MODULE - I

VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND

PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION
 Automobile

— Examples

 Major structure of automobile

 Chassis

 Units of Chassis

—5 major units
MAJOR UNITS OF CHASSIS
 Basic Structure : Frames, suspension springs, axles, wheels and tires

 Power Unit :
Is it existing ?
Internal Combustion (IC) engines
??
Gas Turbines
Battery powered electric motors
Solar Power vehicles
Future of automobiles: Fuel Cell *

 Transmission System : Clutch, Gearbox, Propeller shaft, Final drive &

Differential

 Auxiliary System : Battery, Ignition System, Electrical Systems

 Controls : Steering and braking system

CHASSIS LAYOUT

• Wheel base • Laden weight

• Wheel track • Unladen weight
• Ground clearance* → Kerb weight, Dry weight
• Power / Weight ratio *
 Points to remember

 Automobile

 Chassis

 Power Plant and its types

 Major units of chassis

Sub categories
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES

(a) Based on Cubic Capacity

Mopeds (~50 cc)
Scooters (~75 cc)
Motorcycles (~ 100 cc)
Car, Jeeps (800 to 1000 cc)
Buses & Lorries (>1000 cc)

(b) Based on Load Carrying Capacity

Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles

(c) Based on Make & Model

Bajaj Pulsar
Hindustan Ambassador
Maruti 800
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES - CONTD…

(d) Based on Fuel Usage

Petrol Vehicles
Diesel Vehicles
Gas Powered Vehicles

(e) Based on Body Style

Closed Body Style
Open Body Style
Special Body Style such as estate car, station wagon etc.

(f) Based on No. of Wheels

Two Wheelers, Three Wheelers, Four Wheelers, Six Wheelers, Multi-
wheelers
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES - CONTD..
(g) Based on Drive
Left Hand Drive (LH)
Right Hand Drive (RH)
Front Wheel Drive
Rear Wheel Drive
All Wheel Drive

(h) Based on Transmission

Manual
Semi Automatic
Automatic
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
1. BASIC STRUCTURE

Frame Construction
1. Conventional
2. Integral Construction
Suspension System
1. Rigid axle suspension – Leaf springs
2. Independent suspension – Coil springs
Axles
1. Live axle
2. Dead axle
3. Front axle
4. Rear axle
1. BASIC STRUCTURE – CONTD..

Wheels

1. Pressed steel disc wheel

2. Wire spoke wheel
3. Casted aluminium and magnesium alloy wheel

Tires

1. Cross ply tires

2. Radial ply tires
3. Belted bias ply tires
2. POWER UNIT

 External Combustion (EC) Engines – Obsolete now

 Internal Combustion (IC) Engines – Petrol, Diesel and Gas

 Battery Powered power units

 Solar Powered Vehicles

 Fuel Cell – A lot of research is going in this area

3. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Function, types and applications of

 Clutch
 Gearbox (or) transmission – manual, automatic
 Propeller shaft
 Final drive
 Differential
4. AUXILIARY SYSTEM

 Supply System – Battery and Generator

 Starter

 Ignition System – Battery and Magneto ignition

 Ancillary Devices

 Driving lights

 Signalling

 Other lights

 Miscellaneous – Radio, Heater, Fan, Electric Fuel Pump, Electric

Windscreen Wipers
5. CONTROL SYSTEM

Function, types and applications of

 Braking system

 Steering system
— Single Cylinder Engine

— Multi Cylinder Engine

— Applications of Single cylinder and

Multi cylinder Engines

— Longitudinal mounting of engine

— Transverse Mounting of engine

Layout of Automobile with reference to Engine
Location and Drive

Possible engine location: Front engine or Rear engine or Mid engine

Possible drive : Front wheel drive or Rear wheel drive or 4 wheel drive

FF FMF
FR FMR
RF RMF
RR RMR
F4 FM4
R4 RM4
Front Engine, Front Wheel Drive
 Advantages

 More Interior space

 Exhaust system pipes: Tunnel may used to route.

