958445

research-article2020
JFIXXX10.1177/0192513X20958445Journal of Family IssuesSzkody et al.

Article
Journal of Family Issues
2021,  Vol. 42(9) 1931­–1954
Effects of Parenting
1–24
© The Author(s) 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/0192513X20958445
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20958445
Problems by Self Esteem journals.sagepub.com/home/jfi

and Gender Differences

Erica Szkody1 , Ellen H. Steele1 ,

and Cliff McKinney1

Abstract
Current research supports the lasting effects of parenting styles on children
and adolescents’ self-esteem, and internalizing and externalizing problems.
Few studies have examined parenting style, self-esteem, and psychological
problems together while considering gender. The current study explored
the indirect effect of parenting style though self-esteem on emerging adult
psychological problems as moderated by gender among 381 emerging adults.
The most notable finding suggested that maternal authoritative parenting was
related to higher levels of female self-esteem, which in turn related to lower
levels of female psychological problems. Results indicated a relationship
between higher levels of self-esteem and lower psychological problems.
Findings from the current study contribute to research emphasizing the
long-lasting effects of parenting style on emerging adult self-esteem and
mental health, particularly among females.

Keywords
Emerging adult, externalizing, internalizing, gender, parenting, self esteem

Although internalizing and externalizing problems tend to occur during child-

hood, they persist into adulthood (Ong et al., 2017). Moreover, parenting

1
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA

Corresponding Author:
Erica Szkody, Mississippi State University, P.O. Box 6161, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
Email: ems669@msstate.edu
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styles during childhood have lasting effects on children’s self-esteem and

internalizing and externalizing problems (Boer & Tranent, 2013; Driscoll
et al., 2008). Both internalizing and externalizing problems in young adult-
hood are associated with a decreased quality of life throughout the lifetime
(e.g., across health, financial, social, and environmental domains; Korhonen
et al., 2018). Previous literature has consistently shown that parenting prac-
tices are divided into three categories distinguished by responsiveness and
demandingness (Baumrind, 1966). Permissive parenting styles are responsive
but not demanding, authoritative parenting styles are both responsive and
demanding, and authoritarian parenting styles are demanding but less respon-
sive than other styles. Baumrind (1966) suggested that authoritativeness influ-
ences children’s characteristics and behaviors by increasing the value of
parental reinforcement and socialization by providing children with a clear
understanding of parents’ desires and expectations of their behaviors. A fourth
category of parenting, uninvolved or neglectful parenting was later added, yet
it is an uncommon parenting style with significant negative consequences for
the child (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Therefore, uninvolved parenting is not
the focus of the current manuscript. Additionally, parenting styles impact how
willing a child is to accept socialization, and therefore their behavioral out-
comes (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
These parental relationships continue to influence emerging adult college
students (EACS) during their transition to college as parents provide varying
support and structure (Fingerman et al., 2016; McKinney & Brown, 2017;
McKinney et al., 2011; McKinney et al., 2018). Arnett’s (2000) theory of
emerging adulthood suggests that emerging adulthood is a unique time where
individuals experience a period of semi-autonomy as they transition from
living with their parents to living with friends, romantic partners, or alone.
The change in proximal relationships make emerging adulthood an ideal time
to examine the impact parenting styles have on self-esteem, which influences
internalizing and externalizing problems (and quality of life) from childhood
into adulthood (In-Albon et al., 2017). Moreover, the multiple transitions to
college (e.g., no longer living with parents, as well as the stressors associated
with this period of transition, may leave EACS more vulnerable to mental
health problems (Bettis et al., 2017). Social-cognitive theory suggests that
previous relationships (e.g., parent-child relationships) influence an individ-
ual’s self-concept. The theory states that previous experiences with support
help individuals form social schemas of support availability such that support
will be available, and the individual may form a positive self-concept.
Warmth and social support from parents during adolescence and emerging
adulthood have been shown to increase self-esteem (Moore & Shell, 2017),
which in turn, has been associated with higher quality of life and decreased
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Szkody et al. 19333

psychological problems (Korhonen et al., 2018). Thus, warmth and previous

experiences of positive parenting may improve positive self-identity forma-
tion and improve self-esteem. The current study advanced the literature by
investigating the relationship among these variables in EACS by examining
the indirect effects of parenting styles on internalizing and externalizing
problems through self-esteem. These indirect effects were examined in the
context of parent and child gender as moderators.

