

3
B 0 = 2.51×108 V/m
3.0×10 m/s
= 8.35×10 −6 T.

B = E/c c

0.74 µm 300 µm

B
 c

c= 1 ,
µ0 0
µ0 0
 E = c,
B
B E

vW = f

c= f ,
f c

2
c 0 E0
I ave = ,
2
I ave W/m 2 E0

B0
cB 20
I ave =
2µ 0

E0 B0
I ave = .
2µ 0
I ave

E = F/q q
 3×10 18 Hz

1×10 −10 m
c

µ0 0

c= 1
µ0 0
1.50×10 11 m
µ0 0

2.00×10 6

12.0×10 9
5.00×10 −4 T

5×10 −6 T

0.75c
B
B=E
c

/4

±1.00

15.0 − µm

1.20×10 15 Hz

6×10 −5 s
 1.0 m 2

15ºC

800 W/m 2

4.00×10 −9 T

1.00 W/m 2

3.84×10 8 m
 7.50 µV/m

1.50×10 13 m 2 1.50×10 9 -Hz

1.50 µm

W/m 2

2.00º C

3.47×10 3 J/kg ⋅ ºC

45.0ºC

3.76×10 3 J/kg ⋅ ºC

1.00×10 11 V / m
1.00-mm 2
W/m 2
1.00-mm 2

I 0 = 2I ave E 0 = 2E rms
B 0 = 2B rms

1.00×10 −12 T

r2 2.50 µH

LC t=0 E = E 0 sin 2π ft
B = B 0 sin 2π ft f = 1.00 GHz

800 − µH
 9.20×10 −5 T

LC

LC

W/m 2

µT

µT
T  =  3.0×10 −9  s E  =  5.0×10 5  N / C

⎛ 5
⎝5.0×10  N / C⎞⎠ sin ⎛⎝2π ⎛⎝3.0 ×10 −9  s⎞⎠t⎞⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛ 5
⎝5.0×10  N / C⎞⎠ sin ⎜⎛ 2πt
−9 ⎞
⎟
⎝⎝3.0 ×10  s⎠⎠
⎛ 5
⎝5.0×10  N / C⎞⎠ cos ⎛⎝2π ⎛⎝3.0 ×10 −9  s⎞⎠t⎞⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛ 5
⎝5.0×10  N / C⎞⎠ cos ⎜⎛ 2πt
−9 ⎞
⎟
⎝⎝3.0 ×10  s⎠⎠
f   =  2.0
5
E  =  6.0×10  N/C
 , some of the light is transmitted, some is reflected,

Essential Knowledge 6.E.2 When light hits a smooth reflecting surface at an angle, it reflects at the same angle on the other side
of the line perpendicular to the surface (specular reflection); and this law of reflection accounts for the size and location of

Essential Knowledge 6.E.4 The reflection of light from surfaces can be used to form images.
r = i
c
c
2.26×10 8 m/s
 c

c = 2.9972458×10 8 m/s ≈ 3.00×10 8 m/s,

3.00×10 8 m/s

n
n = cv ,
v c c

c = 2.9972458×10 8 m/s ≈ 3.00×10 8 m/s

n = cv

n≥1

n
c n=1
v c
 n

Gases at 0ºC , 1 atm

Liquids at 20ºC

Solids at 20ºC

20ºC

v n
n = c/v

n = c/v v
v = nc .
c

8
v = 3.00×10 m/s
1.923
= 1.56×10 8 m/s.
 n 1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2.

n1 n2 1 2

n 1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2

30.0º 22.0º
 n 1 = 1.00
1 = 30.0º 2 = 22.0º
n2

n 1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2.
n2
sin 1.
n2 = n1
sin 2

n 2 = 1.00 sin 30.0º = 0.500

sin 22.0º 0.375
= 1.33.

30.0º
2

n 1 = 1.00 1 = 30.0º
n 2 = 2.419 2

2
n
sin 2 = n 1 sin 1.
2

⎛ ⎞
sin 2 = 1.00 sin 30.0º=⎝0.413⎠(0.500) = 0.207.
2.419

2 = sin −10.207 = 11.9º.

30º 11.9º
22º
 total reflection refraction

n1 > n2
2 > 1
2 2 90º
c 1 90º
c 2 = 90º 1

1 90º c
 n2 < n1
c

n 1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2.

1 = c 90º 2 = 90º sin 90º=1

n 1 sin 1 = n 2.

c = sin −1⎛⎝n 2 / n 1⎞⎠ for n 1 > n 2.

c
 c = sin −1⎛⎝n 2 / n 1⎞⎠ c n 2 = 1.00
n 1 = 1.49

c = sin −1⎛⎝n 2 / n 1⎞⎠.

c = sin −1(1.00 / 1.49) = sin −1(0.671)

42.2º.

42.2º

n1 > n2
48.6º 24.4º
66.3º
 low loss

high bandwidth
reduced crosstalk
45º

24.4º
24.4º

≈ 2.17
 n
n n
n
lens

f
 f
f

P = 1.
f
P
P

P = 1.
f
f P
−1
1 D = 1/m 1m

f = 8.00 cm.
 P= 1 = 1 = 12.5 D.
f 0.0800 m

F
f
F f = –5.00 cm
P = –20 D

F
f
 do
di
ho hi

1 + 1 =1
do di f

hi d
= − i = m.
ho do
hi / ho m

1 + 1 =1
do di f
hi d
=− i =m
ho do
 di
di m d o = 0.750 m and f = 0.500 m

di
m

di
1 + 1 = 1.
do di f
di
1 =1− 1.
di f do
1 / di
1 = 1 − 1 = 0.667
m .
d i 0.500 m 0.750 m
di

di = m = 1.50 m.
0.667
di
1 =1− 1.
di f do

fd o
di = .
do − f

m di do

di
m= – = – 1.50 m = – 2.00.
do 0.750 m
 case
1 do > f f

case 2 do < f f
 d o = 7.50 cm f = 10.0 cm

m m = –d i / d o di

do f di
1 =1− 1.
di f do
1/d i
1 = 1 − 1 = −0.0333
cm .
d i 10.0 cm 7.50 cm
di

d i = − cm = −30.0 cm.
0.0333
 m di do

di
m=− = − −30.0 cm = 3.00.
do 10.0 cm

di

case 3
 m di
1 =1− 1,
di f do

fd o
di = .
do − f
f = –10.0 cm d o = 7.50 cm 1/d i
1 = 1 − 1 = −0.2333
cm .
d i −10.0 cm 7.50 cm
di

d i = − cm = −4.29 cm.
0.2333

(7.5)(−10)
di = ⎛ = −75 / 17.5 = −4.29 cm.
7.5 − (−10)⎞⎠
⎝
 m di do

di
m=− = − −4.29 cm = 0.571.
do 7.50 cm

d m

f do > f
f do < f m>1
f m<1

?
 f
f
 f

P = 1/ f

f = R,
2
R

f
 f do f

case 1 image
for mirrors

d i = 3.00 m
do
f = R / 2 = 25.0 cm

di f do
1 + 1 = 1.
do di f
do
1 = 1 − 1.
do f di
1/d o
1 = 1 − 1 = 3.667
m .
d o 0.250 m 3.00 m
 do

d o = 1 m = 27.3 cm.
3.667

do > f
f

0.900 kW/m 2

Integrated Concept Problem

R = 2 f = 80.0 cm

900 W/m 2 A
2
900 W/m ×A L
A = 1 (2πR)L
4
(3.14)
A = π R(1.00 m) = (0.800 m)(1.00 m) = 1.26 m 2.
2 2

⎛ 2 W ⎞⎛ 2⎞
⎝9.00×10 m 2 ⎠⎝1.26 m ⎠ = 1130 W.

Q = mcΔT m
 ⎛ ⎞
2
m = ρV = ρπ⎝d ⎠ (1.00 m)
2
= ⎛⎝8.00×10 2 kg/m 3⎞⎠(3.14)(0.0100 m) 2 (1.00 m)
= 0.251 kg.

ΔT = Q / mc
(1130 W)(60.0 s)
=
(0.251 kg)(1670 J·kg/ºC)
= 162ºC.

400ºC

do < f f

case 2 image for

mirrors
f case 3
 d o = 12.0 cm
m = 0.0320 di f

m = –d i / d o di
d i = −md o.

d i = – (0.0320)(12.0 cm) = –0.384 cm.

1= 1 + 1
f do di
 1= 1 + 1 = −2.52
cm .
f 12.0 cm −0.384 cm
f

f = cm = –0.400 cm.
– 2.52

R = 2 ∣ f ∣ = 0.800 cm.

f
R

90º
 c = 2.9972458×10 8 m/s ≈ 3.00×10 8 m/s.
n = cv v c n

n 1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2

90º

f
P P= 1
f

1 + 1 =1 hi d
=− i =m
do di f ho do

f =R
2
di do

always do di f
 di
do
 2.012×10 8 m/s

2.290×10 8 m/s

3.84×10 5 km

2
 3

25.0º

Δx

10.0º
n = 1.55 14.9º

90º

45.0º
40.3º

80.0º 15.2º
3.84×10 8 m

n = 1.000293

48.6º
Δx 40.0º
 24.4º

30.0º

60.0º
45.0º

55.0º

68.4º

30.0º

45.0º
R V

45.0º
R V

75.0º
 d i = –d o

hi = ho

f = R/2

W/m 2

100 cm 2

1.40×10 6 km
1.50×10 8 km

m = f / ⎛⎝ f − d o⎞⎠
n
enabling science
 , some of the light is transmitted, some is reflected,

Essential Knowledge 6.E.2 When light hits a smooth reflecting surface at an angle, it reflects at the same angle on the other side
of the line perpendicular to the surface (specular reflection); and this law of reflection accounts for the size and location of

Essential Knowledge 6.E.4 The reflection of light from surfaces can be used to form images.

wavelength have been given specific names. These include (in order of increasing wavelength spanning a range from

10 10
 di
di
 totally relaxed accommodated fully accommodated

p = 1/ f

P= 1 + 1
do di

hi d
= − i = m.
ho do
di
d o = 25 cm
 1.20×10 −2

hi h o = 1.20×10 −2
d o = 60.0 cm
hi d
d i = 2.00 cm =− i =m hi
ho do

hi d
=− i =m hi
ho do
hi d
= − i.
ho do
hi
di
h i = −h o ⋅ .
do

h i = −(1.20×10 −2 cm) 2.00 cm

60.0 cm
−4
= −4.00×10 cm.

d i = 2.00 cm do ≈ ∞
d o = 25.0 cm P= 1 + 1
do di
P di do 1 D = 1/m

P= 1 + 1 = ∞
1 + 1 .
do di 0.0200 m
1/ ∞ = 0
P = 0 + 50.0 / m = 50.0 D (distant vision).
P = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
d o d i 0.250 m 0.0200 m
= 4.00 50.0
m + m = 4.00 D + 50.0 D
= 54.0 D (close vision).
 objects
images
 d i = −28.5 cm do ≈ ∞

di do P= 1 + 1
do di

P= 1 + 1 = ∞
1 + 1 .
do di −0.285 m
1/ ∞ = 0
P = 0 − 3.51 / m = −3.51 D.
 d i = −98.5 cm
d o = 23.5 cm

di do P= 1 + 1
do di

P = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
d o d i 0.235 m − 0.985 m
= 4.26 D − 1.02 D = 3.24 D.

P = −3.00 D

Laser in situ Keratomileusis (LASIK)

0.3 µm
 primary colors

true color of an
object

appear

light sources have colors

 5× 100×

fo

fe

m = m om e,
mo me

di
mo = – ,
do
 do di
d o = 6.20 mm di di
1 = 1 − 1,
di fo do
fo
1 = 1 − 1 = 0.00538
mm .
d i 6.00 mm 6.20 mm
di
d i = 186 mm.
mo
di
mo = − = − 186 mm = −30.0.
do 6.20 mm

d i′
me = − ,
d o′
d i′ d o′

d o′ = 230 mm − 186 mm = 44.0 mm

d i′
1 / d i′
1 = 1 − 1 = 1 − 1 = − 0.00273
mm .
d i′ f e d o′ 50.0 mm 44.0 mm

d i′ = − mm = −367 mm.
0.00273

d i′
me = − = − −367 mm = 8.33.
d o′ 44.0 mm

m = m om e = ( − 30.0)(8.33) = −250.

1500× – 0.2 µm

(NA) (m) NA
 NA = n sin α,
n = /2
NA
0.75NA 0.10NA

(NA)
D

NA

NA
f/ # f
f
f D
NA
f
f /# = ≈ 1 .
D 2NA
f
f/ # f / 16

NA

max.

NA
 (n = 1.33)
(n = 1.51)
 do ≈ ∞
di = fo
1 = 1 − 1 = 1 − 1 .
di fo do fo ∞

1/ ∞ = 0
1 = 1,
di fo
di = fo

d o′ fe

′ M
M = ′/

f
M = ′ = − o.
fe

M
 fo
M= −
fe
 NA = n sin α,
n = /2

h d
P = 1 + 1 and i = − i = m.
do di ho do

m = m om e,
mo me

(NA)
 NA = n sin
n

f /#
f
f /# = ≈ 1 .
D 2NA

f
M = ′ = − o,
fe
′
fo fe
NA NA
 –4.00 D

4.00 µm

–4.00 D

–4.00 D

±5.0%

8×

–400

1.40NA 60×
1.40NA 60×
 0.10NA 4×
34.0ºC
0.65NA 40×
100ºC

10.0 m
3.00 m

7.5×
−7.50
io ie
 c= f ,

c = 3×10 8 m/s f

f
v = c/n n
c= f n c/n = v = f /n v= f n n

n = n,

n
n = 1.333
(380 nm)/1.333 (760 nm)/1.333 n = 285 to 570 nm
 v
t s = vt
t
s = vt
= c / f = (330 m / s) / (1000 s −1 ) = 0.33 m
 (1 / 2)
(3 / 2) (5 / 2)
2 3

d sin d

d sin = m , for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, … (constructive).

⎛ ⎞
d sin = ⎝m + 1 ⎠ , for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, … (destructive),
2
d
m m=4
 d sin

d sin = m , for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, … .

m d sin =m / d
d d

A1 A2

A A A A A

A A

A A

I∝A
 10.95º

m=3
d = 0.0100 mm = 10.95º d sin =m

d sin =m

= d m
sin .

(0.0100 mm)(sin 10.95º)

=
3
−4
= 6.33×10 mm = 633 nm.

d sin = m (for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, … ⎞⎠ d

m sin sin 90º
m

d sin =m m

m = d sin .

sin =1 d
(0.0100 mm)(1)
m= ≈ 15.8.
633 nm
m
m = 15.
d sin d

d sin = m , for m = 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, … (constructive),

d m
d
 d sin

d
d sin = m , for m = 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, …

d
 x = 2.00 m
x

d sin = m (for m = 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, …)

d
1/10,000

d = (1 cm) / 10,000 = 1.00×10 −4 cm 1.00×10 −6 m V

R d sin V =m sin V

m V
sin V = ,
d
m=1 V = 380 nm = 3.80×10 −7 m
−7
sin V = 3.80×10 −6 m = 0.380.
1.00×10 m
V

V = sin −1 0.380 = 22.33º.

−7
sin R = 7.60×10 −6 m .
1.00×10 m
R

R = sin −1 0.760 = 49.46º.

 yV yR tan = y/x yV
yR
y V = x tan V = (2.00 m)(tan 22.33º) = 0.815 m

y R = x tan R = (2.00 m)(tan 49.46º) = 2.338 m.

y R − y V = 1.52 m.

same
/2

D sin

3λ / 2

D sin
 D sin = m , for m = 1, –1, 2, –2, 3, … (destructive),
D m

45.0º

D sin =m
D 1

= 550 nm m = 2 2 = 45.0º D sin =m D

m 2(550 nm)
D = =
sin 2 sin 45.0º
−9
= 1100×10
0.707
= 1.56×10 −6.
 D sin =m sin 1

1⎛⎝550×10 −9 m⎞⎠
sin 1 =m = .
D 1.56×10 −6 m
1

1 = sin −1 0.354 = 20.7º.

20.7º
41º 24º (45.0º − 20.7º)

D
D
D
 D = 1.22 / D

two images are just resolvable when the center of the

diffraction pattern of one is directly over the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other
= 1.22 / D

= 1.22 ,
D
D

= 1.22
D
 = 1.22 .
D

−9
= 1.22 550×10 m
2.40 m
= 2.80×10 −7 rad.

s r s=r

s = (2.0×10 6 ly)(2.80×10 −7 rad)

= 0.56 ly.

D
 = 1.22
D
= 0º = 1.22 / D D

D
D

= 1.22 / D

x
x

= 1.22 = x,
D d
d
x d tan ≈ sin ≈

x = 1.22 d .
D
NA NA

NA
= 2α

sin = D/2 = D.
d 2d
NA NA = n sin n

NA

x = 1.22 d = 1.22 = 0.61 n .

D 2 sin NA
NA NA
NA
NA
 x d

NA

NA NA NA
 t

180º λ/2
 /2

2t n = /n
n

n 1 = 100 n 2 = 1.38 n 3 = 1.52 /2

2t

n2
2t = ,
2

n2 n2 =n
2

/ n2
2t = .
2
t
 / n 2 (550 nm) / 1.38
t = =
4 4
= 99.6 nm.

2t = n, 2λ n , 3λ n , …
2t = n / 2, 3λ n / 2, 5λ n / 2, …

n 1 = n 3 = 1.00 n 2 = 1.333
/2
2t
n / 2, 3λ n / 2 5λ n / 2
0, n 2λ n

Constructive interference

n, 3λ n 5λ n
2t c = , ,….
2 2 2
tc

tc = n = / n = (650 nm) / 1.333

4 4 4
= 122 nm.
t′ c = 3λ n / 4
t′ c = 366 nm.
t′′ c ≤ 5λ n / 4
t′′ c = 610 nm.

destructive interference

t d = 0.

2t′ d = n.
 (650 nm) / 1.333
t′ d = = /n =
2 2 2
= 244 nm.
2t′′ d = 2λ n

t′′ d = = n = 650 nm
n
1.333
= 488 nm.
 Examine the situation to determine that interference is involved

If slits are involved

If thin film interference is involved, take note of the path length difference between the two rays that interfere

/2
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns)

Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns)
Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown), and enter the knowns

For thin film interference, you will have constructive interference for a total shift that is an integral number of
wavelengths. You will have destructive interference for a total shift of a half-integral number of wavelengths

Check to see if the answer is reasonable: Does it make sense?

90º
 transverse waves

polarizing
 E
E cos I

I = I 0 cos 2 ,
I0
 E cos

90.0%

90.0% 10.0% I = 0.100I 0

I = I 0 cos 2

I = I 0 cos 2 cos I I0

cos = I = 0.100I 0 = 0.3162.

I0 I0

= cos −1 0.3162 = 71.6º.