 Lower weight

 Improved fuel efficiency due to less weight.

 Lower cost due to fewer material components.

 FF configuration is typically used in mass-produced mainstream cars

 Improved drive train efficiency, assembly efficiency.

 Improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy or icy surfaces.

 Predictable handling characteristics: front-wheel drive cars, with a front weight bias,
tend to under steer at the limit.

 The wheelbase can be extended without building a longer driveshaft.

 Disadvantages

 Due to geometry & packaging constraints, the CV joints (constant-velocity joints) attached to
the wheel hub have a tendency to wear out much earlier than the universal joints typically
used in their rear-wheel drive counterparts.

 Shorter drive axles on a front-wheel drive car causes the joint to flex through a much wider
degree of motion, compounded by additional stress and angles of steering.

 Turning circle — FF layouts almost always use a Transverse engine ("east-west")

installation, which limits the amount by which the front wheels can turn, thus increasing the
turning circle of a front-wheel drive car compared to a rear-wheel drive one with the same
wheelbase.

 FF transverse engine layout restricts the size of the engine that can be placed in modern
engine compartments, so it is rarely adopted by powerful luxury and sports cars. FF
configurations can usually only accommodate Inline-4 and V6 engines, while longer engines
such as Inline-6 and 90° big-bore V8 will rarely fit, though there are exceptions.
Front Engine, Rear Wheel Drive

 The engine crankshaft is parallel to the axis of the

vehicle.

 This is the most commonly used type in practice.

Advantages

1. Provide an easy access to the engine, gearbox and rear axle for repair, inspection and
maintenance
2. Reduces the engine cooling problems
3. Decreased angularity of the propeller shaft and eliminates the need of any special joints due
to shaft length.
4. The steering system is simple to design, easy to install and operate.
5. The weight distribution is reasonably balanced between front and rear wheels that gives good
handling characteristics
6. Accelerator, choke and clutch and gearbox linkages are short and simple.
Disadvantages

1. Main drawback of this arrangement is the intrusion of transmission mechanism

upon the usable space of automobiles.

2. Due to transfer of vehicle weight to front wheels during braking, the weight on
the rear wheels is decreased, which results in decreased braking effort.

3. Due to longer propeller shaft, transmission problems and weight are increased.
Front Mid Engine Rear Wheel Drive
Characteristics
• A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an
automobile engine between the front and rear
axles.
• Positioning the engine behind the front axle line
and suspension promotes agility.
• Mid-engine layout is typically chosen for its
relatively favorable weight distribution.
• Engine weight is more evenly carried by all
wheels with this layout. As a result, vehicle
stability, traction, and ride quality are naturally
improved when turning, braking, and accelerating.
• The heaviest component is nearer to the center of
the vehicle, reducing the vehicle's moment of
inertia and making it easier and faster to turn.
 Mounting the engine in the middle instead of the front of the vehicle puts more weight
over the rear tires so they have more traction and provide more assistance to the front
tires in braking the vehicle, with less chance of rear wheel lockup and less chance of
a skid or spin out.

 In mid-engine rear-drive, added weight on rear tires improves acceleration on

slippery surfaces, providing much of benefits of all wheel drive without the added
weight and expense of all wheel drive components.

 The mid-engine layout makes ABS brakes and traction control systems work better
by providing them more traction to control.
FM4 layout–Front Mid-engine/Four-wheel drive:

 This layout, similar to above FMR layout, with engine between driver and behind front axle,
adds front wheel drive to become a four-wheel drive.

 Examples: Toyota Previa, Toyota Van 4WD variant (first generation)

Mid Engine or Mid Ship
Drawbacks

 The largest drawback of mid-engine cars is restricted rear passenger space; most mid-engine
vehicles are two-seat vehicles. The engine in effect pushes the passenger compartment forward
towards the front axle (if engine is behind driver). Exceptions typically involve larger vehicles of
unusual length or height in which the passengers can share space between the axles with the
engine, which can be between them or below them.

 Till date, Ferrari Mondial is the only successful example of a true mid-engine convertible with
seating for 4 and sports car / supercar performance.