Parenting Styles and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

A large body of research indicates that parenting styles predict internalizing
and externalizing problems during childhood and adulthood (Boer &
Tranent, 2013; Braza et al., 2015). Authoritative parenting style is generally
associated with positive outcomes (Boer & Tranent, 2013; Braza et al.,
2015; Driscoll et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2013; Milevsky et al., 2007).
Additionally, authoritative parenting (i.e., strict yet responsive) resulted in
lower levels of internalizing problems in boys only, and lower levels of
externalizing problems in both boys and girls (DiMaggio & Zappulla, 2014).
Conversely, permissive and authoritarian styles were related to externalizing
and internalizing problems in children (Boer & Tranent, 2013; Driscoll
et al., 2008; Pereira et al., 2009; Zarra-Nezhad et al., 2014). Gender differ-
ences in parenting styles have been observed frequently (Walker &
McKinney, 2015). For example, the combination of maternal and paternal
permissive parenting style predicted physical aggression in females, whereas
maternal authoritarian style combined with paternal permissive style pre-
dicted both physical and emotional aggression (Braza et al., 2015). This
latter combination also predicted internalizing problems in boys (Braza
et al., 2015).
Among EACS, higher levels of authoritative parenting from mothers
and fathers were associated with lower internalizing and externalizing
problems (McKinney, Morse, & Pastuszak, 2016). EACS who reported
having at least one parent who used an authoritative style also reported
lower psychological problems than EACS who reported no parents using
an authoritative style (McKinney & Renk, 2008). Thus, it is important to
examine the mechanisms (e.g., EACS self-esteem) that may explain the
association between parenting styles and EACS internalizing and external-
izing problems. Given the previous literature, the current study hypothe-
sized that authoritarian parenting would be positively associated with
externalizing and internalizing problems, whereas permissive and authori-
tative parenting styles would be associated negatively to internalizing and
externalizing problems.
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Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem

In addition to their impact on internalizing and externalizing problems, par-
enting styles have a direct lasting impact on offspring self-esteem (Boer &
Tranent, 2013). Adolescents with authoritative and permissive parents, either
mother or father, were found to be happier and have higher levels of self-
esteem than those whose parents utilized an authoritarian style (Driscoll
et al., 2008; Li et al., 2010; Raboteg-Saric, & Sakic, 2014). However, Love
and Thomas (2014) suggested that both permissive and authoritarian parent-
ing resulted in lower self-esteem in offspring. Thus the impact of permissive
parenting on offspring’s self-esteem remains inconclusive. Additionally, chil-
dren with higher self-esteem reported perceiving their parents as caring,
(Babore et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2013); though important, such perceptions are
not specific to a parenting style.
Guidance for the impact of parenting and autonomy granting can be taken
from self-determination theory, suggesting that parental support for auton-
omy overall supports healthy development and adjustment for offspring
(Joussemet et al., 2008). Supportive parenting with appropriate autonomy
granting is a defining characteristic of authoritative parenting. Alternatively,
overprotective or helicopter parenting (i.e., overinvolved parenting) limits
developmentally appropriate autonomy granting, and has negative outcomes
for male and female EACS (Buchanan & LeMoyne, 2020a, 2020b; Patock-
Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009). However, females from single-parent
households with a low autonomy granting parent may not experience similar
negative effects on self-efficacy as their male counterparts (Buchanan &
LeMoyne, 2020a). Thus, lack of or developmentally inappropriate autonomy
granting may put EACS at higher risk for negative mental health outcomes.
Prior research supporting self-determination theory has focused on infancy
through adolescence, yet has not been extended into EACS despite research
supporting the continued impact of parenting on EACS.
Regarding gender differences, Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez (2009)
found that paternal authoritarian styles led to a decrease in self-esteem in
males only, and that paternal authoritative and permissive styles increased
self-esteem between both genders. Such results emphasize the important role
that fathers continue to play on EACS self-esteem and the different impacts
based on EACS gender. Other researchers have found paternal authoritative
and permissive styles to influence only female self-esteem (McKinney et al.,
2011). Specifically, authoritative and authoritarian style by both parents was
positively and negatively related, respectively, to female self-esteem; permis-
sive maternal style was negatively related, whereas permissive paternal style
was positively related to female self-esteem. For males, only maternal
 al.
Szkody et al. 19355

authoritative or permissive parenting styles was significantly related to an

increase in self-esteem. It is important to note that autonomy-granting may be
culturally influenced leading to different expectations within parent child
gender dyads (Endendijk et al., 2018; McKinney & Brown, 2017). For exam-
ple, in an examination of parent expectations of adult behaviors in their
EACS, mothers reported that they believed care, protection, and relational
compliance were most important for female emerging adult development,
and fathers of sons promoted relational factors as well (Nelson et. al, 2007).
Overall, such contradictory results emphasize the importance of examining
the impact of each dyad combination on EACS self-esteem and mental health
outcomes. Specifically, the current study hypothesized that authoritative par-
enting (i.e., maternal and paternal) would be positively associated with self-
esteem, whereas authoritarian and permissive parenting would be negatively
associated with self-esteem.