10.0%
45º
50%
71.6º 18.4º 18.4º 90.0%

the reflected light is left more horizontally polarized

b
n
tan b = n2,
1
n1 n2
b
 n 1 = 1.00, n 2 = 1.333,
n
n′ 2 = 1.520 tan b = n 2 b
1

n
tan b = n2
1

n
tan b = n 2 = 1.333 = 1.333.
1 1.00

b = tan −1 1.333 = 53.1º.

n′
tan ′ b = n 2 = 1.520 = 1.52.
1 1.00

′ b = tan −1 1.52 = 56.7º.

axis vertical
90º
90º
 ⎛n ⎞
b = tan −1⎝n 2 ⎠, n2
1
n1

n
tan b = n2 n1 n2
1

d sin = m (for m = 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, …) d

m
 D sin = m , (for m = 1, –1, 2, –2, 3, …) D
m

n = /n n

c= f c = 3×10 8 m/s f

n n n = /n
 d sin = m (for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, …) d
m
⎛ 1 ⎞
d sin = ⎝m + ⎠ (for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, …)
2

d sin = m (for m = 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, …) d

m

D sin = m , (for m = 1, –1, 2, –2, 3, …) D

m
m=0

= 1.22
D
D
D

180º /2

I
2
I = I 0 cos θ, I0

b
n
tan b = n 2 n1
1
n2
 4
1/

100%

100%
 x

y d

sin ≈

Δy = x / d

Δy = x / d
d
30.0º

45.0º

30.0º
3.00 µm

2.00 µm
60.0º

25.0 µm

25.0º
1.20 µm

60.0º

45.0º

10.0º
24.2º 25.7º 29.1º 41.0º
 d

seems

36.093º 36.129º

30.0º

Δy = x / d
8 µm d

20.0º

30.0º
25.0º
30.0º

1.00 µm

2.00-µm

28.0º
 60.0º
62.0º

48.6º
3.00 µm

36.9º
1.00 µm

7.50 µm

20.0 µm
85.0º

2.00 µm

14.5º

3.84×10 8 m
 n = 1.33

4.50×10 9 km

n = 1.33

7.50×10 8 km

45º

45º
45.0º
15.0º

150 W / m 2
89.0º

1.00 kW / m 2

1.00 kW/m 2 10.0 W/m 2

20.0º.
90.0% 100%
ºC / s 80.0%
18.4º

45º
90.0º
25.0%

I
I′
90.0º−θ,
I + I′ = I 0,
cos (90.0º− ) = sin
2 2
cos + sin = 1.

55.6º

62.5º

b
′b

b+ ′ b = 90.0º.

50.0%
 n
n

two
ωt
ωt
ωt θ
ωt θ

S
W S
W S
W S
W S

a
a
a
a
a
a
n
n
I

θ I

θ I

θ θ θ
verified to be the same and that satisfy conservation principles.

E = mc 2
E = mc 2
 all

F
ma F ma

E = mc 2

c = 3.00×10 8 m/s

c c
 c

c
c

c = 3.00×10 8 m/s in a vacuum

c
 Simultaneity is not
absolute.

thought experiment

Δt 0 2D
2s Δt
2D 2s

2D
2s v
c
 Δt 0 = 2D
c .

special
relativity
general relativity

Δt 0

Δt = 2s
c.
Δt 0 Δt D s
L

L = vΔt .
2
s

⎛ ⎞
2
s = D 2 + ⎝vΔt ⎠ .
2
s Δt
2
2 D 2 + ⎛⎝vΔt ⎞
2 ⎠ .
Δt = 2s
c = c

⎛ 2(Δt) 2 ⎞
4 D2 + v
⎝ 4 ⎠ 2 2
(Δt) 2 = 2
= 4D2 + v 2 (Δt) 2.
c c c
2
Δt 0 (Δt 0 ) 2 = 4D2
c

2
(Δt) 2 = (Δt 0 ) 2 + v 2 (Δt) 2.
c
Δt
⎛ 2⎞
(Δt) 2 1 − v 2 = (Δt 0 ) 2.
⎝ c ⎠

(Δt 0 ) 2
(Δt) 2 = 2
.
1 − v2
c
 Δt 0
Δt = = Δt 0,
2
1 − v2
c

= 1 .
2
1 − v2
c

Δt
Δt 0

Δt

v<<c v2
c2
Δt Δt 0

Δt = Δt 0 v c Δt
v c
Δt
Δt = Δt 0

1.52 µs Δt 0

Δt Δt = Δt 0

Δt

v = 0.950c 1.52 µs
 Δt 0 = 1.52 µs
Δt Δt = Δt 0

v = 0.950c Δt 0 = 1.52 µs
Δt

Δt = Δt 0,

= 1 .
2
1 − v2
c

= 1
2
1 − v2
c
= 1
(0.950c) 2
1−
c2
= 1
1 − (0.950) 2
= 3.20.
Δt
Δt = Δt 0
= (3.20)(1.52 µs)
= 4.87 µs
 = 3.20 95.0% v = 0.950c

0.950c

95.0%

= 30.0

= 30.0
 v = 0.650c

= 1 = 1 = 1.32
1− v2 (0.650c) 2
1−
c2 c2

1.90×10 8 m/s 2.10×10 −8 s

Δt =
Δt
= 2.10×10 −8 s = 2.71×10 −8 s
1− v2 (1.90×10 8 m/s) 2
1−
c2 (3.00×10 8 m/s) 2

0.950c
7.05 µs
 L 0 = vΔt = (0.950)(3.00×10 8 m/s)(7.05×10 −6 s) = 2.01 km
2.20 µs

L = vΔt 0 = (0.950)(3.00×10 8 m/s)(2.20×10 −6 s) = 0.627 km.

L0

L0
L

L0
v= .
Δt
Δt

v= L .
Δt 0
Δt 0
L0
= L .
Δt Δt 0
Δt = Δt 0
L0
L= .

L
2
L = L0 1 − v2.
c

L L0
 = 30.00

L0

L v v c

L 0 − 4.300 ly = 30.00
L
L0
L=
 L0
L =
4.300 ly
=
30.00
= 0.1433 ly

= 30.00
v c

= 1
2
1 − v2
c

= 1
2
1 − v2
c
30.00 = 1
2
1 − v2
c

900.0 = 1
2
1 − v2
c

2
1 − v2 = 1
c 900.0

v 2 = 1 − 1 = 0.99888....
c2 900.0

v = 0.99944,
c

v= 0.9994c.

=30.00 v

2
L = L0 1 − v2 v<<c
c
 0.750c

2 (0.750c) 2
L=L 0 1 − v 2 = (2.50 km) 1 − = 1.65 km
c c2
 v
u u′

v=1.0 m/s u′
u u=v+u′

u=v+u′

u = 1.0 m/s + 1.5 m/s = 2.5 m/s

u = 1.0 m/s+( − 1.5 m/s) = −0.5 m/s

u=v+c
c
c
 c
c

u = v+u′ ,
1 + vu′2
c

v u u′
u
v u′ vu′
c2
u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c

c
 v=0.500c u′ = c
u

u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c

u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c
= 0.500c +c
1 + (0.500c)(c)
2 c
(0.500 + 1)c
= 2
1 + 0.500c
2 c
= 1.500c
1 + 0.500
= 1.500c
1.500
= c

c c

v c u′ c

0.750c

v=0.500c u′ = 0.750c
u
 u= v+u′
1 + vu′2
c

u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c
= 0.500c +0.750c
1 + (0.500c)(0.750c)
2 c
= 1.250c
1 + 0.375
= 0.909c

v = 0.500c u′ = −0.750c
u

u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c

u = v+u′
1 + vu′2
c
0.500c +( − 0.750c)
=
1 + (0.500c)( −
2
0.750c)
c
= −0.250c
1 − 0.375
= −0.400c

1.250c

−0.400c faster −0.250c

0.409c 0.900c

1 + uc
=λ obs = s .
1 − uc

obs s u
u
 1 − uc
f obs =f s .
1 + uc

0.825c 0.525 m

u=0.825c s = 0.525 m

obs

1 + uc
obs = s 1 − uc

1 + uc
= s
obs 1 − uc
1 + 0.825c
c
= (0.525 m)
1 − 0.825c
c
= 1.70 m.

0.350c

1 − uc 1 − 0.350c
c
f obs =f s u = (1.50 GHz) = 1.04 GHz
1+ c 1 + 0.350c
c
 p
p = mu,
m u

= 1 .
2
1 − u2
c

u v
p p tot

mu mu

u c
 p = mu
m var = m m
m

0.985c 9.11×10 −31 kg

mu (9.11×10 −31 kg)(0.985)(3.00×10 8 m/s)

p = mu = = = 1.56×10 −21 kg ⋅ m/s
1− u2 (0.985c) 2
1−
c2 c2

E = mc 2
 E
E = mc 2,

m c = 1 v
1− v2
c2
E
E E
v=0 =1

E 0 = mc 2.
 m = 1.00×10 −3 kg c = 3.00×10 8 m/s
E0

E 0 = mc 2

E 0 = mc 2 = (1.00×10 −3 kg)(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2

= 9.00×10 13 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2

1 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2 = 1 J

E 0 = 9.00×10 13 J.

c c2 mc 2
9.00×10 13 J

the conversion of mass into another form of energy

 E = mc 2 c

(A·h)

PE elec = qV q 600 A·h

I t
ΔE = PE elec = (Δm)c 2

I ⋅ t = 600 A ⋅ h V = 12.0 V c = 3.00×10 8 m/s

Δm
PE elec = (Δm)c 2
PE elec
Δm =
c2

PE elec
Δm =
c2
qV
= 2
c
(It)V
=
c2
(600 A ⋅ h)(12.0 V)
= .
(3.00×10 8) 2

(600 C/s ⋅ h⎛⎝3600

1h ⎠
s ⎞(12.0 J/C)
Δm =
(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2
(2.16×10 6 C)(12.0 J/C)
=
(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2
1 kg ⋅ m 2/s 2 = 1 J

Δm = 2.88×10 −10 kg.

Δm = 2.88×10 −10 kg m = 20.0 kg

% increase = Δm
m ×100%

% increase = Δm
m ×100%
2.88×10 −10 kg
= ×100%
20.0 kg
= 1.44×10 −9 %.

c2

10 11
 1 mv 2
2

W net = KE.

E 0 = mc 2 E = mc 2

W net = E − E 0 = mc 2 − mc 2 = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2.
W net = KE rel

KE rel = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2.

v=0

= 1 = 1,
1− v2
c2

KE rel = 0
1 mv 2
2

2
= 1 + 1 v2.
2c

2
− 1 = 1 v2.
2c

⎡ 2⎤
KE rel = 1 v 2 mc 2 = 1 mv 2 = KE class.
⎣2 c ⎦ 2
v<<c

v c

c c c
 KE rel
KE class

v = 0.990c
9.11×10 −31 kg

c
v
c

v = 0.990c m = 9.11×10 −31 kg

KE rel

KE rel = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2

= 1
2
1 − v2
c
= 1
(0.990c) 2
1−
c2
= 1
1 − (0.990) 2
= 7.0888

KE rel = ( − 1)mc 2
= (7.0888 − 1)(9.11×10 – 31 kg)(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2
= 4.99×10 –13 J

⎛ 1 MeV ⎞
KE rel = (4.99×10 –13 J)
⎝1.60×10 – 13 J ⎠
= 3.12 MeV
 v = 0.990c m = 9.11×10 −31 kg
KE class

KE class = 1 mv 2
2

KE class = 1 mv 2
2
= 1 (9.00×10 – 31 kg)(0.990) 2(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2
2
= 4.02×10 – 14 J

⎛ 1 MeV ⎞
KE class = 4.02×10 – 14 J
⎝1.60×10 – 13 J ⎠
= 0.251 MeV

KE rel /KE class = 12.4

50×10 9 eV = 50,000 MeV

v

p 2 (mv) 2 1 2
KE class = = = mv .
2m 2m 2
 E 2 = (pc) 2 + (mc 2) 2,
E p

mc 2
p
2 2
(mc ) (pc) 2 E = pc
p
2 2 2 2
E = (pc) + (mc ) , m E = pc p = E/c

c c
2 2 2 2
E = (pc) + (mc ) ,

Examine the situation to determine that it is necessary to use relativity = 1

2
1 − v2
c

Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).
Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).
v
Make certain you understand the conceptual aspects of the problem before making any calculations.

Determine the primary type of calculation to be done to find the unknowns identified above.

Do not round off during the calculation.

Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

c

0.992c

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
KE rel = ( − 1)mc = ⎜ 1 2
− 1⎟mc 2
⎜ 1− v2 ⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 1 − 1⎟(9.11×10 −31 kg)(3.00×10 8 m/s) 2 = 5.67×10 −13 J
⎜ (0.992c) 2 ⎟
⎝ 1 −
c2 ⎠
 v<<c
u = v+u′ v u
u′

L
2 L0
L=L 0 1 − v 2 =
c

L0

Δt 0
Δt 0 Δt = = Δt 0
2
1 − v2
c

= 1
2
1 − v2
c

1 + uc
obs = s 1 − uc
obs s u

KE rel = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2
= 1
2
1 − v2
c

p p = mu m
u = 1
2
1 − u2
c

u= v+u′
1 + vu′2
c
v u u′

E 0 = mc 2
 c

E = mc 2 = 1
2
1 − v2
c

v Δt 0
Δt

Δt 0
Δt = = Δt 0,
1− v2
c2

= 1 .
1− v2
c2

L0

L
2 L0
L=L 0 1 − v 2 = .
c
 u=v+u′ v
u u′

u= v+u′
1 + vu′2
c

1 + uc
obs = s 1 − uc
obs s u

p
p = mu m u
= 1
2
1 − u2
c

u c

E = mc 2 = 1
2
1 − v2
c

E 0 = mc 2

W net = E − E 0 = mc 2 − mc 2 = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2
W net = KE rel KE rel
KE rel = ⎛⎝ − 1⎞⎠mc 2 = 1
2
1 − v2
c

E 2 = (pc) 2 + (mc 2) 2 E p
2
mc E = pc
 obs

50×10 6 ly

c
 0.0500c

v = 0.250c v = 0.500c
v = 0.100c v = 0.900c 0.99944c
π
2.70×10 8 m/s =30.00
2.60×10 −8 s

0.980c
−8
1.24×10 s

π
1.40×10 −16 s
0.840×10 −16 s

0.800c
1.20c

= 1.01

= 1.03
0.750c 0.500c
= 1.50
= 100
= 2.00
= 10.0
0.100c
0.100c

3000 m/s
24.0 h
800 m/s
1000 m/s

1000 km/s 656 nm

0.970c

0.250c

=3.20
 1.00×10 9 kg
0.800c
0.999c 30.0 km/s

= 1 + (1 / 2)v 2 / c 2
0.250c
0.750c

= 1 + (1 / 2)v 2 / c 2

0.950c
3.04×10 –21 kg⋅m/s
0.750c
c

0.750c 4.48×–10 -19 kg⋅m/s.

0.950c
1.00-µg
0.999c

1.00 kg⋅m/s.

9.11×10 −31 kg
v

c v c 1.67×10 −27 kg

v c
10 68 J

12.0×10 9 ly
4.00×10 30 kg
0.900c
2.00×10 31 kg
0.990c
1.00×10 44 kg

Δm / m

Δm / m
6.68×10 –27 kg 0.200c

0.980c
Δm / m
Δm / m
 10 34 J
10 33 J

= 1.00×10 5

750 kg/m 3
π Δm / m
π

500 kW·h

6.80×10 −27 kg 500 kW·h

10 4 kg

1.00×10 5 kg
π
−16
1.40×10 s
−16
0.840×10 s 4.00×10 26

(pc) 2 / (mc 2) 2 = 2
−1
pc>>mc 2 E ≈ pc
= 30.0
1.67×10 −27 kg

0.250c

E ≈ pc
 E = p 2 c 2 + m 20 c 4

E = p 2 c 2 + m 40 c 4

E = p 2 c 2 + m 20 c 2

E = p 2 c 4 + m 20 c 2

F = ma

F = ma

v=c
 corresponds to

E hf, h
f

finding a particle in some spatial region. (Qualitative treatment only

 T4,

f
⎛ ⎞
E = ⎝n + 1 ⎠hf .
2
n h
h = 6.626×10 –34 J ⋅ s.
⎛ ⎞
E = ⎝n + 1 ⎠hf f
2
f discrete

ΔE = hf .

p = mu
h 10 14 Hz
ΔE = hf =(6.63×10 –34 J·s)(10 14 Hz)= 6.63×10 –20 J,

emission and absorption of EM radiation by gases

ΔE = hf ,
 photo

qV q
V
–3.00 V

EM radiation is itself quantized

E = hf ,
E f h

hf
E = hf
 f E = hf
h f
E′ = hf ′

hf

f0

Once EM radiation falls on a material, electrons are ejected without delay

hf
The
maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is independent of the intensity of the EM radiation

KE e = hf − BE,
KE e hf
work function

BE = hf 0 f0
KE e
 KE e

KE e f KE e = hf − BE
h

only

E = hf
KE e = hf –BE

E = hf
c= f

f = c.

E = hc .

⎛
⎝6.63×10
–34
J ⋅ s⎞⎠⎛⎝3.00×10 8 m/s⎞⎠
E= = 4.74×10 –19 J.
420×10 –9 m
 E = ⎛⎝4.74×10 –19 J⎞⎠ 1 eV = 2.96 eV.
1.6×10 –19 J

KE e = hf –BE

KE e = hf – BE = 2.96 eV – 2.71 eV = 0.246 eV.

photoelectron

E = hf f

E = hf = hc (energy of a photon),

E c

h = 4.14×10 –15 eV ⋅ s.

hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm.
 10 −5

f = 10 21 Hz
E = hf = 6.63×10 –13 J = 4.14 MeV.
 hf = qV.
qV hf.

hf = qV q V

hf = (1.60×10 –19 C)(50.0×10 3 V).

1 eV = 1.60×10 –19 J 1 J = 1 C ⋅ V.

⎛ 1 eV ⎞
⎝1.60×10 –19 C ⋅ V ⎠ = (50.0×10 )(1 eV) = 50.0 keV.
hf = (50.0×10 3)(1.60×10 –19 C ⋅ V) 3
 braking radiation

E = hf

E = hf = hc .

hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm,

E = hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm = 12.4 eV.

100 nm
 single

f
ΔE, hf ,
 E = hc .

(6.63×10 –34 J ⋅ s)(3.00×10 8 m/s)

E= = 3.43×10 –19 J.
580×10 –9 m

photon/s = 10.0 J/s = 2.92×10 19 photon/s.

3.43×10 –19 J/photon

10 –5 eV
10 –2 eV,

10 –5 eV.

is
do
away

p = h,

h p = mu
 p = h/ h

p=h

p = h.

–34
p = 6.63×10 –9 J ⋅ s = 1.33×10 –27 kg ⋅ m/s.
500×10 m

p = mv
v

p 1.33×10 –27 kg ⋅ m/s

v=m= = 1460 m/s ≈ 1460 m/s.
9.11×10 –31 kg

KE e = 1 mv 2.
2

KE e = 1 (9.11×10 –3 kg)(1455 m/s) 2 = 9.64×10 –25 J.

2
(1 eV) / (1.602×10 –19 J)

KE e = 6.02×10 –6 eV.
 E

E = hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm = 2.48 eV,

500 nm

p E
E 2 = (pc) 2 + (mc) 2 m p
2 2 2
E = (pc) + (mc)
E = pc,

p=E
c (photons).
E = hc / p = E/c

p = (hc / ) / c = h ,

p = E/c p = h/
 p = E/c

(2.48 eV)(1.60×10 –19 J/eV)

p=E
c = = 1.33×10 –27 kg ⋅ m/s.
3.00×10 8 m/s

p = E/c
2 2 2
E = (pc) + (mc)
p m

h = 4.14×10 –15 eV ⋅ s hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm

or
 all particles have a wavelength

= hp (matter and photons),

h p
p = h/

= h / p = (6.63×10 –34 J·s) / [(3 kg)(10 m/s)] = 2×10 –35 m.