 Like any layout where the engine is not front-mounted and facing the wind, the traditional "engine-
behind-the-passengers" layout makes engine cooling more difficult (Like Porsche 914, Saleen S7
employs large engine-compartment).
Rear Engine, Rear Wheel Drive
Advantages

 Better road adhesion especially on steeps and while accelerating due to increased weight
on rear driving wheels under these conditions.

 Even on braking, an appreciable amount of vehicle weight on diving wheels thus resulting in
efficient braking effect.

 As the front wheels are used only to steer the automobile, the steering mechanism is simple
in design and easy to operate

 Rear engine live axle arrangement has advantages for buses and coaches – since it permits
low floor, elimination of propeller shaft

 Affords good visibility for the driver and better streamlining of the vehicle front to decrease
wind resistance

 Passengers are kept away from engine noise, heat and fumes etc.
Disadvantages

 Increased weight at rear wheels renders vehicle unstable at high speeds.

 To control the engine, clutch and gearbox, long linkages are needed which complicates the
mechanism

 Reduced luggage compartment for a given length and width of the vehicle

 Cooling becomes insufficient due to screening of the engine by the vehicle body.

 The vehicle has the tendency to oversteer as front wheels are relieved of excess weight.

 Interior heating becomes more difficult.

 Due to rearward concentration of weight, the vehicle may be affected by side winds.
RMR layout–Rear Mid-engine / Rear-wheel drive

These cars use traditional engine layout between driver and rear drive axle. Typically, they're
simply called MR layout cars.
Four Wheel Drive

 Four-wheel drive, 4WD, 4x4 (Four by Four), or AWD (all wheel drive) is a four-wheeled
vehicle with a drive train that allows all four wheels to receive torque from the engine
simultaneously.

 While many people associate the term with off-road vehicles and Sport utility vehicles,
powering all four wheels provides better control than normal road cars on many surfaces,
and is an important part in the sport of rallying.
 The Lamborghini Murcielago is a 4WD that powers the front via a viscous coupling unit if the rear
slips.

 Honda's original Real-time 4WD system supplies FWD (front-wheel drive) operation in ordinary
conditions, switching to 4WD on demand depending on driving conditions. An enlarged clutch and
stiffened transmission helps distribute 20% additional torque to the rear wheels.
 To summarize, the various vehicle layouts according to engine location and drive are

 Front Engine Front Wheel Drive (FF)

 Front Mid Engine Front Wheel Drive (MF)

 Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive (FR)

 Front Mid Engine Rear Wheel Drive (FMR)

 Rear Mid Engine Rear Wheel Drive (RMR)

 Front Engine 4 Wheel Drive (F4)

 Mid Engine 4 Wheel Drive (M4)

 Rear Engine (R4)

Factors to be considered, while designing the chassis layout include

 Cost

 Complexity

 Reliability

 Packaging (location and size of the passenger compartment and boot)

 Weight distribution and

 Vehicle's intended handling characteristics

TRANSAXLE

Applications ?

Transfer Case (or)

Transfer Box
FRAME
Functions of frame
1. To support the chassis components and the body.
2. To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion.
3. To carry the weight of the passengers or goods.

Materials for frame

 Mild Sheet Steel, Low Carbon Steel - 0.18 or 0.20 % carbon content
 Alloy Steel – With alloying elements like Ni & Cr
 Al Alloy called ‘Alpax’

Different types of frame

1. Ladder type frame
2. Perimeter type frame
3. X type frame
4. Backbone type frame
5. Platform frame
DIFFERENT LOADS ACTING ON FRAMES
1. Weight of the vehicle and the passengers which causes vertical bending of the
side members
2. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow bit, which
results in longitudinal torsion due to one lifted (or lowered) with other wheel at
the usual road level
3. Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn, which
result in lateral bending of side members
4. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel
to remain obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting
the frame to parallelogram shape.
5. Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the
vertical plane
6. Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in a general collapse.
LADDER TYPE FRAME