Self-Esteem and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

In addition to the associations found between parenting styles and outcomes,
self-esteem also has been related to internalizing and externalizing problems
(Boden et al., 2008). Overall, self-esteem is an important, though nonspe-
cific, factor in influencing physical and mental health (Mann et al., 2004).
Poor self-esteem has been linked to depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety,
aggression, and externalizing problems in adults and adolescents (Donnellan
et al., 2005; Gregg et al., 2016; Leeuwis et al., 2015). In-Albon and col-
leagues (2017) longitudinally examined the role of self-esteem and found it
was a predictor of internalizing problems over time while controlling for his-
tory of depression, gender, and socioeconomic status. Additionally, self-
esteem was a better predictor of internalizing problems than coping behaviors,
social network size, and the impact of negative life events. Thus, the current
study hypothesized that that self-esteem would be associated negatively with
internalizing and externalizing problems in both males and females.
Some research has found no gender differences in the relationships
between self-esteem and internalizing or externalizing problems, indicating
that higher self-esteem for either gender is a protective factor against inter-
nalizing and externalizing problems (Martinsen et al., 2016). It is worthwhile
to note that though female and male EACS report similar self-esteem (Dixon
& Kurpius, 2008), female EACS reported higher stress and higher internal-
izing problems as compared to their male counterparts (Dixon & Kurpius,
2008; Zuckerman, 1989). Moreover, for both male and female EACS self-
esteem was protective against depression (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-
Lopez, 2009). Additionally, maternal permissive and authoritative parenting
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was associated with decreased risk for male EACS depression through appro-
priate autonomy granting and self-esteem (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-
Lopez, 2009), whereas paternal permissive and authoritative parenting were
associated with decreased risk for male and female EACS depression and
higher scores of autonomy granting as mediated by feelings of self-esteem. It
is clear that despite the importance of parenting style and associated behav-
iors, self-esteem strongly influences EACS mental health. Thus, in the cur-
rent study it was hypothesized that parenting style (i.e., authoritative,
authoritarian, and permissive) would have an indirect effect on internalizing
and externalizing problems through self-esteem.

Hypotheses
Many studies have explored the differential predictive power of maternal and
paternal parenting styles on child, adolescent, and emerging adult psychopa-
thology. Likewise, the link between parenting styles and child self-esteem has
been well established (Boer & Tranent, 2013; Driscoll et al., 2008; Lee et al.,
2013; Li et al., 2010). Previous research has focused on the specific outcomes
of alcohol, depression, or other specific internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009). Notably, Georgiou et al.
(2016) conducted a study with 10- to 14-year-old offspring and their mothers,
examining the effects of common factors (e.g., warmth, protection, etc.) related
to parenting styles on internalizing and externalizing problems as mediated by
self-esteem, friendship quality, and social acceptance. They found that positive
parenting characteristics (i.e., warmth) were attributed to increased self-esteem
and, in turn, less internalizing and externalizing problems in offspring, whereas
negative parenting characteristics (i.e., parental rejection, anxious rearing and
overprotection) led to lower self-esteem and, in turn, more internalizing and
externalizing problems in offspring.
Similar to Georgiou et al. (2016), the current study examined the indirect
effect of parenting on both internalizing and externalizing problems through
self-esteem. Expanding on this research, the current study examined parenting
styles (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) specifically in the
context of gender among emerging adults, using a path analysis model as
shown in Figure 1. Mothers and fathers may promote different specific behav-
iors as signs of adulthood that differ depending on the gender of the child
(Endendijk et al., 2018; Nelson et. al, 2007). As parent-child gender is influ-
ential during childhood and adolescence and it may play a role in the contin-
ued development of self-esteem in emerging adults, the current study examined
the pathways among parent-child dyads. Differential parent-child gender dif-
ferences have been demonstrated across prior research examining EACS and
 al.
Szkody et al. 19377

Figure 1. Path analysis. Effects are shown in Table 2. χ2(12) = 42.209, CFI = .98,
RMSEA = .08.

their parents (e.g., Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009; Steele &

McKinney, 2018a). For clarity, hypotheses were organized thematically.