10 –35 m
 = h/ p
p = mv. v v
2
(1 / 2)mv .

p = mv

= hp = mv
h.

v= h .
m

v= 6.63×10 –34 J ⋅ s = 4.36×10 6 m/s.

(9.11×10 –31 kg)(0.167×10 –9 m)

KE = 1 mv 2
2
= 1 (9.11×10 –31 kg)(4.36×10 6 m/s) 2
2
⎛ 1 eV ⎞
= (86.4×10 –18 J)
⎝1.602×10 –19 J ⎠
= 54.0 eV
 10 −10 m

x y

Himipristis

= h / p.
 Bragg reflection

PLD = n (n = 1, 2, 3, … ) AB = BC = d sin , n = 2d sin θ.

Bragg equation
 because of its wave character, a particle’s trajectory and destination cannot be
precisely predicted for each particle individually

probability

d sin =m
d
 measurement affects the system being observed

in a manner that loses information

Δx

Δx ≈ .

Δx

p = h/
Δp

Δp ≈ h .

Δx ≈
Δp ≈ h /

ΔxΔp ≈ h.
≈h
simultaneous measurement of
position and momentum
 ΔxΔp ≥ h .
4π
x p
Δx Δp h / 4π

Δx = 0.0100 nm
Δp ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π Δp
Δp = mΔv

ΔxΔp = h .
4π
Δp

Δp = h = 6.63×10 –34 J ⋅ s = 5.28×10 –24 kg ⋅ m/s.

4πΔx 4π(1.00×10 –11 m)

Δp = 5.28×10 –24 kg ⋅ m/s = mΔv.

Δv
Δp 5.28×10 –24 kg ⋅ m/s
Δv = m = = 5.79×10 6 m/s.
9.11×10 –31 kg

KE e = 1 mv 2
2
1
= (9.11×10 –31 kg)(5.79×10 6 m/s) 2
2
⎛ 1 eV ⎞
= (1.53×10 –17 J)
⎝1.60×10 –19 J ⎠ = 95.5 eV.
 simultaneous measurements of energy and time

ΔEΔt ≥ h ,
4π
ΔE Δt Δt
ΔE
ΔE Δt

1.0×10 −10 s

ΔE ΔEΔt ≥ h/4π

Δt = 1.0×10 −10 s

ΔE

ΔE = h = 6.63×10 –34 J ⋅ s = 5.3×10 –25 J.

4πΔt 4π(1.0×10 –10 s)

⎛ 1 eV ⎞
ΔE = (5.3×10 –25 J)
⎝1.6×10 –19 J ⎠ = 3.3×10 eV.
–6

10 −10 s

Δt
ΔE
10 −25 s 10 9 eV

ΔE

ΔE ΔEΔt ≥ h/4π Δt
ΔE
ΔE Δt
 = h/ p

p = h/
 1.00-µg

integrated-concept problem
momentum of a photon
recoil following a collision

p = h.

h
−34
p = 6.63×10 –9 J ⋅ s
550×10 m
= 1.21×10 −27 kg ⋅ m/s.

p 1 + p 2 = p′ 1+ p′ 2(F net = 0).

 p 1 = p′ 2 = mv,
p1 p′ 2
m v v
p
v = m,

p 10 −9 kg

1.21×10 −27 kg ⋅ m/s

v =
1.00×10 – 9 kg
= 1.21×10 –18 m/s.

work function

braking radiation

= h/ p

µm

E = hf

p=h=E
c

h = 6.626×10 –34 J ⋅ s
 ⎛ ⎞
E = ⎝n + 1 ⎠hf , n
2
h h = 6.626×10 –34 J ⋅ s.

ΔE = hf f

E = hf f

KE e KE e = hf – BE hf

p=h

p=E
c E = hf = hc /

= hp p
 interference characteristics

ΔxΔp ≥ h Δx Δp
4π
ΔEΔt ≥ h ΔE Δt
4π

10 34
 hf = qV.
hf = qV + BE,
1.7×10 13 Hz.

n
1.30 kW/m 2

n KE e = hf – BE

hc = 1240 eV ⋅ nm,

2.00×10 13 Hz.

3.00×10 20 Hz?

h = 4.14×10 −15 eV ⋅ s,
 8.00×10 −21 kg ⋅ m/s

2.50 µm

E = mc 2
p = mu
E/p = c

N/m 2

2.00×10 −2 N

10 −15 m.

5.00×10 −29 kg ⋅ m/s

1.00 µm. ΔEΔt ≈ h

Δx ≈

Δx

Δt ΔE

25.0º
d

1.00 µm

1.00 µm
2.0ºC
5.86×10 −26 kg 0.83 kcal/kg ⋅ ºC

2.0×10 3 m/s
45.0ºC
0.900 kcal/kg ⋅ ºC

20.0ºC 100ºC

10 −20 s
 1.00 kW/m 2
2.00 m 2

2.00 µm
1.30 kW/m 2

45.0º

4.00×10 13

0.830 kcal/kg ⋅ ºC
cannot
 N

E
= hc
3E 0
= hc
2E 0
= hc
E0
= 2hc
E0

bremsstrahlung
 d

n
d
θ
d
finding a particle in some spatial region.
10 −10 m
cathode rays
 qe / me qe
me
E
E B

v = E/B
 qe / me

F = q eE.

a = mF .
e

F qe

q E
a = mF = me .
e e

qe a
me = E .
qe
a E me
qe
me
F mag = q evB = m ea q e / m e = a / vB

qe / me
qe 11
m e = −1.76×10 C/kg (electron).

10 8 C/kg

qp 7
m p = 9.58×10 C/kg(proton),
qp mp
m p = 1836m e
 1.6×10 −19 C

qe

−1.6×10 −19 C

m drop g = q eE

E = V /d V
 m drop g m drop gd
q= = ,
E V
d V
qe
−19
−1.60×10 C

qe

qe
m= ⎛ qe ⎞
.
⎝m e ⎠

−19
m e = −1.60×1011 C
−1.76×10 C/kg

m e = 9.11×10 −31 kg (electron’s mass),

m p = 1.67×10 −27 kg (proton’s mass),

 5 MeV

5 MeV

MeV eV

10 −15 m
10 15 g/cm 3

10 −10 m
 10 −10 m
10 −15 m
 ⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟,
⎝n 2f n 2i ⎠

R
R = 1.097×10 7 / m (or m −1).
nf nf = 1
nf = 2 nf = 3

nf ni
nf nf = 2 n i = 3, 4, 5, 6, ... ni

nf
 nf
ni

15º

nf = 2
ni = 3 ni = 4
nf ni

⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝n f n i ⎠
2 2

⎛ ⎛ ⎞
m –1⎞⎠ 12 − 12
⎝2 4 ⎠
7
= ⎝1.097×10

= 2.057×10 6 m –1 .

= 1 = 486×10 −9 m
2.057×10 6 m –1
= 486 nm.

all

d sin =m ,
d m
m=1 d
(1)(486 nm)
d= = 1.88×10 −6 m.
sin 15º
 the orbits of electrons in atoms
are quantized

ΔE = hf = E i − E f .
ΔE hf
 E4 E2

L
L

L = m evr n = n h (n = 1, 2, 3, … ),
2π
L me rn n h
2
L = Iω r, I = mr ω = v/r
⎛ 2⎞
L= ⎝mr ⎠(v / r) = mvr mvr h / 2, 2h / 2, 3h / 2

Z
Z=1

me v2 / rn k⎛⎝Zq e⎞⎠(q e) / r n2

Zq 2e m e v 2
k = r (Coulomb = centripetal).
r n2 n

2
r n = n a B , for allowed orbits(n = 1,2,3, … ),
Z
aB (n = 1) (Z = 1) r 1 = a B

aB = h2 = 0.529×10 −10 m.
4π m e kq 2e
2
 n2

2
rn = n aB
Z

E n = KE + PE.

KE = (1 / 2)m e v 2
PE = q eV V
Zq e V = kZq e / rn
PE = −kZq e / rn KE PE
2
Zq
En = 1me v2 − k r e .
2 n

rn v
2
E n = − Z 2 E 0(n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
n
E0 (n = 1) (Z = 1)

2π 2 q 4e m e k 2
E0 = = 13.6 eV.
h2

E n = − 13.62eV (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).
n
 n
rn n

ΔE = hf = E i − E f .

E n = ( – 13.6 eV / n 2)
⎛ ⎞
hf = (13.6 eV)⎜ 12 − 12 ⎟.
⎝n f n i ⎠

hc 1/
⎛ ⎞
hf f (13.6 eV) ⎜ 1 1 ⎟.
= c =1= −
hc hc ⎝n 2 n 2 ⎠
f i

⎛ ⎞
⎛13.6 eV ⎞ (13.6 eV)⎝1.602×10 −19 J/eV⎠
⎝ hc ⎠ ⎛ = −34 ⎞⎛ 8 ⎞
= 1.097×10 7 m –1 = R
⎝6.626×10 J·s⎠⎝2.998×10 m/s⎠
 ⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝n 2f n 2i ⎠

1 / n2 n
ni nf
nf = 1
nf = 2

semiclassical

bremsstrahlung
characteristic x rays
E max = hf max = q eV.

n=1 n=2
characteristic x ray

n=1
K n=2 n=1 K, L, M,...
K
K n=1 n=3 n=3
n=1 n=2 n=3 L

K n=2 n=1
 K

2
E n = − Z 2 E 0 (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
n
K n=2 n=1 K
Z−1 Z. Z = 74

2
E n = − Z 2 E 0 (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) E n = −(Z 2 / n 2)E 0
n
E 0 = 13.6 eV Z K
E K = ΔE = E i−E f = E 2−E 1,

2 2⎛ ⎞
E 1 = − Z 2 E 0 = − 73 13.6 eV = − 72.5 keV
1 1 ⎝ ⎠

2 2⎛ ⎞
E 2 = − Z 2 E 0 = − 73 13.6 eV = − 18.1 keV.
2 4 ⎝ ⎠

E K = − 18.1 keV − ⎛⎝ − 72.5 keV⎞⎠ = 54.4 keV.

Z2
Z
 K
= hc / E = 0.0228 nm
10 −8 s

10 −8 s
the same wavelength and in phase
 n
n n
n n

n n
n n n n

10 −14 s 10 12 W
10 −3 W
holo
 condition for constructive interference and an allowed electron orbit
n n = 2πr n(n = 1, 2, 3 ...),

n rn
= h / p = h / mv = h / me v

nh
m e v = 2πr n .
L = mvr

L = m evr n = n h (n = 1, 2, 3 ...).
2π

n=3 n = 4.
 B orb
B orb L orb
 B orb
B orb L orb

direction of the orbital angular momentum is also quantized

S
B int B orb electron intrinsic spin is quantized in
magnitude and direction
B int S
 energy states of bound systems are quantized
E n ∝ 1/n 2
n = 1, 2, 3, ... n
n=1 n=2
n = 1, 2, 3, ....

n
magnitude of angular momentum is quantized

L = l(l + 1) h (l = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1),

2π
l l
n l n−1 n=4 l
n=1 l
h / 2π

n=2 l L = l(l + 1) h
2π
n=3 l l
L L = l(l + 1) h l=2
2π

L = 2(2 + 1) h = 6 h = 0.390h = 2.58×10 −34 J ⋅ s.

2π 2π
l=2
direction of angular momentum is quantized
z
Lz

Lz

Lz = ml h ⎛
m l = −l, − l + 1, ..., − 1, 0, 1, ... l − 1, l⎞⎠,
⎝
2π
Lz z ml
ml −l l l=2 ml
ml
z
 z
l=1 m l = − 1, 0, and +1 L
z

L z l=1

L Lz
L Lz L Lz
Lz L L Lz L = l(l + 1) h
2π
Lz = m h
2π

l=1 ml L L = l(l + 1) h
2π
l(l + 1)h
L= = 2h
2π 2π

Lz Lz = ml h
2π
⎧ h , m = +1
⎪ 2π l
L z = m l = ⎨ 0, m l = 0
h
2π ⎪
h
⎩− 2π , m l = −1
cos = L z /L, m l =+1
h
LZ
cos 1= = 2π = 1 = 0.707.
L 2h 2
2π
 1 = cos −10.707 = 45.0º.
ml = 0 cos 2 =0

2 = cos −10 = 90.0º.

m l = −1
h
L Z − 2π
cos 3= = = − 1 = −0.707,
L 2h 2
2π

3 = cos −1(−0.707) = 135.0º.

z L
z

1 ml = 0 ml = l
Lz l
cos = = ,
L l(l + 1)
l cos =1 = 0º l
ml l

intrinsic spin

S = s(s + 1) h (s = 1 / 2 for electrons),

2π

s L L = l(l + 1) h
2π
s
direction of intrinsic spin is quantized
z
⎛ 1⎞
Sz = ms h 1
⎝m s = − 2 , + 2 ⎠
2π
Sz z ms
s ms m s =+1 / 2 spin up
m s = −1 / 2 spin down

s
s
s = 1/2 s=1
s=0
 ⎛
⎝n, l, m l , m s⎞⎠ For electrons in atoms
n = 1, 2, 3, ... n
l = 1, 2, 3, ...,n − 1 l
m l = −l, − l + 1, ..., − 1, 0, 1, ..., l − 1, l n, l, ml
s = 1/2 m s = 1 / 2 or − 1 / 2

n 1, 2, 3, ...
l 0, 1, 2, ...n − 1
ml −l, −l + 1, ..., − 1, 0, 1, ..., l − 1, l (or 0, ±1, ±2, ..., ± l)
s 1/2(electrons)
ms −1/2, + 1/2

s
⎛
n, l, m l⎞⎠
⎝
 Z

s = 1/2, 3/2, ...

n, l, m l , s ms s 1/2 s
⎛ ⎞
n, l, m l , m
⎝ s⎠
(2, 1, 0, −1 / 2)

n n
n=1 l
 n ml
ms +1 / 2 −1 / 2 n=1
(1, 0, 0, +1/2) (1, 0, 0, −1/2)
n=1

n=1 n=2
n=1

n=1
n=2

n n
l, m l ms
n

l
l=0 l=1 l
 n l Symbol
s
p
d
f
g
h
i

nl n l n=1
2
l=0 1s n=1 1s
n=2 l=1 2p
2p 3

n=2

n=2 l
2s 2p l 2s 2p

l
 l l
ml ms ml −l l
2l + 1 maximum
number of electrons that can be in a subshell 2(2l + 1)
2s 2(2l + 1) = 2(0 + 1) = 2
2p 2(2l + 1) = 2(2 + 1) = 6
maximum number of electrons that can be in a
2
shell 2n
n=1 2n 2 = 2 n=1
2
n=2 2n = 8
n=2

n=3

n=3
2n 2

l l
= 2(2l + 1)

n=3 l 0, 1 2
3s 3p 3d s p
2(2l + 1)

3s has l = 0; thus, 2(2l + 1) = 2(0 + 1) = 2

3p has l = 1; thus, 2(2l + 1) = 2(2 + 1) = 6
3d has l = 2; thus, 2(2l + 1) = 2(4 + 1) = 10
Total = 18
(in the n = 3 shell)
 2n 2 n=3

Maximum number of electrons = 2n 2 = 2(3) 2 = 2(9) = 18.

2n 2
n=3 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10
n=3 n=4

1s 1

1s 2

1s 2 2s 1

2s 2
1
2s 2 2p
2
2s 2 2p
3
2s 2 2p
4
2s 2 2p
5
2s 2 2p
6
2s 2 2p
6
2s 2 2p 3s 1

3s 2
1
3s 2 3p
2
3s 2 3p
3
3s 2 3p
4
3s 2 3p
5
3s 2 3p
6
3s 2 3p
6
3s 2 3p 4s 1

4s 2
 n=1 n=2
l s p
4s
3d 5s
4d l=0

p p5 p

C1 −
s s1

Na +

d
 2
E n = − Z 2 E 0(n = 1, 2, 3, … )
n

entire picture holo

⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝n f n i ⎠
2 2

S = s(s + 1) h
2π
 1.097×10 7 m −1

10 −10 m

qe 11
m e = − 1.76×10 C/kg.

qp 7
m p = 9.57×10 C/kg.

m e = 9.11×10 −31 kg.

m p = 1.67×10 −27 kg.

 ⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟,
⎝n f n i ⎠
2 2

R
R = 1.097×10 7 m −1 .
ni nf ni nf

ΔE = hf = E i − E f ,
ΔE hf

L = m evr n = n h (n = 1, 2, 3 …),
2π
L rn nth h

2
r n = n a B(allowed orbits n = 1, 2, 3, ...),
Z
Z aB

aB = h2 = 0.529×10 −10 m.
4π m e kq 2e
2

2
E n = − Z 2 E 0(n = 1, 2, 3 ...),
n
E0

2π 2 q 4e m e k 2
E0 = = 13.6 eV.
h2

E n = − 13.62eV (n, = , 1, 2, 3 ...).

n

n n = 2πr n(n = 1, 2, 3 ...),

 n

ΔE = hf = E i − E f ,
ΔE hf

L = m evr n = n h (n = 1, 2, 3 ...),
2π
L rn n h

n = 1, 2, 3,....

L = l(l + 1) h (l = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1),

2π
l
z

Lz = ml h ⎛
⎝m l = −l, − l + 1, ..., − 1, 0, 1, ... l − 1, l⎞⎠,
2π
Lz z ml
S

S = s(s + 1) h (s = 1 / 2 for electrons),

2π
s z
⎛ 1⎞
Sz = ms h 1
⎝m s = − 2 , + 2 ⎠,
2π
Sz z ms
m s =+1 / 2 m s = −1 / 2

⎛
n, l, m l , m s⎞⎠
⎝

n
l
2(2l + 1)
2
2n
 me
qe / me qp / mp

qe EB
qe / me qe
 n, l, m l , s ms
n l
l ml ml n

s ms

2p 3 4d 9 3s 1 5g 16

1p 3 2p 8 3g 11
4f 2
 4.653 µm
nf = 5
ni

−15
He +
10 m

Be 3 +

0.81 g/cm 3 n Be 3 +
4.0×10 −6 m

C +5

2
rn = n aB
Z
aB = h2 h2
4π m e kq 2e
2 aB = = 0.529×10 −10 m
4π m e kq 2e
2

aB 0.529×10 −10 m
E0
2π 2 q 4e m e k 2
E0 = 2
.
h
n=4
⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝n 2f n 2i ⎠
n

n=2

(13.6 eV) / hc = 1.097×10 7 m = R

 1.06 µm

K K

n=5
ml = 3 l
ml = 2
n
ml
n=4
ml = 1

l=1
n=1

l=1

l=3
L z
l=2

S
z

n=4
 n=5
ni = ∞ nf = 1
l
n=3

⎛
n, l, m l , m s⎞⎠
⎝ n=3

2n 2 2(2l + 1) 3.00º

5s 1 1d 1 4s 3 3p 7 5g 15

qe / me
1s 1 1d 3 4s 2
6.00×10 7 m/s 5.00×10 −3 T
7 20
3p 6h

qe / me
⎛
n, l, m l , m s⎞⎠
⎝

2n 2
l

aB = h2 = 0.529×10 −10 m
2 2
4π m e kq e
me

20.0º n=1
Z = 92

0.0100c ni = 7
nf = 2

1.00×10 −4
 10.6 µm
1.00 cm 3 100ºC

ni

⎛ ⎞
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝n 2f n 2i ⎠
R

±50.0 km/s

v = E/B
 E

e e E
e

e e e
e e e
e e e
e e e

m drop g = qE

m drop g

q
E
e

E E E

E E
E E
E E E
E E E

E
hc
3E 0
hc
2E 0
hc
E0
2hc
E0
 X Y
x
X A
x

X X
x
Y
X X
Y
Y Y
X
Y Y
x
X

X Y

x
x
 E = mc 2

10 6 eV
eV

polonium radium

⎛ ⎞
( ) ⎝ ⎠ ( )

+2 ∣ q e ∣

radiation is the emission of a helium nucleus

 radiation is the emission of an electron

radiation is the emission of a high-energy photon by a nucleus

ionization ranges

keV 10 MeV
eV
energy

material

types

charge +2q e −q e
 Δp
Δp = FΔt F Δt F

speed

1 mv 2
2
 two
proton neutron
q=0

m p = 1836m e m n = 1839m e

unified unit

1 u = 1.6605×10 −27 kg.