Self-esteem Direct Effects

Based on the protective nature of self-esteem against mental health problems
(cf. In-Albon et al., 2017), hypothesis 1 stated that self-esteem would be
associated negatively with internalizing and externalizing problems in both
males and females. Given that parenting style has a direct impact on self-
esteem throughout development (Boer & Tranent, 2013) and prior research
has emphasized the benefits of authoritative parenting (Driscoll et al., 2008;
Li, et al., 2010; Raboteg-Saric & Sakic, 2014), it was hypothesized that
authoritative parenting (i.e., maternal and paternal) would be positively asso-
ciated with self-esteem (Hypothesis 2), whereas authoritarian and permissive
parenting would be negatively associated with self-esteem (Hypothesis 3).

Parenting Direct Effects

Although previous research has demonstrated that permissive parenting is a
less adaptive style, in emerging adults, perceived permissive parenting may
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Journal of Family Issues 00(0)

be representative of a shift to more developmentally appropriate autonomy

granting that has been linked to lower rates of mental health problems in
emerging adulthood (Duineveld et al., 2017; Kouros et al., 2017; Nelson
et al., 2011; Steele & McKinney, 2018a). Additionally, authoritative parent-
ing has been shown to decrease psychological problems consistently across
the literature (Liem et al., 2010). Thus, it was hypothesized that authoritarian
parenting would be positively associated with externalizing and internalizing
problems (Hypothesis 4), whereas permissive and authoritative parenting
styles would be associated negatively to internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems (Hypothesis 5).

Indirect Effects
Additionally, it was hypothesized (Hypothesis 6) that parenting style (i.e.,
authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) would have an indirect effect on
internalizing and externalizing problems through self-esteem. Prior research
has demonstrated gender differences in the continued impact of parents on their
emerging adult children. For example, daughters with a better relationship with
their fathers had less mental health problems even in the context of less adap-
tive parenting styles (i.e., permissive and authoritarian; Steele & McKinney,
2018a). Additionally, a positive mother-daughter relationship continues to
influence mental health problems even in the context of physical maltreatment
(Steele & McKinney, 2018b). Thus, Hypothesis 7 stated that a stronger effect
between maternal and paternal authoritative parenting would be present for
females than males.

Method
Participants
Participants included emerging adults attending a large Southern university
in the United States and consisted of individuals between the ages of 18 years
and 24 years old (M = 18.98, SD = 1.29). The sample consisted of 149 males
and 232 females (N = 381) who were White (74.5%), Black (20.7%), Asian
(1.8%), Hispanic/Latino (1.3%), Asian (1.8%), and other/unknown (1.5%)
ethnicities. Over half of the participants reported their father (54%) and
mother (58%) had a four-year degree or higher.

Procedure
Upon approval from the Institutional Review Board, all psychology under-
graduate students at a large Southern university were recruited through an
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Szkody et al. 19399

online research system where they were encouraged to select a study to par-
ticipate from a list of psychological studies in exchange for credit by select-
ing a link to an online survey. Participants were then given the option to read
through an informed consent document before either proceeding to the sur-
vey or withdrawing from the study. All measures were presented in random
order and based on their current perceptions. After completing the survey or
withdrawing from the study, participants were presented a debriefing page.
Participants were treated within the ethical guidelines set forth by the
American Psychological Association.

Measures
Parenting style. The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ; Buri, 1991) con-
tained 30 questions loading onto permissive (e.g., my mother/father feels that
in a well-run home the children should have their way in the family as often
as the parents do), authoritarian (e.g., I know what my mother/father expects
of me in the family and she/he insists that I conform to those expectations
simply out of respect for her/his authority), and authoritative (e.g., if mother/
father makes a decision in the family that hurts me, she/he is willing to dis-
cuss that decision with me and to admit it if she/he had made a mistake)
scales. All questions regarding parenting were asked for each parent (i.e., a
set of questions for mothers parenting and a set of questions about fathers
parenting). Participants rated each statement according to a five-point Likert
scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Test-retest reliabili-
ties ranged from .77 to .92, and internal consistency reliabilities ranged from
.74 to .87 on the subscales, demonstrating good reliability, and convergent
and criterion-related validity have been established (Buri, 1991). For the cur-
rent study, Cronbach alphas ranged from .78 to .90. Scores across items were
summed for each individual subscale (i.e., maternal permissive parenting,
maternal authoritative parenting, maternal authoritarian parenting, paternal
permissive parenting, paternal authoritative parenting, and paternal authori-
tarian parenting). Higher scores on each subscale indicate more of each par-
enting behavior/style.

Self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory (RSEI; Rosenberg, 1965)

was used to assess self-esteem. The scale consisted of 10 items (e.g. I take a
positive attitude toward myself) that are rated on a four-point Likert scale
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Internal consistencies
ranged from .85 to .88 in college student samples, and convergent and crite-
rion-related validity have been demonstrated (Rosenberg, 1965). All items
were summed to calculate self-esteem. Higher scores indicated more reported
self-esteem. Cronbach alpha was .88 for the current study.
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Journal of Family Issues 00(0)

Internalizing and externalizing problems. The Adult Self- Report (ASR; Rescorla
& Achenbach, 2004) consists of 123 statements used to assess internalizing and
externalizing psychopathology. Problem behaviors are scored with 0 = not true,
1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. The Internal-
izing Problems scale includes the Withdrawn (e.g. I don’t get along with other
people), Somatic Complaints (e.g., I feel dizzy or light headed), and Anxious/
Depressed Syndrome scales (e.g. I am too fearful or anxious), and the External-
izing Problems scale includes the Rule-breaking Behavior (e.g., I lie or cheat),
Aggressive Behavior (e.g., I physically attack people), and Intrusive syndrome
(e.g., I talk too much) scales. The Somatic problems, Withdrawn, and Anxious/
Depressed syndrome scales were summed to create the internalizing problems
variable. Likewise, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Aggressive Behavior, and Intru-
sive syndrome scales were summed to create the Externalizing problems vari-
able. Higher scores on each subscale indicated more Internalizing or
Externalizing problems. Both the Internalizing Problems and Externalizing
Problems variables were utilized as dependent variables within the examined
model. Internal consistency alphas ranged from .87 to .93 (Rescorla & Achen-
bach, 2004). The Cronbach alphas ranged from .91 to .95 for this study.

Data Analysis
Missing data was analyzed using SPSS 24.0. Given that variables were less
than 10% missing, mean replacement was utilized for missing values consis-
tent with Bennett (2001). Path analysis was conducted using AMOS 24.0.
Model fit was examined with the comparative fit index (CFI) and (RMSEA);
a value greater than or equal to .95 or .90 on the CFI, and a RMSEA less than
or equal to .06 or .08, indicate good or acceptable model fit, respectively (Hu
& Bentler, 1999). Direct effects among variables were used to test hypotheses
1 through 5. Hypotheses 6 through 8 were tested using indirect effects, which
have been suggested to more adequately test for indirect effects (MacKinnon,
2008; Rucker et al., 2011). Indirect effects were estimated with bootstrapping
using 2,000 iterations, which is considered to be more robust than other tests
of indirect effects (Hayes, 2009). Hypothesis 9 was tested using multiple
group analysis using pairwise parameter comparisons, a statistical test com-
paring the difference between path coefficients (i.e., paths different based on
gender). This comparison produces a Z score indicating the statistical differ-
ence between groups on a particular path coefficient, similar to statistically
comparing correlation coefficients. Exogenous parenting variables were cor-
related within parent style (e.g., all maternal parenting styles correlated
amongst themselves) and between parents (i.e., maternal parenting styles cor-
related to paternal parenting styles). Internalizing problems and externalizing
problems residuals also were correlated.
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Szkody et al. 1941
11

Results
Correlations and direct effects used to examine hypotheses 1 through 5 are
reported in Table 1 and Table 2. Negative correlations between self-esteem
and both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were found
across males and females.

Self-Esteem Direct Effects

Direct effects supported hypothesis 1 (i.e., self-esteem would be associated
negatively with internalizing and externalizing problems in both males and
females) and demonstrated a negative association between self-esteem and
internalizing/externalizing problems for both genders. Specifically, self-
esteem was associated with lower scores of internalizing and externalizing
problems for both males and females. Authoritative parenting was positively
related to self-esteem across parent and child gender, supporting hypothesis
2. Additionally, direct effects demonstrated that maternal authoritative par-
enting was associated with self-esteem in females only. Hypothesis 3 was not
supported as authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were not signifi-
cantly associated with self-esteem.

Parenting Direct Effects

Significant coefficients are shown in Figure 2. Authoritarian parenting style
was not related significantly to internalizing or externalizing problems across
parent and child gender, failing to support hypothesis 4. Similarly, maternal
permissive parenting style was significantly associated with internalizing prob-
lems in males but not females. Paternal permissive parenting was associated
with more externalizing problems in females, but not males. Direct effects
demonstrated that maternal authoritative parenting was negatively related to
internalizing and externalizing problems in females, with similar but nonsig-
nificant results in males; paternal authoritative parenting style was negatively
related to externalizing problems in females, with similar but nonsignificant
results when examining female internalizing problems as well as male internal-
izing and externalizing problems, partially supporting hypothesis 5.