12
C
MeV/c 2
E = mc 2 m MeV/c 2 c2 E

E = mc 2 = (938.27 MeV/c 2)c 2 = 938.27 MeV.

1 u = 931.5 MeV/c 2.

A
Z X N,

A X Z N number of protons in a nucleus Z

symbol for the element
Z Z X Z = 20
Z = 20 N number of neutrons N
A total number of protons and neutrons

A = N + Z,
A A

A
A
A = 16
12
C exactly u
 c

p 1.67262×10 −27
n 1.67493×10 −27
e 9.1094×10 −31

A
Z XN
1
1H
Z A
4
2 He 2

2
1 H1 D
D2 O
3
1 H2
Z N

A X Z N X Z
A X N Z
N = A−Z
A
X,

1 3
H, 2 H, H, 4
He 4
He
238 238
U U Z = 92
N = 238 − 92 = 146

r
r = r 0 A 1 / 3,

r 0 = 1.2 fm A r3 ∝ A
V = (4 / 3)πr 3 V∝A

/
kg m 3 56
Fe
 56
Fe r = r 0 A 1 / 3, A = 56

ρ = m/V /
u fm 3

/
kg m 3

r = r 0 A 1 / 3.
r0 A

r = (1.2 fm)(56) 1/3 = (1.2 fm)(3.83)

= 4.6 fm.
ρ = m/V r

ρ=m= m .
V (4/3)πr 3

ρ = 56 u
(1.33)(3.14)(4.6 fm) 3
= 0.138 u/fm 3.

/
kg m 3

⎛ 1 fm ⎞
ρ = (0.138 u/fm 3)(1.66×10 –27 kg/u)
⎝10 –15 m ⎠
= 2.3×10 17 kg/m 3.

10 –14 m 10 –15 m

10 –10 m

2×10 14 10 3 kg/m 3

1 / r2

weak and strong nuclear forces

W = Fd cos
two
 N
Z

N Z
N=Z A

N Z
N=Z N Z

Z = 118 Z
 60 60
Co Ni
238
U
238
U
226 210
Ra Po
222
Rn
238
U
238 206
U Pb
 238
U

4
He

4
He
238
U
239
Pu
238 234
U→ Th 234 4
92 + He

239 235
Pu → U + 4He.
 4
He
4
He

Z = 90 Z = 92
Z = 94
A
Z XN

A A−4 4 ⎛
Z XN → Z − 2 Y N − 2 + 2He 2 ⎝ decay⎞⎠
239
Pu

A A−4 4
Z XN → Z − 2 Y N − 2 + 2He 2

E = ( Δ m)c 2.
E Δm
Δm
Δm

239
Pu

α E = (Δm)c 2
Δm

239
Pu
239 235
Pu → U + 4He.
239 235 4
Pu U He
m( 239Pu) = 239.052157 u
m( 235U)+m( 4He)= 235.043924 u + 4.002602 u = 239.046526 u

Δm = m( 239Pu) − [m( 235U) + m( 4 He)]

= 239.052157 u − 239.046526 u
= 0.0005631 u.
 E Δm
E = (Δm)c 2 = (0.005631 u)c 2.

1 u = 931.5 MeV/c 2
E = (0.005631)(931.5 MeV / c 2)(c 2 ) = 5.25 MeV.

MeV 10 6

4 235
He U
235
U

Δm

−
three
− −
an electron emitted in nuclear beta decay

60 60 −
Co → Ni + + neutrino.
 −
+1
¯
νe ν e

¯
νe –1
total electron
family number is constant

A − −
Z XN

XN → YN − 1 + −
+ ν- e ( −
decay),
−

Z
− 60
Z+1 Co Z = 27 Z = 28

n→p+ −
+ ν- e.

− 60
Z Co
Z = 27 Z = 28
 28 + (–1)

The total number of nucleons A is

60
conserved Co A
Z
− −
N not

− 60
Co

Δm
E = (Δm)c 2

Δm = m( 60 Co) − m( 60 Ni).

− 60
Co
60 60 −
27 Co 33 → 28 Ni 32 + + ν̄ e.

Δm = m( 60 Co) − m( 60 Ni).

Δm = 59.933820 u − 59.930789 u = 0.003031 u.

E = (Δm)c 2 = (0.003031 u)c 2.

1 u = 931.5 MeV / c 2
E = (0.003031)(931.5 MeV / c 2)(c 2 ) = 2.82 MeV.

60
Ni
60 60
Co Ni

positive
 +

e+ +

–1

e+ + e− → +
A + +
Z XN

A + +
Z XN → YN + 1 + + νe ( decay),
νe
+
+1
22 +
νe Na
22
Z = 11 Na Z = 10
+ 22
Na

22 22 +
11 Na 11 → 10 Ne 12 + + ν e.
+

Δm = m(parent) − [m(daughter) + 2m e],

A
Z XN

A
Z XN + e − → Y N + 1 + ν e(electron capture, or EC).
+

−
 10 −14

A *
Z XN → XN + 1+ 2+ ⋯ ( decay)

60
Co
− 60
Ni*

60 60
Ni* → Ni + 1 + 2.

time in which half of the original number of nuclei decay

t1 / 2
N N /2 N /4
N /8 N many
each nucleus has
a 50% chance of living for a time equal to one half-life t 1 / 2 N
 t1 / 2

10 −23
10 16

N0 N t

N = N 0e − t,
e = 2.71828...
e− t

t1 / 2
ln(2) 0.693
= t ≈ t .
1/2 1/2

t = t1 / 2
N = N 0e − t
N = N 0 e − t = N 0 e −0.693 = 0.500N 0

N N / 1024

14
N

1.3×10 −12 14
C
14 14
C C

14 14
C C
14
C

14
C

14
C N / N 0 = 0.92 N = N 0e − t

t 14
C t = 0.693
t1 / 2
14
t C

N = N 0e − t
N / N0
N = e − t.
N0

0.92 = e − t.

ln 0.92 = – t

−0.0834 = − t.
t

t = 0.0834 .

= 0.693
t1 / 2
14
C

= 0.693 0.693
t 1 / 2 = 5730 y .
t

t = 0.0834
0.693
= 690 y.
5730 y
 14
1320 ± 60 C

238
U
238 206
U Pb

238
U
9
4.5×10
3.5×10 9

R = ΔN
Δt
ΔN Δt

1 Bq = 1 decay/s.
R
226
Ra

1 Ci = 3.70×10 10 Bq,

3.70×10 10
1 MBq = 100 microcuries (µCi)

R
N t1 / 2

R = 0.693N
t1 / 2
N t1 / 2

14
C

14
C

R R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 N t1 / 2 14
C
12
N C
 1.3×10 −12 14
C
14
C

12
C
A
23 –1
N( 12 C) = 6.02×10 mol ×(1000 g) = 5.02×10 25 .
12.0 g/mol
14
C

N( 14 C) = (5.02×10 25)(1.3×10 −12) = 6.52×10 13.

R R = 0.693N
t1 / 2

0.693(6.52×10 13)
R= = 7.89×10 9 y –1,
5730 y

7.89×10 9
1.00 y
R = (7.89×10 9 y –1) = 250 Bq,
3.16×10 7 s
R
250 Bq
R= = 6.76×10 −9 Ci.
3.7×10 10 Bq/Ci

R = 6.76 nCi.

14
C

14
C

14
C

131 90 137 239 238 235

I Sr Cs Pu U U
 137
Cs

137 137
Cs Cs

137
N R Cs
R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 N

R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 N

Rt 1/2
N= .
0.693

(6.0 MCi)(30.2 y)
N= .
0.693

(6.0×10 6 Ci)(3.7×10 10 Bq/Ci)(30.2 y)(3.16×10 7 s/y)

N =
0.693
26
= 3.1×10 .
A 137
X A Cs
23 137
6.02×10 Cs

⎛ 137 g ⎞
⎝6.02×10 23 ⎠(3.1×10 ) = 70×10 g
26 3
m =

= 70 kg.

R
 R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 R

N = N 0e − t
R = 0.693N
t1 / 2

R = R 0e − t,
R0 t=0

R = R 0e − t
R

the energy required to completely disassemble it into separate protons and neutrons
E = (Δm)c 2
smaller

Δm = BE / c 2 mass defect
A
X Z
N
Δm = (Zm p + Nm n) − m tot.

BE = (Δm)c 2 = [(Zm p + Nm n) − m tot]c 2,

A
m tot X mp mn
Z m tot
m⎛⎝ A X⎞⎠ Z Z Zm⎛⎝1 H⎞⎠ Z
A
X
 ⎧ ⎫
BE = ⎨⎩[Zm( 1 H) + Nm n] − m( A X)⎬⎭c 2.

1 u = 931.5 MeV / c 2

3.5×10 9

10 9 3.5×10 9
4.5×10 9

4.5×10 9
10 9

238 40
U K
 238
U

A
24 12
Mg C A
BE / A BE / A

A BE / A

and

BE / A A ≈ 60

BE / A A ≈ 40

BE / A A
A
 BE / A

Z N Z=N

4 12
He C

4
He

BE / A

4
He

BE / A BE = {[Zm( 1 H) + Nm n] − m( A X)}c 2 A

BE = {[Zm( 1 H) + Nm n] − m( A X)}c 2.
4
He Z=N=2

BE = {[2m( 1 H) + 2m n] − m( 4 He)}c 2.

m( 4 He) = 4.002602 u m( 1 H) = 1.007825 u m n = 1.008665 u

BE = (0.030378 u)c 2.

1 u = 931.5 MeV/c 2
BE = (0.030378)(931.5 MeV/c 2)c 2 = 28.3 MeV.
A=4 BE / A
BE / A = 7.07 MeV/nucleon.

4
BE / A ≈ 3 MeV/nucleon He
4
BE / A He
4 4
He He A=4
 4
He
4
He

BE / A

Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns)

Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).
For reaction and binding-energy problems, we use atomic rather than nuclear masses.
+

For problems involving activity, the relationship of activity to half-life, and the number of nuclei given in the equation
R = 0.693N
t 1 / 2 can be very useful.

Perform the desired calculation; keep careful track of plus and minus signs as well as powers of 10.
Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

bound
4
He
 Coleoptera Chrysomelidea

x
BE / A

226
Ra 3.70×10 10 Bq
Z N

r = r 0A 1 / 3
 1 u = 1.6605×10 −27 kg = 931.46 MeV / c 2.

A
Z XN or simply A X,
Z N A

A = N + Z.
Z N
r
r = r 0 A 1 / 3,
r 0 = 1.2 fm A

Z N

⎛ ⎞
( ), ⎝ ⎠, ( )
A A−4 4
Z XN → Z − 2 Y N − 2 + 2He 2.
E Δm
E = (Δm)c 2.
−

A A −
Z XN → Z + 1 YN − 1 + + ν̄ e.
+

A A +
Z XN → Z − 1 YN + 1 + + ν e.

A
Z XN + e− → A
Z − 1 Y N + 1 + ν e.
− +
νe ν̄ e
 X*N → X N + 1+ 2+ ⋯

t1 / 2 N

N = N 0e − t,
N0 t=0

= 0.693
t1 / 2 .

R = ΔN .
Δt
R
1 Bq = 1 decay/s.
R
1 Ci = 3.70×10 10 Bq.
R N t1 / 2

R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 .
N N = N 0e − t

R = R 0e − t,
R0 t=0

BE = {[Zm( 1 H) + Nm n] − m( A X)}c 2,
m⎛⎝1 H⎞⎠ m⎛⎝ A X⎞⎠ mn
BE / A BE / A

5.0 MeV 5.0 MeV

 3×10 9 238
U 4.5×10 9
238 226 222 210
U Ra Rn Po

exactly

BE=⎡⎣ZM ⎛⎝1 H⎞⎠ + Nm n⎤⎦c 2 − m⎛⎝ A X⎞⎠c 2

BE / A A
A
 eV

1×10 −16 m

eV
r = r 0A 1 / 3 A
A
u/fm 3 kg/m 3
50.0 cm 3
56
Fe

1.00 µs

0.998c

2.3×10 17 kg

A
Z XN
Z
17 3
2.3×10 kg/m − 3
H

238 238
Pu Pu − 40
K

58
Ni + 50
Mn
58 258 + 52
Ni Ha Fe
7
Be
106
In
1 u = 1.6605×10 −27 kg 210
Po
238
c ∣ qe ∣ U
 226
Ra
238
U
A
Z XN + e− → A
Z − 1 YN + 1 + νe

222
A Ra
Z XN
14
Z C
222
− 137
Ba Ra → X+ 14 C A A
X
222
Ra

226
− 90
Y Ra

90
Y 249
Cf

228
Ra −

228
Ra − 90
Sr
208
Pb
232 + 22
Th Na

22 22
Na Ne

+ 11
e+ + e− → + C

11 11
C B

238
U
238
U
A A−4 4 234
Z XN → Z − 2 Y N − 2 + 2He 2 Th

−
7
Be.
A A −
Z XN → Z + 1 YN − 1 + + ν̄ e

15
O
−

A A −
Z XN → Z − 1 YN − 1 + + νe
 60
Co
14
C
2 10 = 1024 235
U 238
U
60 235 238
Co U U
7 9
1.85×10 4.5×10
− 3
H
226
R Ra
3
H

14 12
C C

1.0×10 5
226
Ra
232
Th
10
1.405×10 y
210
Po
131
1.0 µCi
I
131
I
40
K
9 40
1.277×10 K

40
K
235
U
238
235
U U

238
U
50 234
V U

50
V
238
U2 O3 U
235
U
238
U
kW ⋅ h

14
C

40
K
9
4.5×10
 238
U
2
H

238
U Z=N
BE/A
2
H
Galileo

238
Pu 56
Fe
56
Fe
α BE/A
56
238
Fe
Pu
238
Pu
209
Bi BE / A
γ BE/A
209
Bi

235
BE / A U
BE / A
238 238 238
U U U
BE / A
238 235
236 U U
1.0 µg U
12
BE / A C
7 236
2.3×10 y U
14
4.5×10 9 y BE / A C BE / A
12 14
1.0 µg C C

BE / A A

234 A = 60
U 2.45×10 5 y
58 90
BE / A Ni Sr
234
U

α 1.00 µA
α
1.00 µA α
 +

t 1/2 E

Eα (MeV) t 1/2

216 9.5 0.18 µs

Ra
194 7.0 0.7 s
Po
240 6.4 27 d
Cm
226 4.91 1600 y
Ra
232
Th 4.1 1.4×10 10 y

235
U

48
Ca 2×10 16 y

48
Ca

7.5×10 –13 m

6.3×10 19 Hz.
 N + He → X + O
H
H
C
C
Be

U → Ra + He
Ra → Pb + C
C → N + e− + v̄ e
Mg → Na + e+ + v e

Po Pb.

241 He
95 Am

241
95 Am
241
95 Am

241
96 Cm.
14
6 C
14
7 N
E  =  mc 2

E  =  mc 2

E  =  mc 2
 1 mCi = 3.7×10 7 Bq
Brain scan
99m
Tc
113m
In
11
C (PET)
13
N (PET)
15
O (PET)
18
F (PET)
Lung scan
99m
Tc
133
Xe
Cardiovascular blood pool
131
I
99m
Tc
Cardiovascular arterial flow
201
Tl
24
Na
Thyroid scan
131
I
123
I
Liver scan
198
Au
99m
Tc
Bone scan
85
Sr
99m
Tc
Kidney scan
197
Hg
99m
Tc

99m
Tc
99m
Tc
 99m
Tc
99m
Tc

+ +

11 13 15 18
C N O F

15
O
 1/100
1 rad = 0.01 J/kg.

(1.00 J) / (50.0 kg) = 0.0200 J/kg = 2.00 rad.

(1.00 J) / (2.00 kg) = 0.500 J/kg = 50.0 rad,

1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rad.

10 −18 J

, , ,

rem = rad×RBE

(2.00 rad)(1) = 2.00 rem whole body

(2.00 rad)(20) = 40.0 rem whole body
 Sv = Gy×RBE
1 Sv = 1 Gy×RBE = 100 rem.

R = 0.693N
t1 / 2 R = R 0e − t

1 Bq = 2.7×10 −11 Ci
Gy = 100 rad
Sv = 100 rem
 assumed

is

10 / 10 6 rem · y

3.3 / 10 6 rem ⋅ y

beneficial
 226 222
Ra Rn

222
Rn

less

1 / 10
1 / 1000

40 14 226
K, C, Ra
Step 1. Examine the situation to determine that a person is exposed to ionizing radiation.
Step 2. Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).

Step 3. Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns).

Step 4. For dose calculations, you need to determine the energy deposited.

Step 5. Divide the deposited energy by the mass of the affected tissue.
1 Sv = 1 J/kg
Step 6. If a dose in mSv is involved, determine the RBE (QF) of the radiation.
1 mSv = 1 mGy×RBE (or 1 rem = 1 rad×RBE)
Step 7. Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense?

239
1.00 µCi of Pu
 1 rad = 0.01 J/kg rem = rad×RBE

R = 1.00 µCi = 3.70×10 4 Bq = 3.70×10 4

⎛
⎝3.70×10
4
decays/s ⎞⎠⎛⎝3.16×10 7 s⎞⎠ = 1.17×10 12 decays.

⎛ −13
J ⎞ = 0.978 J.
E = ⎛⎝1.17×10 12 decays ⎞⎠⎛⎝5.23 MeV/decay⎞⎠× ⎝1.60×10 ⎠
MeV

E 0.978 J
mass = 2.00 kg = 0.489 J/kg.

0.489 J/kg
dose in Gy = = 0.489 Gy.
1.00 (J/kg)/Gy

dose in Sv = Gy×RBE
= ⎛⎝0.489 Gy⎞⎠(20) = 9.8 Sv.

1.00 µCi
239
16 µg Pu

131 123
I I
 60
Co
π-mesons

60
Co

135
I
103
Pd
no residual radioactivity
60 137
Co Cs
137
Cs
 10 4 Gy

low dose

E  =  mc 2
 fused
c2
BE / A

BE / A
BE / A
 10 8 K

1
H
4
He

1
H + 1H → 2 H + e + + v e (0.42 MeV)
1 2 3
H + H → He + (5.49 MeV)
3
He + 3He → 4 He + 1H + 1H (12.86 MeV)

e+ ve released
1
H

2e − + 4 1 H → 4 He + 2v e + 6γ (26.7 MeV)
 1
H
1
H + 1H → 2 H + e + + v e

2
H + 2H → 3 H + 1H (4.03 MeV)
2
H + 2H → 3 He + n (3.27 MeV)
2 3 4
H + H → He + n (17.59 MeV)
2 2 4
H + H → He + (23.85 MeV).
2
H

3
H 2
H + 3H → 4 He + n

n + 1H → 2 H + (20.68 MeV)

n + 1H → 2 H + (2.22 MeV).
2
H + 2H → 4 He +
 2
H + 3H → 4 He + n

2 3
H H

(1000 g) / (5.03 g/mol)=198.8 mol of reactants

(198.8 mol)⎛⎝6.02×10 23 mol −1⎞⎠ = 1.20×10 26 reactions.