Indirect Effects
As shown in Figure 2, the path analysis demonstrated good model fit accord-
ing to the CFI and acceptable model fit according to the RMSEA, although it
should be noted that models such as the one in the current study tend to arti-
ficially increase the RMSEA due to low df (Kenny et al., 2015). As shown in
12
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Table 1. Correlations among Variables in Measurement Model.

Males Female

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. M(SD) M(SD)
1. M permissive – .82* .01 .02 -.24* -.10 -.08 .15 .12 16.45(5.77) 15.27(6.46)
2. P permissive .80* – .00 .11 -.10 -.19* -.00 .12 .12 15.68(5.43) 14.81(6.74)
3. M authoritative -.01 -.05 – .80* .19* .20* .31* -.22* -.23* 25.31(6.46) 26.16(7.40)
4. P authoritative -.14 .07 .73** – .17 .19 .27* -.20 -.26* 24.13(7.00) 25.04(7.56)
5. M authoritarian -.42* -.21 .01 .19 – .72* .14 -.03 -.00 23.36(6.60) 23.96(6.49)
6. P authoritarian -.33* -.37* .16 .02 .72* – .04 -.02 .03 23.944(6.22) 24.80(6.78)
7. EA self-esteem -.02 .01 .24* .21* .02 .08 – -.66* -.47* 21.86(5.46) 21.34(5.43)
8. EA internalizing .08 -.01 -.18 -.16 -.03 -.04 -.57* – .71* 13.01(13.82) 14.38(11.73)
9. EA externalizing .07 .04 -.19 -.16 .05 -.00 -.34* .75* – 11.97(10.13) 10.52(8.46)

Note. Correlations appear below the diagonal for males and above for females. * indicates p < .01. EA = Emerging Adult. M = Maternal.
P = Paternal.
Journal of Family Issues 42(9)
 Szkody et al.

Table 2. Direct and Indirect Effects and Gender Differences for Path Analysis.

Maternal Parenting Styles Paternal Parenting Styles

Direct Effects

Permissive Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive Authoritarian Authoritative Self Esteem

Self-esteem ♂-.13 ♀ -.16 ♂-.13 ♀.13 ♂.16 ♀.27* ♂.15 ♀.11 ♂.16 ♀ -.11 ♂.08 ♀.05
EA internalizing ♂.28* ♀.01 ♂.02 ♀.10 ♂-.14 ♀.04 ♂-.24 ♀.13 ♂-.01 ♀ -.03 ♂.11 ♀ -.08 ♂-.55**
♀ -.66**
EA externalizing ♂.16 ♀ -.12 ♂.15 ♀.00 ♂-.09 ♀.07 ♂-.07 ♀.26* ♂-.05 ♀.12 ♂-.03 ♀ -.24* ♂-.31**
♀ -.44**
Indirect Effects
EA internalizing ♂.07 ♀ .10 ♂.07 ♀ -.08 ♂-.09♀ -.17* ♂-.08 ♀- .07 ♂-.09 ♀ .07 ♂-.05 ♀ -.03 –
EA externalizing ♂.04 ♀ .07 ♂.04 ♀ -.05 ♂-.05♀ -.12* ♂-.05 ♀ -.05 ♂-.05 ♀ .05 ♂-.03 ♀ -.02 –

Note. ♂ indicates male, and ♀ indicates female coefficients. p < .05 indicated by *, p < .001 indicated by **. EA = Emerging Adult.

13
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Figure 2. Structural model. Thin black line indicates significant path for at least
one gender, while bold black line indicates significant path for both genders. Grey
line indicates non-significant path. ♂ indicates male and ♀ indicates female path
coefficients. Effects are shown in Table 2.

Table 2, indirect effects between maternal authoritative parenting style and

both internalizing and externalizing problems through self-esteem were sig-
nificant for females only, partially supporting hypothesis 6. The indirect
effect for paternal authoritative parenting style was not significant for males
or females. Indirect pathways for permissive and authoritarian styles were
not significant, not supporting hypotheses 7 and 8. Pairwise parameter com-
parisons (the comparison between gender groups) unveiled no differences
between genders, failing to support hypothesis 9.

Discussion
The current study examined the direct and indirect effects of parenting style
through self-esteem on emerging adult internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems while examining the influence of gender dyads. The most notable find-
ing in the current study is that the only significant indirect effects were found
when examining authoritative style within the mother-daughter dyad. That is,
maternal authoritative parenting was related to higher levels of female self-
esteem, which in turn was related to lower levels of female internalizing and
externalizing problems.
 al.
Szkody et al. 1945
15

This finding suggests that the mother-daughter relationship is particularly

influential for daughters’ self-esteem and mental health. Evidence for why
this effect was found only in the mother-daughter dyad has been found in
other studies. For example, Turnage (2004) reported that daughters’ self-
esteem was influenced by the quality and warmth of the mother-daughter
relationship in adolescence, and Domene et al. (2011) reported that mother-
daughter dyads showed more closeness, engaged in more shared activities,
and experienced less conflict than mother-son dyads in adolescence and the
transition to emerging adulthood (Domene et al., 2011). With a closer rela-
tionship with mothers, daughters may be receiving more guidance and sup-
port, as compared to sons, emphasizing the continuing influence of mothers
from adolescence into emerging adulthood. Moreover, close mother-daughter
relationships may increase perceptions of available guidance and support
allowing for a greater confidence managing the transition to adulthood.
Additionally, as adolescents transition into adulthood, they tend to experi-
ence more conflict with their fathers (Buhl et al., 2015) and may distance
themselves from this relationship, providing less opportunities for paternal
influence. Finally, this may suggest different critical windows for parents’
influence on their children’s self-esteem. Given the increased conflict during
emerging adulthood (see Buhl et al., 2015), fathers may be more influential
during early adolescence, whereas emerging adults may seek more closeness
and less conflict from their parents leading to continued emphasis on the
maternal relationship.
It is important to note that the effects of parenting were not significant for
males. Previous studies have found that parents may be more involved with
daughters than with sons (e.g., Weisskirch, 2018). Further, there are some
cultural considerations that may explain why the influence of parenting may
not be associated with male self-esteem, in the same ways that they are for
females. For example, some studies have shown that parents spend signifi-
cantly less time with sons than daughters as they enter adolescence and
beyond (e.g., Lam et al., 2012). This difference may further enhance specific
gender roles that may influence identity and self-esteem development.
Specifically, males have been found to develop their self-esteem indepen-
dently through a differentiation between themselves and others, whereas
females have been shown to develop through their connectedness with oth-
ers, in this case, family (Norona et al., 2015).
Several other findings were consistent with prior research. As predicted,
authoritative style was associated with higher self-esteem and lower internal-
izing and externalizing problems, except for the nonsignificant association
between paternal authoritative style and internalizing problems for daugh-
ters. Prior research supports a consistent relationship between authoritative
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parenting and self-esteem (see Duineveld et al., 2017). Parental support for
emerging adults’ autonomy during emerging adulthood may allow for appro-
priate developmental opportunities for growth, leading to increased success
and self-esteem. When examining these relationships with self-esteem, the
current study did not find gender differences, consistent with prior research
on self-esteem (e.g., Martinsen et al., 2016).
Authoritarian style was not significantly related to self-esteem or increased
externalizing and internalizing problems for either gender, yet permissive
style was significant in mixed parent-child gender dyads. Maternal permis-
sive style was associated with higher male internalizing problems, whereas
paternal permissive style was associated with higher female externalizing
problems. Paternal permissive parenting style results are consistent with the
research of Steele and McKinney (2018a), which found increased external-
izing behaviors in daughters with a good relationship with their fathers in the
context of a permissive parenting style. Steele and McKinney (2018a) sug-
gested that the better relationship with their fathers may have decreased bar-
riers and deemphasized the social prohibitions associated with externalizing
behaviors, specifically substance use.
Results give further support to the influence of gender on parenting style
and the impact on self-esteem and mental health. Paternal permissive style
results are consistent with Pinquart’s (2019) recent meta-analysis supporting
increased rates of externalizing problems; however, authoritarian parenting
results are inconsistent with Pinquart (i.e., more externalizing problems with
authoritarian parenting) as current findings indicated an association between
decreased externalizing problems within the father-daughter dyad, giving
further credence to other research suggesting distinct differences for emerg-
ing adults in a Southern United States sample (McKinney & Brown, 2017).
Emerging adults in the Southern United States may interpret authoritarian
parenting as normative and associated with parental love, moderating the
negative effects typically associated with authoritarian style. Moreover, cul-
tural expectations of a stricter or harsher parenting style (e.g., code of honor;
Cohen & Nisbett, 1994) may further emphasize the discrepancy between
emerging adult expectations of parenting and the parenting received from a
more permissive parenting style.
Many theoretical approaches provide guidance for understanding the
changing parent-child relationship as well as the influence of the parent-child
relationship on self-esteem. Attachment theory, social relational theory, and
the theory of emerging adulthood suggest that the parent-child relationship
evolves over time as emerging adults gain more autonomy and become more
independent (Lindell & Campione-Barr, 2017). As the relationship changes,
satisfaction from the relationship increases. Additionally, individuals have
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Szkody et al. 1947
17