E = ⎛⎝1.20×10 26 reactions⎞⎠(17.59 MeV/reaction)⎛⎝1.602×10 −13 J/MeV⎞⎠

= 3.37×10 14 J.

3.16×10 7 s
14
P = Et = 3.37×10 7 J
3.16×10 s
= 1.07×10 7 W = 10.7 MW.

3.37×10 14 J
 E  =  mc 2

fissured

BE / A
BE / A

BE / A
A BE / A A

238 95
U→ Sr + 140Xe + 3n

m( 238 U) = 238.050784 u m( 95 Sr) = 94.919388 u m( 140 Xe) = 139.921610 u

 m(n) = 1.008665 u

c2
238
U

m products = 94.919388 u + 139.921610 u + 3(1.008665 u)

= 237.866993 u.
238
U m products

Δm = 238.050784 u − 237.8669933 u = 0.183791 u,

E = (Δm)c 2
2
= (0.183791 u) 931.5 MeV/c
u c 2 = 171.2 MeV.

238
U

neutrons can induce

more fission

238
U

A
n+ X → FF 1 + FF 2 + xn,
FF 1 FF 2 x

x>1
A
n + X → FF 1 + FF 2 + xn

n + 235
92 U →
142 91
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3n.

92 + 0 = 56 + 36
1 + 235 = 142 + 91 + 3
 239 235
Pu U
235 239
U Pu
238 239
U Pu
235 239 238
U Pu U
235 239
92 U 143 94 P 145
238
92 U 146

235 239 235

U Pu U
238 239
U Pu

235 238
U U
235
UF 6 U
238
U UF 6
235
U

235
U

235
U

235
U
 loss of coolant

235 235
U U

235 235
U U
235
U

235 235
U U
235
(1000 g) / (235.04 g/mol) = 4.25 mol U

(4.25 mol)⎛⎝6.02×10 23 235

U/mol⎞⎠ = 2.56×10 24 235
U.

⎛ 24 235 ⎞ ⎛200 MeV ⎞⎛1.60×10 −13 J ⎞

E = ⎝2.56×10 U⎠
⎝ 235 U ⎠⎝ MeV ⎠
= 8.21×10 13 J.

235
(the U)

239
Pu
238
U
239 238
Pu U
238 239
U+n→ U+ .
–

239 239 −
U→ Np + + v e(t 1/2 = 23 min).
–

239 239 −
Np → Pu + + v e(t 1/2 = 2.4 d).
238
U
238 235
U U

235
U
239
Pu
235
U

239
Pu
 239
Pu

n + 6 Li → 3 H + 4 He
238
U
238
U
239
Pu
238
U
 1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rad

e v γ
 +

1 rad = 0.01 J/kg.

1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rad.

rem = rad×RBE.

Sv = Gy×RBE and 1 Sv = 100 rem.

10 / 10 6 rem·y

1
H + 1H → 2 H + e + + v e (0.42 MeV)
1
H + 2H → 3 He + (5.49 MeV)
3 3 4 1 1
He + He → He + H + H (12.86 MeV)
 2e − + 4 1 H → 4 He + 2v e + 6γ (26.7 MeV),

n + AX → FF 1 + FF 2 + xn FF 1 FF 2 x

239
Pu
 137 60
Cs Co
137
Cs

2
H + 3H → 4 He + n
2
H + 2H → 3 He + n ?
 2
H + 2H → 4 He +

( 3 H)
( 2 H)
90 137
Sr Cs
4
He + 9Be → 12
C+n
β– 40
K

98
Mo
98 99 98
Mo + n → Mo + Mo
99m
99
Tc
Mo

99
Mo

99m
Tc.
− 99 99m 99m
Mo Tc Tc

99m
Tc

239
Pu
1.00 µCi

99m
Tc

131 123
I I
70 µCi
131 123
I I

23
Na
24
1.50 W/m 2
Na
0.0750 m 2
23 24
Na + n → Na +
24
Na 60
Co
24
Na
 60
Co
60
Co 1
H + 1H → 2 H + e + + v e 1
H + 2H → 3 He +
65 3
Zn He + 3He → 4 He + 1H + 1H

65 65
50.0 µCi Zn Zn

2e − + 4 1 H → 4 He + 2v e + 6γ
40
K
40
K

40
K

n + 2H → 3 H +
226
Ra

226
Ra
n + 3He → 4 He +
226
Ra
n + 1H → 2 H +

14
C 4 2
He H
14 –
C
14
C 1.3×10 –12 N
12
C
2
H + 2H → 3 He + n

200×10 −4

4×10 26 W

1
H + 1H → 2 H + e + + v e, 1
H + 2H → 3 He + ,

3
He + 3He → 4 He + 1H + 1H.
12
C + 1H → 13
N+ ,
8×10 19
13
N → 13
C + e + + v e,
13
C + 1H → 14
N+ ,
14 1 15
N+ H → O+ ,
15
O → 15
N + e + + v e, 3.37×10 14

15
N + 1H → 12
C + 4He.

2e − + 4 1 H → 4 He + 2v e + 6γ
1
H e+
n + 238U → 96
Sr + 140 Xe + 3n,

m( 96 Sr) = 95.921750 u
m( 140 Xe) = 139.92164

n + 235U → 92
Kr + 142 Ba + 2n,

m( 92 Kr) = 91.926269 u
m( 142 Ba) = 141.916361 u

1.06 µm

n + 239Pu → 96
Sr + 140Ba + 4n,

m( 96 Sr) = 95.921750 u
4
He m( 140 Ba) = 139.910581 u
n + 3 He → 4 He +

3
He

m( 239 U) = 239.054289 u m( 239 Np) = 239.052932 u

m( 239 Pu) = 239.052157 u
 232 239
Th Pu

239
Pu
238 239
U P
232
Z N Th

232 A
Th X
n + 232Th → A
X+
−

235
U 90
Sr
90
Sr
235
U

cm 2

n + 6 Li → 3 H + 4 He

1 kW ⋅ h = 3.60×10 6 J

A
 E
R R

E
E
E
E

139
   56 Ba
140
   56 Ba
139
   54 Xe
140
   54 Xe

235 92
  92 U + n  →   141
  56 Ba +   y Kr + xn
x

n
are
 E = mc

ΔE Δt

ΔEΔt ≥ h ,
4π
h ΔE
Δt ≈ h m
4πΔE
ΔE = mc 2 ΔE
 d ≈ cΔt c

effects

10 −15 m

Δt
ΔE
2
MeV / c

d ≈ cΔt

Δt ≈ dc = 10 −15 m
3.0×10 8 m/s
≈ 3.3×10 −24 s.
ΔE

ΔE ≈ h ≈ 6.63×10 −34 J ⋅ s .
4πΔt 4π⎛3.3×10 −24 s⎞
⎝ ⎠

ΔE ≈ ⎛⎝1.6×10 −11 J⎞⎠ 1 MeV = 100 MeV.

1.6×10 −13 J
ΔE = mc 2 m = ΔE / c 2
m ≈ 100 MeV/c 2.

π + , π − , and π 0 π+ π−
139.6 MeV/c 2 π0 135.0 MeV/c 2
100 MeV/c 2

106 MeV/c 2
 10 −38 ∞

10 −2 ∞ +/ −

10 −13 < 10 −18 m +/ − W+ , W− , Z0

1 < 10 −15 m +/ −

+ attractive; ‑ repulsive; +/−

W+ , W− Z0

W+ , W− Z0
π+
 E= mc

ΔE m
2
m = ΔE / c
2 TeV/c 2
 PE elec = qV q V
q = q e = 1.6×10 −19 C 1 eV = (1 V)⎛⎝1.6×10 −19 C⎞⎠

V gap = 800 MV = 400 kV.

2000
 e+ +

π0 10 −8
π+ π−
 s = 0, 1, 2, ...
s = 1 / 2, 3 / 2, ...
 B Le Lµ Lτ S
(MeV / c 2)

W W+ W− 80.39×10 3 1.6×10 −25

Z Z0 91.19×10 3 1.32×10 −25
e− e+ ±1

νe v̄ e 0(7.0eV) ±1
(e)

µ− µ+ ±1 2.20×10 −6

vµ v- µ 0( < 0.27) ±1
(µ)

τ− τ+ ±1 2.91×10 −13

(τ)
vτ v- τ 0( < 31) ±1

π+ π−

π0
K+ K− ±1
-
K0 K0 ±1
0

p p-
n n-
-
Λ0 Λ0 ∓1
-
Σ+ Σ− ∓1
-
Σ0 Σ0 ∓1
-
Σ− Σ+ ∓1
-
Ξ0 Ξ0 ∓2

Ξ− Ξ+ ∓2

Ω− Ω+ ∓3

∓ ±
t 1 / 2 / 0.693 1/

>5×10 32
 10 −18 m

Le v- e
L e = −1 L e =+1

µ − → e − + v- e + v µ,
vµ
Lµ Lµ

τ − → µ − + v- µ + v τ.

Lτ

B
B=0 B=0
B=+1 B = −1

8
Be → + 10 −16 s
n → p + e − + v- e
e− v- e
8
Be

10 −16 10 −12
10 −16 10 −23

Λ, Σ, Ξ Ω
−10 0
10 Σ

S
 not conserved

Ξ− Ξ− → Λ0 + π −

K + → µ+ + νµ

Ξ− S = −2 Λ0
− −
π Ξ B = +1
0 −
Λ B = +1 π B=0
0 − 1 = −1

Ξ−
1.64×10 −10-s Ξ−

K + → µ+ + νµ
s→d
+
B = 0. K

Lµ = 0 L µ = −1 + 1 = 0

K+
1.24×10 −8-s
 Le Lµ
Lτ
B

all no
 u d s

⎛ ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
± ⎝2 ⎠q e ⎝3 ⎠q e
3
qe
e

p uud
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
+ ⎝2 ⎠q e + ⎝2 ⎠q e − ⎝1 ⎠q e = q e
3 3 3
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
+⎝ ⎠ + ⎝ ⎠ − ⎝ ⎠ = ⎝ ⎠
2 2 2 2

n udd

− −

n→ p+ −
+ v- e becomes udd → uud + −
+ v- e.

d →u+ −
+ v- e
 B S c b t (GeV / c 2)

u u- ± 2qe ±1
3 3
- ∓ 1qe ±1
d d 3 3

s s- ∓ 1qe ±1 ∓1
3 3

c c- ± 2qe ±1 ±1
3 3

- ∓ 1qe ±1
b b ∓1
3 3

t - ± 2qe ±1 ±1
t 3 3

±
B S c b t
 Mesons
-
π+ ud
π− u- d
-
π0 u u- d d
-
u u- d d
0

K0 d s-
- -
K0 ds
K+ u s-
K− u- s
J/ψ c c-
-
ϒ bb
Baryons[14],[15]
p uud
n udd

Δ0 udd

Δ+ uud
Δ− ddd
++ uuu
Δ

Λ0 uds

Σ0 uds

Σ+ uus
Σ− dds

Ξ0 uss
Ξ− dss
− sss
Ω

d→u
u→d s→u s→d

-
14. Antibaryons have the antiquarks of their counterparts. The antiproton p- is u- u- d , for example.
15. Baryons composed of the same quarks are different states of the same particle. For example, the Δ + is an excited state of
the proton.
 π+
- ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
ud + ⎝2 ⎠q e + ⎝1 ⎠q e = q e
3 3
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
+⎝ ⎠ − ⎝ ⎠ = 0 π+
3 3
-
u d
π− π+
-
π+ ud π− u- d

Ω−
sss −3
Ω−
Ω−
 Ω− K−
−
Ω

Ξ0

Ξ0 uss
Ξ0

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
uss + ⎝2 ⎠q e − ⎝1 ⎠q e − ⎝1 ⎠q e = 0 Ξ0
3 3 3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
+ ⎝1 ⎠ + ⎝1 ⎠ + ⎝1 ⎠ = 1 Ξ0 B=1
3 3 3
S = 0 − 1 − 1 = −2

Ω−
 c
u d s c

c c- J ψ J/ψ

J/ψ

τ
t b
ϒ
-
bb J/ψ c c-
 c b
t

R G B
⎛-⎞ ⎛-⎞
⎝R ⎠ ⎝G ⎠
⎛-⎞
⎝B ⎠

-
RR

extremely

Ω−
++
sss Δ uuu

τ µ µ e
u d

W± Z0
 Z0

W + ,W − Z0
+
W W− 81 GeV/c 2 Z0
90 GeV/c 2 100 GeV/c 2
 Z0 Z0

< 10 – 18 m

-
RG

-
u d d
-
d u d π+
- -
ud π+ d d u
 W+ W- Z0

10 -18 m
W+ W- Z0
Z0

Z0

W + , W −, Z0
 10 14 GeV
10 −30 m 10 10
10 −12

10 12

10 −35 m

10 31 y

p → π 0 + e + , (proposed proton decay)

10 31 y
10 21

5×10 32 y
 W W

±1

±1
 ±1

10 −35 m

±1
 0

−
d→u u→d
+

-
c b t W− tt
udb

π-mesons π + ,π,π 0

- - -
RGB
 Σ0 → Λ0 +
Σ0 Λ0
Δ+
Δ0
Z0

W+ W− Z0
10 14 GeV/c 2

GeV/c 2
10 −30

K
K 495 MeV/c 2
π0
π0 → +
π0

π − → µ − + ν- µ

10 14 GeV/c 2

µ − → e − + ν- e + ν µ

W−
5.00×10 −25 s.
c
W− τ + → µ + + ν µ + ν- τ
W−

π+ c
τ+ τ−
−8 +
2.60×10 s τ
τ−
Σ0 → Λ0 +

Σ0 Λ0
π + + p → Δ ++ → π + + p Δ ++

Δ ++

π0
-
d d
0 0
π → + π

τ− Δ ++

Δ+

Δ+

π+
Δ ++
Δ ++
π + + p → Δ ++

Δ ++

Ω− → Ξ0 + π −

Ω − → Λ 0 + K −.
 0
→ + γ.
p → π 0 + e+

π0 e+

0
→ π0 + π0 J/Ψ

ϒ
D
+
D
π0 → +
+1.
n → e+ + e−

B
µ − → e− + νe + ν µ B−

−1
Λ0 → n + π 0
-
u- u- d

Σ− → n + π −

RGB

p → π 0 + e+

Ω+
 K

= 1
1 − v2 / c2
10 10 GeV

200 MeV/c 2
1.00-km 2

10 31 y

10 33 y

7-eV/c 2

= 1
10 10 GeV 1 − v2 / c2

π0 → +
v

= 1
1 − v2 / c2

π+

π − → µ − + ν- µ

π−
p = E/c
galaxy galaxias

10 11
10 11
 v

v = H 0d,
d H0

H 0 = 20 km/s ⋅ Mly. v = H 0d
 v = (20 km/s ⋅ Mly)(100 Mly) = 2000 km/s.

d = v / H 0 = (10,000 km/s) / (20 km/s ⋅ Mly) = 5000 Mly = 5 Gly 5×10 9 ly

faster now

2.725 ± 0.002K
 +

K
 10 9

too

200 µk
 W± Z0
10 15 K 10 −12 s
10 −12 s

10 −12 s

10 −11 s 10 −34 s

10 14 GeV 10 −34 s
10 14 GeV
10 26 K W± Z0
10 −34 s 10 −43 s
10 −43 s 10 19 GeV

10 −35 s
 10 −35 s 10 −32 s
10 50

10 14 GeV

increasing in
 RS

R S = 2GM ,
c2
G M c
RS RS G c2
10 67
10 −43 s
10 −95 s

10 19 GeV
10 −35 m
 10 −35 m

10 −35 m

10 −18 m
faster

less

ρc

ρ c ≈ 10 −26 kg/m 3.
ρc

0.5% 2%

10% 40%
 νe v µ vτ

νe
νe vµ

vµ νe

10 −10
 two

economic systems

Cultures
Science

creative thinking

language
Artificial intelligence
and
Tc

Tc

Tc

Tc

T c = 125 K
Tc

T
T
 Tc

Tc

Tc

Tc

Tc
 Physics Today
Tc

Is the universe open or closed

What is dark matter

How do galaxies form

What is the nature of various-mass black holes

What is the mechanism for the energy output of quasars

Where do the bursts come from

How do phase transitions take place on the microscopic scale

Is there a way to deal with nonlinear phenomena that reveals underlying connections

How do high- T c superconductors become resistanceless at such high temperatures

There are magnetic effects in materials we do not understand—how do they work

Are quarks and leptons fundamental, or do they have a substructure

Why do leptons have integral charge while quarks have fractional charge

Why are there three families of quarks and leptons

Are all forces truly equal (unified) under certain circumstances

Are there other fundamental forces

Is the proton stable

Are there magnetic monopoles

Do neutrinos have mass

What are the systematic characteristics of high- Z nuclei Z = 118

Z = 114
 v = H0 d,
d H0
H0 = 20km/s ⋅ Mly.

c
RS
R S = 2GM ,
c2
G M

ρ
 Tc
Tc Tc

Tc

appears

K
 10 67

Le L µ Lτ

Tc
 10 12

10 11

10 11

10 11
10 11 10 19 GeV

10 19 GeV/c 2

10 9

10 9
10 9

10 10

10 10
2×10 10

0.9c

H0 = 20km/s ⋅ Mly

5.0×10 5 km

1.5×10 11
3×10 41 kg

10 13

1 2
10 −43 s 10 19 GeV

10 −35 m

10 19 GeV

10 11

10 −26 kg / m 3

eV / c 2 ⋅ m 3

7 eV / c 2

10 −26 kg / m 3

5%

10 9
Z A t
−
n
1
H
2
H or D
3 −
H or T
3
He 1.38×10 −4%
4 ≈100%
He
6
Li
7
Li
7
Be
9
Be
10
B
11
B
11 +
C
12
C
13
C
14 −
C
13 +
N
14
N
15
N
15 +
O
16
O
18
O
18 +
F
19
F
20
Ne
22
Ne
22 +
Na
23
Na
Z A t
24 −
Na
24
Mg
27
Al
28
Si
31 −
Si
31
P
32 −
P
32
S
35 −
S
35
Cl
37
Cl
40
Ar
39
K
−
40
K 1.28×10 9 y
40
Ca
45
Sc
48
Ti
51
V
52
Cr
55
Mn
56
Fe
59
Co
60 −
Co
58
Ni
60
Ni
63
Cu
65
Cu
64
Zn
66
Zn
69
Ga
72
Ge
Z A t
74
Ge
75
As
80
Se
79
Br
84
Kr
85
Rb
86
Sr
88
Sr
90 −
Sr
89
Y
90 −
Y
90
Zr
93
Nb
98
Mo
−
98
Tc 4.2×10 6y
102
Ru
103
Rh
106
Pd
107
Ag
109
Ag
114
Cd
−
115
In 4.4×10 14y
120
Sn
121
Sb
−
130
Te 2.5×10 21y
127
I
131 −
I
132
Xe
136
Xe
133
Cs
Z A t
134 −
Cs
137
Ba
138
Ba
139
La
140
Ce
141
Pr
142
Nd
145
Pm
152
Sm
153
Eu
158
Gd
159
Tb
164
Dy
165
Ho
166
Er
169
Tm
174
Yb
175
Lu
180
Hf
181
Ta
184
W
−
187
Re 4.6×10 10y
191 −
Os
192
Os
191
Ir
193
Ir
195
Pt
197
Au
198 −
Au
199
Hg
Z A t
202
Hg
205
Tl
206
Pb
207
Pb
208
Pb
210 −
Pb ,
211 −
Pb
212 −
Pb
209
Bi
211 −
Bi ,
210
Po
218 −
At ,
222
Rn
223 −
Fr ,
226
Ra 1.60×10 3y
227 −
Ac ,
228
Th
232
Th 1.41×10 10y
231
Pa 3.28×10 4y
233
U 1.59×10 3y
235
U 7.04×10 8y
236
U 2.34×10 7y
238
U 4.47×10 9y
239 −
U
239 −
Np
239
Pu 2.41×10 4y
243
Am , 7.37×10 3y
245
Cm 8.50×10 3y
247
Bk 1.38×10 3y
Z A t
249
Cf
254 −
Es ,
253
Fm
255
Md
255
No
257
Lr
261
Rf
262
Db ,
263 ,
Sg
262
Bh
264
Hs
266
Mt
 − +

+ ±

3 −
H
14 −
C
13 +
N
22 +
Na
32 −
P
35 −
S
−
36
Cl 3.00×10 5y
−
40
K 1.28×10 9y
43 − s
K

45 −
Ca
51
Cr
52 + s
Mn

52 +
Fe

− s
59
Fe s

60 − s
Co

65
Zn
67
Ga s

75
Se s
 t

−
86
Rb s

85
Sr
90 −
Sr
90 −
Y
99m
Tc
113m
In
123 ≈100%
I
− s
131
I s

129
Cs s

−
137
Cs s

140 − s
Ba ≈100%

198 −
Au ≈100% ≈100%
197
Hg
210
Po
226
Ra 1.60×10 3y s

235
U 7.038×10 8y ≈100% s

238
U 4.468×10 9y s

237
Np 2.14×10 6y s s

239
Pu 2.41×10 4y s s 7.5×10 −5
 t

243
Am 7.37×10 3y s s
c 2.99792458 × 10 8 m / s 3.00 × 10 8 m / s

G 6.67408(31) × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2

NA 6.02214129(27) × 10 23 6.02 × 10 23

k 1.3806488(13) × 10 −23 J / K 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K

R 8.3144621(75) J / mol ⋅ K 8.31 J / mol ⋅ K = 1.99 cal / mol ⋅ K = 0.0821atm ⋅ L / mol ⋅ K

σ 5.670373(21) × 10 −8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 5.67 × 10 −8 W / m 2 ⋅ K

k 8.987551788... × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2

qe −1.602176565(35) × 10 −19 C −1.60 × 10 −19 C

ε0 8.854187817... × 10 −12 C 2 / N ⋅ m 2 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 / N ⋅ m 2

µ0 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m / A 1.26 × 10 −6 T ⋅ m / A

h 6.62606957(29) × 10 −34 J ⋅ s 6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s

me 9.10938291(40)×10 −31kg 9.11×10 −31kg

mp 1.672621777(74)×10 −27kg 1.6726×10 −27kg

mn 1.674927351(74)×10 −27kg 1.6749×10 −27kg

u 1.660538921(73)×10 −27kg 1.6605×10 −27kg

1.99×10 30kg

6.96×10 8m

1.496×10 11m

5.9736×10 24kg

6.376×10 6m

3.16×10 7s

7.35×10 22kg

1.74×10 6m

2.36×10 6s

3.84×10 8m

10 12 10 −1

10 9 10 −2

10 6 10 −3

10 3 µ 10 −6

10 2 10 −9

10 1 10 −12

10 0( = 1) 10 −15

Α Η Ν ν Τ τ
Β Θ Ξ ξ Υ υ

Γ Ι Ο ο Φ ϕ

Δ Κ Π π Χ χ

Ε Λ Ρ ρ Ψ ψ

Ζ Μ µ Σ σ Ω ω
 N = kg ⋅ m / s 2

J = kg ⋅ m 2 / s 2
W = J/s

Pa = N / m 2
Hz = 1 / s
V = J/C
F = C/V
C=s⋅A
Ω = V/A
T = N / (A ⋅ m)
Bq = 1 / s

1 inch (in.) = 2.54 cm (exactly)

1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 km
1 pound (lb) = 4.448 N

1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 1.055×10 3 J

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 W

1 lb / in 2 = 6.895×10 3 Pa

1 light year (ly) = 9.46×10 15 m

1 astronomical unit (au) = 1.50×10 11 m

1 nautical mile = 1.852 km

1 angstrom(Å) = 10 −10 m

1 acre (ac) = 4.05×10 3 m 2

1 square foot (ft 2) = 9.29×10 −2 m 2

1 barn (b) = 10 −28 m 2

1 liter (L) = 10 −3 m 3

1 U.S. gallon (gal) = 3.785×10 −3 m 3

1 solar mass = 1.99×10 30 kg

1 metric ton = 10 3 kg

1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.6605×10 −27 kg

1 year (y) = 3.16×10 7 s

1 day (d) = 86,400 s
1 mile per hour (mph) = 1.609 km / h
1 nautical mile per hour (naut) = 1.852 km / h

1 degree (°) = 1.745×10 −2 rad

1 minute of arc ( ') = 1 / 60 degree

1 second of arc ( '') = 1 / 60 minute of arc

1 grad = 1.571×10 −2 rad

1 kiloton TNT (kT) = 4.2×10 12 J

1 kilowatt hour (kW ⋅ h) = 3.60×10 6 J

1 food calorie (kcal) = 4186 J
1 calorie (cal) = 4.186 J

1 electron volt (eV) = 1.60×10 −19 J

1 atmosphere (atm) = 1.013×10 5 Pa

1 millimeter of mercury (mm Hg) = 133.3 Pa
1 torricelli (torr) = 1 mm Hg = 133.3 Pa

1 curie (Ci) = 3.70×10 10 Bq

r d C = 2πr = πd
r d A = πr 2 = πd 2 / 4
r A = 4πr 2

r V = (4 / 3)⎛⎝πr 3⎞⎠
any symbol v̄

°C
°F
//
⊥
∝
±

= 1 / 1 − v2 / c2
Δ

ΔE
ΔE
Δm
ΔN
Δp
Δp
ΔPE g

Δ
Δs
Δt
Δt 0

ΔV
Δx
0

µ0
µk
µs
ve

π+
π−

π0
ρ
ρc
ρ

ρ̄ obj

ρ / ρw
(RL) (RC)
τ

τ (RC)
τ
Υ
Φ
ϕ
Ω
ω
A
A
A
A
a
aB
ac
at

AC
AM
atm
B
B
¯
B
b
B
B
B int

B orb

BE

BE / A
Bq
C
C
Cp

Cs
CG
CM
c
c
c
Cal
cal
COP hp

COP ref

cos
cot
csc
D
d
d
dB
di

do
DC
E

emf
E
E
E
E
E0

E0

EC
E cap

E in

E ind

E out
e
e+
eV
F
F
F
F
F
FB

Fc
Fi

F net
Fo
FM
f
f
f0 (RLC)

f0

f1

f2

f3

fB

fk

fs
G
G
¯
G
g
g
h
h
h
h
hf
hi

ho
I
I
I
I
I0

I ave
I rms
J
J/Ψ
K
k
k
K n=1 n=3
K n=2 n=3
kcal
KE
KE + PE
KE e
KE rel

KE rot

KE
kg
L
L
L
L
ℓ
L n=2 n=3
Le
Lµ

Lτ
Lf

L f and L v

L orb

Ls
Lv
Lz z

M
M
m
m
m
m
m
m
m

m⎛⎝ A X⎞⎠

MA
me
me
mℓ
mn
mo
mol
mp

ms
N
N
N
N
n
n
NA

Nr
N⋅m
N⋅m
OE
P
P
P
p
p
p
p tot
p 'tot

P abs

P atm
P atm
PE
PE el

PE elec

PE s
Pg

P in

P out
Q
Q
Q
+Q
−Q
q
qp

q
QF
R
R
R
¯
R
R
R
R
R
r
r
r⊥
r
r
r
r or rad
rem
rad
RBE
RC
rms
rn n

Rp

Rs
Rs
S
S
S
S
S
s
s
s
s
sec
sin
sz z

T
T
Tc
T
T B
t
t
t1 / 2

tan
U
u
u
u

u'
V
V
V
V
v
v
v

v̄
VB − VA
vd

Vp

V rms
Vs
v tot
vw
vw
W
W
W
w
w

Wc
W nc
W out
X
X
Z
XN
x
x
x
XC

XL
x rms
y
Y
Z
Z
 27.8 m/s
62.1 mph

1.0 m = 1.0 m × 3600 s × 1 km

s s 1 hr 1000 m
= 3.6 km/h

377 ft 4.53×10 3 in. 280 ft 3.3×10 3 in

8.847 km

1.3×10 −9 m
40 km/My

85.5 to 94.5 km/h

53.1 to 58.7 mi/h

7.6×10 7 beats

7.57×10 7 beats

7.57×10 7 beats

2.2%
59 to 61 km/h

80 ± 3 beats/min

2.8 h

11 ± 1 cm 3

12.06 ± 0.04 m 2

2×10 9
 2×10 31

10 12

10 16

+7 m

+9 m

3.0×10 4 m/s

2×10 7 years

34.689 m/s = 124.88 km/h

40.0 km/h
25º S of E.
average speed = 3.20 km/h, v- = 0.

6.61×10 15 rev/s

4.29 m/s 2

1.43 s

−2.50 m/s 2

10.8 m/s
 16.5 s
13.5 s

−2.68 m/s 2

20.0 m
−1.00 m/s

2.00 m/s 2

0.799 m

28.0 m/s
50.9 s

51.4 m
17.1 s

−80.4 m/s 2

9.33×10 −2 s

7.7 m/s

−15×10 2 m/s 2

32.6 m/s 2
162 m/s
v > v max
 32.6 m/s 2

v = 12.2 m/s a = 4.07 m/s 2

v = 11.2 m/s

y 1 = 6.28 m v 1 = 10.1 m/s

y 2 = 10.1 m v 2 = 5.20 m/s

y 3 = 11.5 m v 3 = 0.300 m/s

y 4 = 10.4 m v 4 = −4.60 m/s

v 0 = 4.95 m/s

a = −9.80 m/s 2 v 0 = 13.0 m/s y 0 = 0 m

v = 0m/s y v 2 = v 20 + 2a(y − y 0)
y y y

v 2 − v 20 = 2a(y − y 0)
v 2 − v 20
= y − y0
2a
v 2 − v 20 (0 m/s) 2 − (13.0 m/s) 2
y = y0 + =0m+ = 8.62 m
2a 2⎛−9.80 m/s 2⎞
⎝ ⎠

2.65 s
 19.6 m
18.5 m

115 m/s

5.0 m/s 2

(11.7 − 6.95)×10 3 m
v= = 238 m/s
(40.0 – 20.0) s

3 m/s 2

A
A

y
y x

y
y x

480 m
379 m 18.4°

19.5 m 4.65°

26.6 m 65.1°
26.6 m 65.1°

52.9 m 90.1° x

x
y

30.8 m 54.2º
30.8 m 54.2º

45.0º 45.0º

7.34 km 63.5º

x = 1.30 m×10 2
y = 30.9 m.

50.2°

18.4°
 v0
R=
sin2θ 0 g
v
For = 45°, R = g0

R = 91.8 m v 0 = 30 m/s R = 163 m v 0 = 40 m/s R = 255 m v 0 = 50 m/s

8.00×10 3 m

45°

= 6.1°

y − y 0 = 0 = v 0yt − 1 gt 2 = (v 0 sin )t − 1 gt 2
2 2
2(v 0 sin )
t= g
x − x 0 = v 0xt = (v 0 cos )t = R, t

⎛2v 0 sin ⎞ 2v 20 sin cos

R = v 0 cos ⎝ g ⎠= g

2 sin cos = sin 2θ,

v 0 2 sin 2θ
R= g

35.8 km 45º
5.53 m/s 45º
56.1 km 45º
17.0 m/s 22.1º

230 m/s 8.0º

6.68 m/s 53.3º

H average = 14.9 km/s

Mly

1.72 m/s 42.3º

13.3 m/s 2

12 m/s 2
 a = 0.130 m/s 2

a = 0.00 m/s 2

3.68×10 3 N
3750 N; 11.3º above horizontal

1.5×10 3 N, 150 kg, 150 kg

2.64×10 7 N

−2.64×10 7 N

0.11 m/s 2

1.2×10 4 N

7.84×10 -4 N

1.89×10 –3 N

F y = F − 2T sin =0
F = 2T sin
T= F .
2 sin
F net = T − f − mg = ma

T − f − mg 1.250×10 7 N − 4.50×10 6 N − (5.00×10 5 kg)(9.80 m/s 2)

a= m = = 6.20 m/s 2
5.00×10 5 kg

a = 4.00g = (4.00)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 39.2 m/s 2 ; m = 70.0 kg

F

∑ F=+F − w = ma, F = ma + w = ma + mg = m(a + g)

=
F = (70.0 kg)[(39.2 m/s 2 ) + (9.80 m/s 2)] 3.43×10 3N
F

10 3 N
 4.41×10 5 N

1.50×10 5 N

910 N

1.11×10 3 N

a = 0.139 m/s = 12.4º

T = 25.0 N. F app . Σ F y = 0,
y F app = 2 T sin = 2(25.0 N)sin⎛⎝15º⎞⎠ = 12.9 N

x ∑ Fx = 0

10.2 m/s 2 , 4.67º from vertical

T 1 = 736 N

T 2 = 194 N

7.43 m/s

4.20 m/s

29.4 m/s 2

4.31×10 3 N

2.47×10 3 m/s 2

6.18×10 3 N

1×10 −13

1×10 −11

10 2
 X Y

X Y
Y
Y

X d =t Y
c
4v c

v
a = tc D = 3vc t1
1 2
Y
X

F Fb
F F
F w − F c = 4.0
 m = F/ a 539 N/9.8 km/s 2 = 55 kg

v = at
= 9.8 m2 • 2s
s
= 17.6 m s

a = F
m
= −76 N
55 kg
= −1.4  m
s2

v = v 0 + at v = 17.6 m/s 2 + ( − 1.4 m/s 2)(8s)  = 6.5 m/s 2

120 N – 5.0 N = 115 N
40 kg + 50 kg = 90 kg

a = F
m
= 115 N
90 kg
= 1.28  m
s2

F = mg
F = ma

F = mg
= (120.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2)
= 1205.4 N

F = ma
= (120.0 kg)(1.3 m/s 2)
= 159.9 N
w

F net = Fx 2 + Fy w
= (38 N) 2 + (64 N) 2
= 74.4 N
F
a=m

a = 74.4 N
825 kg
= 0.09 m/s 2

5.00 N

1.96 m/s 2
1.83 m/s 2

4.20 m/s 2

2.74 m/s 2

–0.195 m/s 2

1.03×10 6 N

3.48×10 5 N

51.0 N

0.720 m/s 2

115 m/s; 414 km/hr

25 m/s; 9.9 m/s

2.9

⎡
⎣F s⎤⎦ kg ⋅ m/s 2 kg
[ ]= = =m⋅s
[r][v] m ⋅ m/s

0.76 kg/m ⋅ s

1.90×10 −3 cm

1.49×10 −7 m

3.99×10 −7 m

9.67×10 −8 m

4×10 6 N/m 2
5×10 7 rotations

4×10 21 m

3.47×10 4 m / s 2 3.55×10 3 g
51.1 m / s

31.4 rad/s
118 m/s
384 m/s

1.35×10 3 rpm

8.47×10 3 m/s 2

8.47×10 –12 N
865

16.6 m/s

19.6 m / s 2
 1.76×10 3 N or 3.00 w

40.5 m / s 2

4.14º

36.6 m / s 2
a c = 3.73 g.

5.71º

5.979×10 24 kg

1.62 m / s 2
 3.75 m / s 2

3.42×10 –5 m / s 2

3.34×10 –5 m / s 2

7.01×10 –7 N

1.35×10 –6 N 0.521

1.66×10 –10 m / s 2

2.17×10 5 m/s

2.94×10 17 kg

4.92×10 –8

1.98×10 30 kg

MJ
= 316
ME

7.4×10 3 m/s

1.05×10 3 m/s

2.86×10 −7 s

1.84×10 7 N

2.76×10 4 J

5.08×10 3 km
3.00 J = 7.17×10 −4 kcal

5.92×10 5 J

−5.88×10 5 J

3.14×10 3 J

−700 J

1 / 250

1.1×10 10 J

2.8×10 3 N

1.96×10 16 J

v f = 2gh + v 0 2 = 2(9.80 m/s 2)( − 0.180 m) + (2.00 m/s) 2 = 0.687 m/s

7.81×10 5 N/m

4×10 4 molecules

ΔPE g ΔKE v = 2gh + v 0 2 = 2(9.80 m/s 2)(20.0 m) + (15.0 m/s) 2 = 24.8 m/s

25×10 6 years
2×10 −10

208 W

9.46×10 7 J
2.54 y

m = 950 kg slope angle = 2.00º v = 3.00 m/s f = 600 N

P F

⎛d ⎞
P=W Fd
t = t = F ⎝ t ⎠ = Fv,
F
F = f + w = 600 N + mg sin

⎛
P = ⎝ f + mg sin ⎞⎠v
⎡
= ⎣600 N + ⎛⎝950 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m/s 2⎞⎠sin 2º⎤⎦(30.0 m/s)
= 2.77×10 4 W

3.21×10 4 N

2.35×10 3 N
2.50×10 12 J

1.4×10 4 kg

0.500 m/s 2
62.5 N

f = F − ma
t2

16.1×10 3 N

3.22×10 5 J

4.65×10 3 kcal

3.47×10 3 N
1.50×10 4 kg ⋅ m/s

6.66×10 2 kg ⋅ m/s

8.00×10 4 m/s

1.20×10 6 kg · m/s

−0.0100 m/s
9.00×10 3 N

2.40×10 3 N

800 kg ⋅ m/s
1.20 m/s

1.50×10 6 N

1.00×10 5 N

4.69×10 5 N

2.10×10 3 N

p2
p = mv ⇒ p 2 = m 2v 2 ⇒ m = mv 2
p2 1 2
⇒ = mv = KE
2m 2
p2
KE =
2m

vf = 0

8.70×10 −2 m/s
 1.02×10 −6 m/s

5.63×10 20 J

6.79×10 −17 m/s 6.25×10 9 J

60º x

0 = mv′ 1 sin 30º−mv′ 2 sin 60º ⇒ v′ 1 = v′ 2 sin 60º = 5.196 m/s

sin 30º

KE = 1 mv 1 2 = 18m J ⎫
2 ⎬KE′
KE = 1.00
KE = mv′ 1 + mv′ 2 = 18m J⎭
1 2 1 2
2 2

−2.26 m/s

7.63×10 3 J

5.36×10 5 m/s −29.5º

7.52×10 −13 J

m1 = m2 ≡ m

v 1 = v 1 cos 1 + v2 cos 2
0 = v′ 1 sin 1 + v′ 2 sin 2.

v 1 2 = v′ 1 2 cos 2 2
1 + v′ 2 cos
2
2 + 2v′ 1 v′ 2 cos 1 cos 2
0 = v′ 1 2 sin 2 2
1 + v′ 2 sin
2
2 + 2v′ 1 v′ 2 sin 1 sin 2 .

v 1 2 = v′ 1 2 + v′ 2 2 + 2v′ 1 v′ 2⎛⎝ cos 1 cos 2+ sin 1 sin ⎞

2⎠
⎡ ⎞⎤
= v′ 1 2 + v′ 2 2 + 2v′ 1 v′ 2⎣1 cos ⎛⎝ 1 − 2⎞⎠ + 1 cos ⎛⎝ 1 + 2⎠ +
⎞ 1 cos ⎛⎝ ⎞
1 − 2⎠ −
1 cos ⎛⎝
1 + 2⎠⎦
2 2 2 2
= v′ 1 2 + v′ 2 2 + 2v′ 1 v′ 2 cos ⎛⎝ 1 − 2⎞⎠.