more or less formed their identity by the point of emerging adulthood, sug-
gesting that influence of parenting styles may be different during this time-
period than in childhood or adolescence when identity formation is still
young (Lindell & Campione-Barr, 2017).
Studies on attachment theory have shown that parental attachment styles
are associated with EACS self-esteem as well as their intimacy with others
(e.g., Weisskirch, 2018). These studies suggest that the social patterns learned
from interactions between EACS and their parents do influence the ways in
which they about think about themselves and how they interact with others.
Further, social relational theory posits that individuals may develop self-
esteem through their interactions with others. The findings in the current
study supported the literature. Parenting styles that were associated with
autonomy granting (e.g., authoritative parenting and permissive parenting)
were associated with better self-esteem, suggesting that autonomy may help
to facilitate the development of self-esteem. This is even more important for
EACS, as the theory of emerging adulthood states that individuals begin to
explore new relationships and take on more responsibility (e.g., paying their
own bills for the first time, attending classes, setting their own schedule,
beginning a career or job, etc.) as they transition to college and out of the
family home (Arnett, 2015).
Finally, it is important to highlight the robust relationship between higher
levels of self-esteem and decreased levels of both internalizing and external-
izing problems in both genders. The findings are consistent with prior
research examining the influence of self-esteem on children and adolescent
internalizing and externalizing problems (Georgiou et al., 2016), which
emphasizes the vital role of parenting characteristics in the development of
children’s self-esteem. The current study is one of the first studies to extend
Georgiou and colleagues’ (2016) findings from adolescence into emerging
adults and with respect to parent and child gender, further emphasizing the
continuing influence of parents as well as the protective role of self-esteem.

Strengths & Limitations

The current study adds to the developing body of literature on the continuing
influence of parents on emerging adults’ mental health. Moreover, this study
supports emerging adulthood as a continuation of adolescence as parents con-
tinue to influence their children. Despite the positives, the sample is predomi-
nately White and from a university. The results may not consistently
generalize to non-White college students or emerging adults not enrolled in a
university, for example, from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Yet results
are consistent with the previous literature among Italian, New Zealand, and
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18 42(9)
Journal of Family Issues 00(0)

Thai samples (Babore et al., 2016; Boden et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2013).
Emerging adults not enrolled may experience higher rates of internalizing or
externalizing problems as well as having less supportive parents, or may have
different developmental trajectories altogether.
As with all studies including a self-report element, concerns exist about
self-report biases. For example, participants may underreport their self-
esteem to appear humble, or may underreport internalizing or externalizing
problems due to fears of stigma. Despite these concerns, Finley, Mira, and
Schwartz (2008) emphasize the use of self-report measures as valid, espe-
cially with emerging adults who may be freer to report on their parents than
younger children. Additionally, several studies have found that other parent-
ing variables, such as helicopter parenting (e.g., Buchanan & LeMoyne,
2020a; Buchanan & LeMoyne, 2020b; Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez,
2009), may further influence the development of self-esteem in emerging
adulthood, and it was not assessed in the current study.
The current study is a cross-sectional exploration of emerging adults’ self-
esteem and mental health, limiting the ability to explore causality; however,
the utilization of path analysis allowed for the comparison of the distinct
influences of both mothers and fathers on male and female offspring. Prior
research has not always included parent-child gender dyads, whereas the cur-
rent study provides analysis of the four-unique parent-child dyads. For exam-
ple, the current study found indirect effects for the mother-daughter dyad
only, supporting the notion that the mother-daughter relationship plays a spe-
cialized role in daughters’ mental health during emerging adulthood.
Furthermore, the study used a developmental perspective to determine the
analysis model. It was assumed that parenting begins before birth, and there-
fore self-esteem development. Thus, parenting was used at the independent
variable in the model. However, future studies should examine the possibility
of a bidirectional effect between the reporting of perceived parenting styles
and emerging adult self-esteem.
As a time of transition for both emerging adults and their parents, it is
important to explore this stage further. Few students live at-home with their
parents during college, potentially dimming the current influence of parents,
yet parents still appear to have consistent on-going effects on their children.
Given the importance of a successful transition from high school to college,
parenting characteristics may be more influential than initially predicted.
Clearly, emerging adult self-esteem and associated mental health problems
should be examined in noncollege populations, for example, among military
recruits during basic training as well as young children and adolescents.
 al.
Szkody et al. 1949
19

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.

ORCID iDs
Erica Szkody https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4959-1895
Ellen H. Steele https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0106-8803

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