1m
2
1 mv 2 = 1 mv′ 2 + 1 mv′ 2 + mv′ v′ cos⎛⎝ ⎞
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 − 2⎠

39.2 m/s 2

4.16×10 3 m/s

Δm a Δm F = Δma Δm
Δt ve v e = a ΔmΔt F = v e Δm
Δt
F thrust = v e Δm
Δt
v e Δm
F thrust − mg = ma ⇒ a = m −g m
Δt

2.63×10 3 kg

0.237 J

F = mΔv
Δt
 (0.5)(2.0)(15) 2 = 225 J (0.5)(7.0)(4.286) 2 = 64 J

46.8 N·m

m 1 = 26.0 kg, m 2 = 32.0 kg, m s = 12.0 kg,

r 1 = 1.60 m, r s = 0.160 m, find (a r 2, (b) F p

net τ cw = – net τ ccw

⇒ w 1 r 1 + m sgr s = w 2r 2

r2
 w 1 r 1 + m s gr s m 1 gr 1 + m s gr s m 1 r 1 + m s r s
r2 = w2 = m2 g = m2
(26.0 kg)(1.60 m) + (12.0 kg)(0.160 m)
=
32.0 kg
= 1.36 m

net F = 0 = F p – w 1 – w 2 – w s
⇒ Fp = w1 + w2 + ws

F p = (26.0 kg + 32.0 kg + 12.0 kg)(9.80 m / s 2)

= 686 N

F wall = 1.43×10 3 N

2.55×10 3 N, 16.3º to the left of vertical (i.e., toward the wall)

F B = 2.12×10 4 N

F = 2.0×10 4 N

MA = 18.5
F i = 29.1 N

1.3×10 3 N

T = 299 N
F B = 470 N; r 1 = 4.00 cm; w a = 2.50 kg; r 2 = 16.0 cm;w b = 4.00 kg; r 3 = 38.0 cm
⎛r ⎞ ⎛r ⎞
F E = w a⎝r 2 − 1⎠ + w b⎝r 3 − 1⎠
1 1
⎛ ⎞
= ⎛⎝2.50 kg⎞⎠⎛⎝9.80 m / s 2⎞⎠⎝16.0 cm – 1⎠
4.0 cm
⎛ ⎞⎛ 2⎞⎛38.0 cm ⎞
+ ⎝4.00 kg⎠⎝9.80 m / s ⎠⎝ – 1⎠
4.00 cm
= 407 N

1.1×10 3 N
= 190º ccw from positive x axis

F V = 97 N, = 59º

F A = 2.21×10 3 N

F B = 2.94×10 3 N

F teeth on bullet = 1.2×10 2 N

F J = 84 N

x- 2 = 2.33 m
ω = 0.737 rev/s

−0.26 rad/s 2
27 rev

80 rad/s 2

600 rad/s 2

0.50 kg ⋅ m 2

50.4 N ⋅ m

17.1 rad/s 2

17.0 rad/s 2

3.96×10 18 s

1.26×10 11 y
 ⎛ ⎞
2
I end = I center + m⎝ l ⎠
2
Thus, I center = I end − 1 ml 2 = 1 ml 2 − 1 ml 2 = 1 ml 2
4 3 4 12

500 N ⋅ m

W = 9.81 N

2.57×10 29 J

KE rot = 2.65×10 33 J

KE rot = 434 J

128 rad/s
19.9 m

10.4 rad/s 2
net W = 6.11 J

2.52×10 4 N

2.66×10 40 kg ⋅ m 2/s

7.07×10 33 kg ⋅ m 2/s

3.77×10 6

22.5 kg ⋅ m 2/s

0.156 rad/s
1.17×10 −2 J
0.188 kg ⋅ m/s

1.50 kg ⋅ m/s

5.64×10 33 kg ⋅ m 2 /s

1.39×10 22 N ⋅ m

2.17×10 15 N
τ  =   ΔL
Δt
τ ⋅ Δt  =  ΔL

1.610 cm 3

2.70 g/cm 3

7.9×10 2 kg/m 3

15.6 g/cm 3

10 18 kg/m 3

2×10 4 m

3.59×10 6 Pa 521 lb/in 2

2.36×10 3 N

hρg⎞⎠ units = (m)⎛⎝kg/m 3⎞⎠⎛⎝m/s 2⎞⎠ = ⎛⎝kg ⋅ m 2⎞⎠ / ⎛⎝m 3 ⋅ s 2⎞⎠

⎛
⎝

⎛
= ⎝kg ⋅ m/s 2⎞⎠⎛⎝1/m 2⎞⎠
= N/m 2

1.09×10 3 N/m 2

2.55×10 7 Pa
5.76×10 3 N

⎛ Ai ⎞
V = d i A i = d o A o ⇒ d o = d i⎝
Ao⎠
.

F1 F2 ⎛A ⎞
=
A1 A2 ⎝ Ai ⎠
⇒ Fo = Fi o .

⎛F i A o ⎞⎛d i A i ⎞
W o = F od o =
⎝ A i ⎠⎝ A o ⎠ = F id i = W i.

W out = W in − W f

Pg = 5.00 cm H 2 O,
P abs = 1.035×10 3 cm H 2 O.

Pg = −50.0 mm Hg,
P abs = 710 mm Hg.

ΔP = 38.7 mm Hg,
Leg blood pressure = 159 .
119

22.4 cm 2

91.7%

815 kg/m 3

41.4 cm 3

1.09 g/cm 3

50 cm 3

0.79 g/cm 3
 960 kg/m 3

6.34%

0.24
0.68

ρ obj < ρ ethyl alcohol(0.678 g/cm 3 < 0.79 g/cm 3)

0.006%.

F net = F 2 − F 1 = P 2 A − P 1 A = ⎛⎝P 2 − P 1⎞⎠A

= ⎛h ρ g − h ρ g⎞A
⎝ 2 1 ⎠

= ⎛h − h ⎞ρ gA
⎝ 2 1⎠

F net = (h 2 − h 1)Aρ g = V ρ g = m g = w

592 N/m 2

2.23×10 −2 mm Hg

1.65×10 −3 m

3.71×10 –4 m

6.32×10 −2 N/m

Pw = 14.6 N/m 2 ,
Pa = 4.46 N/m 2 ,
P sw = 7.40 N/m 2 .

5.1º
= 0º

−2.78
−63.0 cm H 2 O

3.81×10 3 N/m 2
28.7 mm Hg

3.98×10 6 Pa

2.1×10 −3 cm

3.39×10 −6 J
h/2

2.01×10 4 N

1.17×10 −3 m

2.56×10 10 N/m 2

1.38×10 4 N

2.81×10 7 N/m 2

2.78 cm 3 /s
 40.0 cm 2

5.09×10 7

0.0800 m 3 /s

127 cm 3 /s

P = Force ,
Area
(P) units = N/m 2 = N ⋅ m/m 3 = J/m 3
= energy/volume

2.54×10 5 N

1.58×10 6 N/m 2

9.56×10 8 W

3.02×10 −3 N

1.03×10 −3

1.60 cm 3 /min

8.7×10 −11 m 3 /s
225 mPa ⋅ s

0.138 Pa ⋅ s,

1.62×10 4 N/m 2

0.111 cm 3 /s

2.95×10 6 N/m 2

N R = 1.99×10 2 < 2000

1.27×10 5

3.51×10 4

1.28×10 –2 L/s

≥ 13.0 m

2.68×10 −6 N/m 2

344 lb/in 2

5.27×10 6

1.41×10 −3 m

1.3×10 2 s
102ºF

20.0ºC 25.6ºC

9890ºF

22.2ºC
ΔT(ºF) = T 2 (ºF) − T 1(ºF)
⎛ ⎞
= 9 T 2 (ºC) + 32.0º − ⎝9 T 1 (ºC) + 32.0º⎠
5 5
= 9 ⎛⎝T 2 (ºC) − T 1(ºC)⎞⎠ = 9 ΔT(ºC)
5 5

5.4×10 −6 m

~$17,000.

V = V 0 + ΔV = V 0(1 + ΔT)
= (60.00 L)⎡⎣1 + ⎛⎝950×10 −6 / ºC⎞⎠(35.0ºC − 15.0ºC)⎤⎦
= 61.1 L

ΔL = L 0ΔT
V = L3 V = V 0 + ΔV = ⎛⎝L 0 + ΔL⎞⎠ 3 ΔL

V = ⎛⎝L 0 + L 0ΔT ⎞⎠ 3 = L 03(1 + ΔT) 3 .

ΔT

V ≈ L 03(1 + 3αΔT) = L 03 + 3αL 03ΔT.

V = V 0 + ΔV ≈ V 0 + 3αV 0ΔT,

ΔV = V 0ΔT ≈ 3αV 0ΔT, or ≈ 3α.

 nRT = (mol)(J/mol ⋅ K)(K) = J
nRT = (mol)(cal/mol ⋅ K)(K) = cal
nRT = (mol)(L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K)(K)
= L ⋅ atm = (m 3)(N/m 2)
= N⋅m=J

7.86×10 −2 mol

6.02×10 5 km 3

6.02×10 8 km

−73.9ºC

9.14×10 6 N/m 2

8.23×10 6 N/m 2

3.7×10 −17 Pa

6.0×10 17 m 3

8.4×10 2 km

1.25×10 3 m/s

1.20×10 −19 J

1.24×10 −17 J

458 K

1.95×10 7 K

6.09×10 5 m/s

7.89×10 4 Pa
 1.99×10 5 Pa

3.12×10 4 Pa

2.12×10 4 Pa
1.06 %

8.80×10 −2 g

6.30×10 3 Pa

4.77ºC

38.3 m

⎛
F B / w Cu⎞⎠
⎝
⎛
= 1.02
F B / w Cu⎞⎠ ′
⎝

4.41×10 10 mol/m 3

7.03×10 8 m/s

5.02×10 8 J
3.07×10 3 J

0.171ºC

4.94×10 3 s

2.00ºC

20.6ºC

1.57×10 4 kcal
18.3 kW ⋅ h

1.29×10 4 kcal

1.01×10 3

1.05×10 3 K
85.7ºC

2×10 4 MW

29.2 W + 9.49 W = 38.7 W

−21.7 kW

−266 kW

−36.0 W

−15.0 kW

48.5ºC

48.5ºC

3×10 17 J

1×10 13 kg

3.44×10 5 m 3 /s

5ºC
 2.79×10 4 J

20.0ºC 50.0ºC

36ºC
3ºC
73ºC (163ºF)
95%

1.6×10 9 J

-9.30×10 8 J

−1.0×10 4 J −2.39 kcal

2.10×10 6 J

1.61×10 7 J
6.77×10 3 J

W = PΔV = 1.76×10 5 J

W = Fd = 1.76×10 5 J

W = 4.5×10 3 J

18.5 kJ

1.32 × 10 9 J

4.68 × 10 9 J

3.80 × 10 9 J

8.30 × 10 12 J 2.50 × 10 14 J

–8.30 × 10 12 J

403ºC

244ºC
477ºC

T c,1
1 =1− = 1 − 543 K = 0.249 or 24.9%
T h,1 723 K

2 = 1 − 423 K = 0.221 or 22.1%

543 K
T c,1
1 =1− ⇒ T c,1 = T h,1⎛⎝1, − , 1⎠
⎞
similarly, T c,2 = T h,2⎛⎝1 − ⎞
2⎠
T h,1
T c,2 = T h,1⎛⎝1 − ⎞⎛
1⎠⎝1 −
⎞
2⎠ ≡ T h,1⎛⎝1 − ⎞
overall ⎠
using T h,2 = T c,1 in above equation gives ? ⎛⎝1 − ⎞
= ⎛⎝1 − 1⎞⎠⎛⎝1 − 2⎞⎠
overall ⎠
overall = 1 − (1 − 0.249)(1 − 0.221) = 41.5%

overall = 1 − 423 K = 0.415 or 41.5%

723 K
 Q c = Q h − W = 25 kJ − 12 kJ = 13 kJ
Qc Tc
=1− = 1 − 13 kJ = 0.48 C =1− = 1 − 300 K = 0.50
Qh 25 kJ Th 600 K

–56.3ºC

1.66×10 8 J or 3.97×10 4 kcal

1.66×10 8 J

27.6ºC

1.44×10 7 J

9.78×10 4 J/K

8.01×10 5 J

1.04×10 31 J/K

3.28×10 31 J

2.47×10 14 J

1.60×10 14 J

2.85×10 10 J/K

8.29×10 12 J

1.27×10 30 s 6.35×10 29 s
⎛ 29 ⎞⎛ 1 h ⎞ ⎛ 1 d ⎞⎛ 1 y ⎞
⎝6.35×10 s⎠⎝3600 s ⎠ ⎝24 h ⎠⎝365.25 d ⎠

= 2.0×10 22 y

3.0×10 29

-2.38×10 – 23 J/K

1.23×10 3 N/m
6.88 kg
4.00 mm

6.53×10 3 N/m

0.400 s / beats
 11.3×10 3 rev/min

2.37 N/m

(0.01) 2 = 0.01%

1.99 Hz

3.95×10 6 N/m

7.90×10 6 J

± 3
2
 5.00×10 5 J

1.20×10 3

t = 9.26 d

f = 40.0 Hz

v w = 16.0 m/s

= 700 m

d = 34.0 cm

f = 4 Hz

3.38×10 –5 W/m 2

50 cycles
f   =  1   =     =  1.66 Hz
T 30s

T  =   1   =   1   =  0.6 s
f 1.66

E  =   1 mv 2 =   1 ×0.2 kg×(5 m·s −1) 2 =  2.5 J

2 2
 ⎛ 2 µ K mg ⎞
2
d  =   k where k  =  50 N ⋅ m −1 µ k   =  0.06 m  =  0.5kg
2µ K mg ⎝X −
k ⎠

⎛ ⎛⎛ −2 ⎞⎞
2
50N ⋅ m −1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎝0.06×0.5kg×9.8m ⋅ s ) ⎟⎟
d  =   −2 ⎜
(0.2) 2 − ⎜ −1 2 ⎟⎟ =  1.698 m
2×0.06×9.8m ⋅ s (50N ⋅ m )
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠

2π m

v w = (331 m/s) T = (331 m/s) 293 K

273 K 273 K
= 343 m/s

3.16×10 –4 W/m 2
3.04×10 –4 W/m 2

5.01×10 –3 1
200

1.45×10 –3 J

3.79×10 3 Hz

4.23×10 3 Hz

3.56×10 3 Hz
 f n = n⎛⎝47.6 Hz⎞⎠, n = 1, 3, 5,..., 419

f n = n⎛⎝95.3 Hz⎞⎠, n = 1, 2, 3,..., 210

1×10 6 km

2×10 −10 W/m 2

2×10 −13 W/m 2

77.0 µm

16.6 µm

5.78×10 –4 m

2.67×10 6 Hz

v w = 1540 m/s = f = 1540 m/s = 0.0154 m < 3.50 m.

100×10 3 Hz
 1.25×10 10

3.13×10 12

1.03×10 12

9.09×10 −13

1.48×10 8 C

E x = 1.00 cm = − ∞

2.12×10 5 N/C
+q

x = 6.07 cm

qa qb qc qd

2.04×10 7 N/C (upward)

0.102 N, −y

→
E = 4.36×10 3 N/C, 35.0º

F = k | 1 2 2| = ma
q q kq 2
a= ⇒
r mr 2
⎛
/
⎞ 2
9.00×10 9 N ⋅ m 2 C 2 ⎛⎝1.60×10 –19 m⎞⎠
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= 2
⎛ –9 ⎞
⎝1.67×10 kg⎠⎝2.00×10 m⎠
–27

= 3.45×10 16 m/s 2

1.04×10 −9

1.02×10 −11

8.75×10 −4

6.94×10 −8 C
6.25 N/C

300 N/C (east)

4.80×10 −17 N (east)

5.58×10 −11 N/C

−6.76×10 5 C
 2.63×10 13 m/s 2 (upward)

2.45×10 −18 kg

q2 q1

R T
/
qR d 2 = qT / d2 R T S
R T S R
T / /
qR d 2 = qS D2 / / /
q S q R = D 2 d 2 = 36 16 = 2.25
S R T
 ⎡ q 2q q ⎤⎥
E = k⎢− + +
⎣ (d + x) 2 (x) 2 (d − x) 2 ⎦

0<x<d

1.00×10 5 K

4×10 4 W

7.40×10 3 C

1.54×10 20 electrons per second

3.89×10 6 C

1.44×10 12 V

3.00 kV
750 V

2.5×10 6 V/m,
3.0×10 6 V/m
15 kV

800 KeV
25.0 km

–2.22×10 – 13 C

3.31×10 6 V

2.78×10 -7 C

2.00×10 -10 C

2.96×10 9 m/s

21.6 mC

80.0 mC

667 pF

4.4 µF

4.0×10 – 5 C

0.293 µF

3.08 µF 13.0 µF

2.79 µF
–3.00 µF

405 J
90.0 mC

1.42×10 −5 C 6.38×10 −5 J

8.46×10 −5 C 3.81×10 −4 J

4.43×10 – 12 F
452 V

4.52×10 – 7 J

133 F
 1.67k Ω

P = I 2R

7.50×10 17 electrons

7.81 × 10 14 He ++ nuclei/s

4.00 × 10 3 s

7.71 × 10 8 s

−1.13×10 −4 m/s

9.42×10 13 electrons

7.33×10 −2 Ω
0.104 Ω

2.8×10 −2 m

1.10×10 −3 A

−5ºC to 45ºC

−17ºC

4.7 Ω

2.00×10 12 W

V 2 = V 2 = AV = ⎛C ⎞⎛ J ⎞ = J = 1 W
Ω V/A ⎝ s ⎠⎝C ⎠ s

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 kW ⋅ h=⎝1×10 J ⎠(1 h)⎝3600 s ⎠ = 3.60×10 6 J
1s 1h

2.00×10 9 J

2.17×10 3 A

1.10×10 3 A
 1.23×10 3 kg

2.64×10 3 kg

2.08×10 5 A

4.33×10 4 MW

1.20×10 5 Ω

1.00 Ω

860º C
 2.75 k Ω
27.5 Ω

786 Ω
20.3 Ω

29.6 W

Rs = R1 + R2
⇒ R s ≈ R 1⎛⎝R 1 >>R 2⎞⎠

1 = 1 + 1 = R1 + R2
Rp R1 R2 R1 R2

R1 R2 R1 R2
Rp = ≈ = R 2⎛⎝R 1 >>R 2⎞⎠.
R1 + R2 R1

-400 k Ω

0.375 Ω
 0.1000 Ω ; 80.0 A, 4.0 V, 320 W

0.400 Ω
r

-1.41×10 −2 Ω

−I 2R 2 + emf 1 − I 2r 1 + I 3R 3 + I 3r 2 - emf 2 = 0

I3 = I1 + I2

emf 2 - I 2r 2 - I 2R 2 + I 1R 5 + I 1r 1 - emf 1 + I 1R 1 = 0

I 1 = 4.75 A

I 2 = -3.5 A

I 3 = 8.25 A

I1 ≠ I2 + I3

30 µA

1.98 k Ω

1.25×10 -4 Ω

3.00 M Ω
2.99 k Ω

15.0 µA
 10.02 Ω

2.0×10 –1

2.0×10 –1

−66.7 Ω

IG I tot

1.56 k Ω

9.68 Ω

Range = 5.00 Ω to 5.00 k Ω

range 4.00 to 30.0 M Ω

2.50 µF

1.25 k Ω

1.73×10 −2 s

3.33×10 −3 Ω

3.87ºC
31.1 k Ω
 I1 + I3 = I2
E1 - I 1 R 1 - I 2 R 2 - I 1 r 1 E2 + I1R1 - I3R3 - I3r2
I1 I2 I3
I1 I2 I3
PE1 PR1 PR2 PR3 PE1 PR1 PR2 PR3
R3,

7.50×10 −7 N

3.01×10 −5 T

5×10 −5 T
 6.67×10 −10 C 5.00×10 −5 T

4.36×10 −4 m

7.50×10 −4 V

1.16 µV

30º
 τ

⎛ ⎞
A ⋅ m 2 ⋅ T = A ⋅ m 2⎝ N ⎠ = N ⋅ m
A⋅m

3.48×10 −26 N ⋅ m

0.666 N ⋅ m

1.67×10 −3 N/m

3.33×10 −3 N/m

2.65×10 −4 N/m 10.9º

3.61×10 −4 N/m 13.9º

3.46×10 −4 N/m 30.0º

1.01×10 13 T

4.80×10 −4 T
 3.14×10 −5 T

7.55×10 −5 T 23.4º

9.09×10 −7 N

3.03×10 −5 m/s 2

1.02×10 3 N/m 2

17.0×10 −4%/ºC

6.00×10 −4 N/m
94.1 µm

2.40×10 6 m/s
≤
 1
r

2.81×10 8 J
 1.92×10 6 rad/s

12.00 Ω

0.100 Ω

9.75×10 −2 A
 5.00ºC

50.0 Ω

1.00×10 –18 s

63.7 µH

8.00 Ω

16.7 Ω

40.02 Ω 193 Ω
Z=531 Ω
Z=190 Ω
529 Ω 185 Ω

1.31 µH

12.8 kΩ
1.31 kΩ

80.9º
5.0×10 14

8
= c = 3.00×1015 m/s = 2.50×10 – 7 m
f 1.20×10 Hz

8
f = c = 3.00×10
-10
m/s = 3×10 18 Hz
1×10 m

6.00×10 6 m

4.33×10 −5 T

1.55×10 15 Hz

visible
UV
= 380 nm
193 nm
= 1.97.

3.90×10 8 m

1.50×10 11 m
0.500 µs

−3.5×10 2 W/m 2

1.7 µT
 2
c 0 E0
I =
2
⎛
⎝3.00×10
8
m/s⎞⎠⎛⎝8.85×10 –12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2⎞⎠(125 V/m) 2
=
2
= 20.7 W/m 2

−3
I = P = P2 = 0.250×10 W 2 = 318 W/m 2
A πr
π ⎛⎝0.500×10 −3 m⎞⎠

⎛2µ I ⎞
1/2
cB 20
I ave = ⇒ B 0 = ⎝ c0 ⎠
2µ 0
⎛2⎛⎝4π×10 −7 T ⋅ m/A⎞⎠⎛⎝318.3 W/m 2⎞⎠⎞
1/2
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3.00×10 8 m/s ⎠
= 1.63×10 −6 T

E 0 = cB 0 = ⎛⎝3.00×10 8 m/s⎞⎠⎛⎝1.633×10 −6 T⎞⎠

= 4.90×10 2 V/m

1.33×10 19 W/m 2

I = P = P 2 ∝ 12
A 4πr r

I∝E 02 , B 20 ⇒ E 02 , B 20 ∝ 12 ⇒ E 0 , B 0 ∝ 1r
r

4.07 kW/m 2

5.84 µT

5.00×10 3 W/m 2

3.88×10 −6 N

5.18×10 −12 N

t=0
 7.50×10 −10 s

1.00×10 −9 s

1.01×10 6 W/m 2

2.53×10 −20 H

1.715 m 0.825 m 0.890 m

2.25×10 8 m/s

2.04×10 8 m/s

1.490

1.28 s

1.03 ns

n = 1.46

n < 1.00 c

c
5.00
66.3º

> 1.414

46.5º, red; 46.0º, violet

0.043º
1.33 m

71.3º

53.5º, red; 55.2º, violet

5.00 to 12.5 D

−0.222 m

−1.35 m
+10.0

+7.50 cm
13.3 D

−0.933 mm

–1.5×10 –2 m
–66.7 D
 hi d −d d
m= = − i = − o = o = 1 ⇒ hi = ho
ho do do do

6.82 kW/m 2

cn

52.0 D

−0.233 mm

+62.5 D
–0.250 mm
–0.0800 mm
 ±0.45 D

–5.00 D

–0.198 D

–0.444 D

−40.0

−1.67

+10.0 cm

0.251 µm
1 / 1.333 = 0.750

0.516º

1.22×10 −6 m

2.06º

sin − tan ≈ (in radians)

d sin m =m

d sin m+1 = (m + 1)

d⎛⎝sin m + 1 − sin m⎠
⎞
= ⎡⎣(m + 1) − m⎤⎦
d⎛⎝ m + 1 − m⎠
= ⎞

y ⎛ y y ⎞
tan m = xm ≈ m ⇒ d⎝ mx+ 1 − xm ⎠ =
Δy
d x = ⇒ Δy = x
d

5.97º

8.99×10 3

(a) 11.8º, 12.5º, 14.1º, 19.2º

(b) 24.2º, 25.7º, 29.1º, 41.0º
(c) Decreasing the number of lines per centimeter by a factor of x means that the angle for the x‐order maximum is
28.7º

43.2º

90.0º

6.58×10 3 cm

1.13×10 −2 m

33.4º

1.35×10 −6 m
69.9º

9.04º

0.0150º

30.1º
48.7º

2θ 1 = (2)(14.5º) = 29º, 2− 1 = 30.05º−14.5º=15.56º 29º ≈ (2)(15.56º) = 31.1º

23.6º 53.1º

1.63×10 −4 rad
1.46×10 −5 rad

3.04×10 −7 rad
235 m

4.42×10 −5 m

45.0º

45.7 mW/m 2

90.0%

I0

48.8º

41.2º

55.2º

B 2 = 0.707 B 1

2.07×10 -2
5.96×10 −8 s

0.800c

0.140c

0.745c
0.99995c

=
= 3.20

4.303 y
Δt = γΔt 0 ⇒ = Δt = = 30.0
Δt 0 0.1434 y

=30.00
 0.909c
0.400c

0.198c

658 nm

v / c = 9.92×10 −5

0.991c

−0.696c

0.01324c

u′ = c

u = v+u′ = v+c = v+c

1 + (vu′/ c 2) 1 + (vc / c 2) 1 + (v / c)
c(v+c)
= c+v = c

0.99947c

1.2064×10 11 y

1.2058×10 11 y

4.09×10 –19 kg ⋅ m/s

3.000000015×10 13 kg ⋅ m/s

2.9957×10 8 m/s

1.121×10 –8 m/s

8.20×10 −14 J

2.3×10 −30 kg

1.11×10 27 kg
 5.56×10 −5

7.1×10 −3 kg

7.1×10 −3

0.999988c

6.92×10 5 J

0.914c

E 2 = p 2c 2 + m 2c 4 = 2 2 4
m c , so that
⎛ 2
2 2
p c = ⎝ − 1⎞⎠m 2 c 4 , and therefore
(pc) 2 2
2
= −1
⎛ 2⎞
⎝mc ⎠

1.07×10 3

6.56×10 −8 kg

4.37×10 −10

0.314c
0.99995c

6.3×10 11 kg/s

4.5×10 10 y

4.44×10 9 kg
 KE rel = ( − 1)mc 2

= 1
2
1 − v2
c

KE class = 1 mv 2
2
v=0
2 2
= 1 + 1v 2 − 1 = 1v 2
2c 2c
−1 KE rel

⎡ 2⎤
KE rel = 1v 2 mc 2 = 1 mv 2 = KE class
⎣2c ⎦ 2

v≪c

2.21×10 34 J

2.26×10 34

1.95×10 6 m/s

4.02×10 15 /s
 –1.90 eV

6.34×10 −9 eV 1.01×10 −27 J

2.42×10 20 Hz

⎛ ⎛ 9 ⎞⎛ 1.00000 eV ⎞
J ⋅ s⎞⎠⎛⎝2.99792×10 8 m/s⎞⎠⎝10 nm ⎠
1 m ⎝1.60218×10 −19 J ⎠
−34
hc = ⎝6.62607×10

= 1239.84 eV ⋅ nm
≈ 1240 eV ⋅ nm

1.24×10 5

25.0×10 3 eV

6.04×10 18 Hz

1.25×10 13 photons/s

8.33×10 13 photons/s

1.66×10 −32 kg ⋅ m/s

9.38×10 -2

2.65×10 −28 kg ⋅ m/s

3.86×10 −26 J 7.96×10 −20 J 2.06×10 6

 1.32×10 −13 m

4.70×10 −2 MeV

E = mc 2 P = mu
2
E = mc = c 2 .
P mu u
u c

2
lim m→0 E = cc = c
P

3.00×10 6 W

7.28×10 –4 m

6.62×10 7 m/s

1.32×10 –13 m

6.62×10 7 m/s
22.9 MeV

4.70×10 −12 J

7.28×10 12 m/s

9.55×10 −9 eV
1.10×10 −13 eV

3.3×10 −22 s

2.66×10 −46 kg

1.3×10 −19 J

2.1×10 23

1.4×10 2 s

3.35×10 5 J

1.12×10 –3 kg ⋅ m/s

1.12×10 –3 m/s

6.23×10 –7 J

1.06×10 3

5.33×10 −16 kg ⋅ m/s

1.24×10 −18 m

1.62×10 3 m/s

4.42×10 −19 J 1.19×10 −24 J 3.71×10 5

7.43 µeV

2.30×10 −6 m

3.20×10 −12 m

3.69×10 −4 ºC

1.33×10 −5 kg ⋅ m/s

1.33×10 −5 N
1.84×10 3

6×10 20 kg/m 3

10.0 µm
10.0 µm

⎛ ⎞ ⎡(n ⋅ n ) 2 ⎤
1 = R⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟ ⇒ = 1 ⎢ 2i f 2 ⎥; n i = 2, n f = 1,
⎝n f n i ⎠
2 2 R⎣ n − n ⎦
i f

⎛ m ⎞⎡ (2×1) 2 ⎤
⎝1.097×10 7 ⎠⎣2 2 − 1 2 ⎦ = 1.22×10 m = 122 nm
−7
=

h2 (6.626×10 −34 J·s) 2

aB = 2 2
= 2 = 0.529×10 −10 m
4π m e kZq e 4π (9.109×10 −31
kg)(8.988×10 9 N·m 2 / C 2)(1)(1.602×10 −19 C) 2

2.12×10 –10 m
kZq 2e m e V 2 kZq 2e kZq 2e 1
= r , rn = = me 2. m e vr n = n h ,
r n2 n me V 2 V 2π

kZq 2 4π 2 m 2e r n2 2
h2 2
h2
rn = m e ⋅ rn = n = n aB , aB =
e n2 h2 Z 4π 2 m e kq 2 Z 4π m e kq 2e
2
e

0.248×10 −10 m

100×10 3 eV 1.60×10 −14 J

0.124×10 −10 m

(1240 eV·nm) / (1.96 eV) = 633 nm

(1240 eV·nm) / (1.17 eV) = 1.06 µm

l = 4, 3 l<n ∣ m l ∣ ≤l

n = 4 ⇒ l = 3, 2, 1, 0 ⇒ m l = ±3, ± 2, ± 1, 0

1.49×10 −34 J ⋅ s

1.06×10 −34 J ⋅ s

3.66×10 −34 J ⋅ s

s = 9.13×10 −35 J ⋅ s
L = 12 = 4
S 3/4

= 54.7º, 125.3º

2 in s, 6 in p, 10 in d, f
 3d 9

n≥l
s 3 > (2l + 1) = 2
p 7 > (2l + 1) = 2(2 + 1) = 6

ml ±l, ± (l − 1), ...,0 l>0 l = 0 ⇒ (2l + 1).

ml ms +1 / 2 −1 / 2 ⇒ 2(2l + 1)

l 2(2l + 1)
= 0, 1, 2, ...,(n–1) ⇒ 2 ⎡⎣(2)(0) + 1⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣(2)(1) + 1⎤⎦ + .... + ⎡⎣(2)(n − 1) + 1⎤⎦ = 2⎡⎣1 + 3 + ... + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1)⎤⎦
⎧
⎨
⎩
⎫
⎬
⎭

⏟
n terms
=
n 2, (n − 1)
= 2⎡⎣1 + (n–1) + 3 + ... + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1)–(n − 1)⎤⎦ = 2⎡⎣n + 3 + .... + (2n − 3) + n⎤⎦. (n − 3)
2
2[n + n + ... + n + n] = 2n
⏟
n terms

6.54×10 −16 kg

5.54×10 −7 m

1.76×10 11 C/kg 1.759×10 11 C/kg

1.34×10 23

7.27×10 −20 J/molecule

1.24×10 11 V
1.67×10 4

1
⎛2.3×10 17 kg ⎞
3
⎛ ⎞
1/3
m = ρV = ρd 3 ⇒ a = ⎝m
ρ⎠ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 kg/m 3 ⎠
= 61×10 3 m = 61 km

1.9 fm

4.6 fm
0.61 to 1

85.4 to 1

12.4 GeV

3
1 H2 → 32 He 1 + −
+ ν̄ e

50 50 +
25 M 25 → 24 Cr 26 + + νe

7
4 Be 3 + e
−
→ 73 Li 4 + ν e

210 206 4
84 Po 126 → 82 Pb 124 + 2He 2

137 137 −
55 Cs 82 → 56 Ba 81 + + ν̄ e

232 228 4
90 Th 142 → 88 Ra 140 + 2He 2
 charge:(+1) + (−1) = 0; electron family number: (+1) + (−1) = 0; A: 0 + 0 = 0

Z = (Z + 1) − 1; A = A; efn : 0 = (+1) + (−1)

Z - 1 = Z − 1; A = A; efn :(+1) = (+1)

226 222 4
88 Ra 138 → 86 Rn 136 + 2He 2

−
n→p+ + ν̄ e

1.927×10 −5

15 − 15
8 O7 + e → 7 N8 + νe

226
Ra

1.22×10 3 Bq

1.48×10 17 y

5.6×10 4 y
1.23×10 −3

1.68×10 – 5 Ci

8.65×10 10 J

$ 2.9×10 3

6.97×10 15 Bq

1.00 µA

12
C

1.46×10 −8 u 1
H

2.66×10 −5

–9.315 MeV

235 231 4
92 U 143 → 90 Th 141 + 2 He 2

2.4×10 8
 –1.805 MeV

241 237
95 Am 93 Np

⎛ ⎞
N(t) = N 0 e⎜−0.693t ⎟ = 3.4×10 17 e⎛⎝−(0.693)(0.035) ⎞⎠
⎝ ⎠
t1 0.00173
2

N(t) = 4.1×10 11

99 99 −
42 Mo 57 → 43 Tc 56 + + v̄ e

1.43×10 −9 g

5.7×10 −10 g
7.44×10 8

4.92×10 –4 Sv

A=1+1=2 Z=1+1=1+1 efn = 0 = −1 + 1

A=1+2=3 Z=1+1=2 efn=0=0
A=3+3=4+1+1 Z=2+2=2+1+1 efn=0=0

E = (m i − m f )c 2
⎡
= ⎛1 ⎞
⎣4m⎝ H⎠ − m⎛⎝4 He⎞⎠⎤⎦c 2
= ⎡⎣4(1.007825) − 4.002603⎤⎦(931.5 MeV)
= 26.73 MeV

3.12×10 5 kg

E = (m i − m f )c 2
E 1 = (1.008665 + 3.016030 − 4.002603)(931.5 MeV)
= 20.58 MeV
E 2 = (1.008665 + 1.007825 − 2.014102)(931.5 MeV)
= 2.224 MeV
4
He is more tightly bound, since this reaction gives off mo e energy per nucleon.

1.19×10 4 kg

2e − + 4 1 H → 4 He + 7γ + 2v e

A=12+1=13 Z=6+1=7 efn = 0 = 0

A=13=13 Z=7=6+1 efn = 0 = −1 + 1
A=13 + 1=14 Z=6+1=7 efn = 0 = 0
A=14 + 1=15 Z=7+1=8 efn = 0 = 0
A=15=15 Z=8=7+1 efn = 0 = −1 + 1
A=15 + 1=12 + 4 Z=7+1=6 + 2 efn = 0 = 0
E = 20.6 MeV

E 4 He = 5.68×10 -2 MeV

3×10 9 y

BE/A
A = 1 + 238 = 96 + 140 + 1 + 1 + 1, Z = 92 = 38 + 53, efn = 0 = 0

A = 1 + 239 = 96 + 140 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, Z = 94 = 38 + 56, efn = 0 = 0

238 239
U+n → U+

239 239 −
U→ Np + + ve
−
Np → Pu + + ve

2.57×10 3 MW

8.03×10 19 fission/

2.1×10 12 J 8.4×10 11 J

6.3×10 11 J 2.1×10 11 J

1.1×10 25 fission

3.2×10 26 fusions

7×10 4 g

4.86×10 9 W
3×10 −39 s

1.99×10 −16 m (0.2 fm)

10 −11

2.09×10 −5 s

4.77×10 4 Hz

1.40×10 6

1×10 14

2×10 17

1671 MeV
Q = 1, Q′ = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1. L τ = − 1; L′τ = − 1; Lµ = 0; L′µ = − 1 + 1 = 0

τ− → µ − +v µ+ v̄ τ
⇒ µ − antiparticle of µ + ; v µ of v̄ µ; v̄ τ of v τ

2.9×10 −8

uud

3.3×10 −24 s
Δ ++(uuu); B = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
3 3 3

+1
B = 1 = 1 + 0, Z = = 0 + ( − 1)
(sss) → (uds) + ( u- s)

¯ ¯ ¯
(u u- + d d ) → (u u- + d d ) + (u u- + d d )

Charge = −1 Lei = 0 ≠ Lef = 2 Lµ = 1

Z = −1 = 0 + ( − 1) B = 1 = 1 + 0

dds → udd + u- d
Ω + ( s- s- s- )
B = − 1 − 1 − 1 = −1,
3 3 3
L e , µ, τ = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0,
Q = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1,
3 3 3
S = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

¯
cd

p- → π 0 + e −

5×10 10

5×10 4 particles/m 2

2.5×10 −17 m

7.2×10 5 kg

7.2×10 2 m 3
100 months
3×10 41 kg

3×10 52 kg

2×10 79

4×10 88

2.0×10 5 km/s
0.67c

2.7×10 5 m/s

6×10 −11

2×10 −8 kg

1×10 19

30km/s ⋅ Mly
15km/s ⋅ Mly

89.999773º 90º

2.95×10 12 m

3.12×10 −4 ly

1×10 20

1.5×10 15

0.6 m −3

0.30 Ω
RC
B

Lµ
G
 (NA)

fk

fs
PV

R
R
y