To explain : Longitudinal Member, Cross Member, Vertical

Bending, Twisting, front overhung, rear overhung, applications

Underslung bridging member; reduced width at front,

Upswept locations
SUB FRAME

To explain : Engine & Gearbox support, 3 point mounting

configuration, Advantages
X TYPE FRAME

To explain : X shape, Applications, Advantages &

Drawbacks
PERIMETER TYPE FRAME

To explain : Perimeter, Flexibility, Applications

BACKBONE TYPE FRAME

To explain: Back bone, end connection, Applications

PLATFORM TYPE FRAME
VW Beetle "platform frame"
chassis

Renault 4 "platform frame" chassis

CLASSIFICATION OF BODY CONSTRUCTION
Conventional Frame & Body Construction:
There is a separate frame available in this
layout to support the chassis components.
Mostly adopted for heavy vehicles

Unitized (or) Integral body construction

The small frame members provided to support
the engine and suspension components. Many
vehicles attach the suspension components
directly to the reinforced sections of the body
and do not require the rear frame section.
Welded metal sections create a platform that
combines the body with the frame using unit-
body construction
Advantages of Unibody construction

 Less weight, Less Fuel Consumption

 Reduces Manufacturing Cost

 Body crumbles, there by absorbing the shock due to impact

 CG can be lowered and hence increased stability

Disadvantages of Unibody construction

 Increased Cost of Repair

 Reduction in strength & Durability

 Suitable for Mass Production

 Difficult to eliminate body noise

 Steel on Underside - Corrosion

FRAME CROSS SECTIONS
Cross Section Bending Stiffness

Square bar 1

Round bar 0.95

Round hollow tube 4.3

Rectangular C Channel 6.5

Square hollow section 7.2

Cross Section Torsional Stiffness

Longitudinal Split tube 1
Enclosed hollow tube 62.0
Open rectangular C 1
channel
Closed rectangular box 105.0
section
RESISTANCES TO VEHICLE MOTION

Air resistance

It influences the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the size and
shape of the vehicle body of the vehicle, its speed and wind velocity. It can be calculated as

Ra = KaAV2

Where A – Projected frontal area, m2

V – Speed of the vehicle (km/hr)

Ka – Coefficient of air resistance (N-h2/m2 – km2)

= 0.023 for best streamlined cars

= 0.031 for average cars

= 0.045 for trucks and lorries

Rolling resistance

The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on

 the nature of road surface

 the types of tyre viz. pneumatic or solid rubber tyre

 the weight of the vehicle

 the speed of the vehicle

The rolling resistance can be calculated as Rr = KW

Where W – Total weight of the vehicle (N)

K – rolling resistance constant; depends on the nature of road surface and tyre type

= 0.0059 for good roads

= 0.18 for loose sand roads

= 0.015, a representative value

A more widely accepted expression for the rolling resistance is given by Rr = (a+bV)W

Where V – Speed of the vehicle (km/hr); Mean values of a and b are 0.015 and 0.00016 respectively.
Gradient resistance

It depends upon the steepness of the slope. It can be calculated as

Rg = W sin Ɵ

Where W – Weight of the vehicle (N)

Ɵ – inclination of the slope to the horizontal.

Percentage grade = tan Ɵ x 100 but for small values of Ɵ , tan Ɵ = sin Ɵ
POWER REQUIRED FOR AUTOMOBILE

PV – Power required by the vehicle (kW) Power required to propel a vehicle is given by

PR – Engine power required (kW) Pv = x = (kW)

V – Speed of the vehicle (km/hr) Where R = Ra + Rr when a vehicle is going on a

level road
Ƞt – Transmission efficiency (%)
R = Ra +Rr + Rg when a vehicle moves up a
R – Total resistance (N) gradient.

Ra – Air resistance (N) The calculation of engine power takes into

account the losses in the transmission.
Rr – Rolling resistance (N)
Hence, the required engine power will be
Rg – Gradient resistance (N)
PR = (kW)
ƞ
TRACTION & TRACTIVE EFFORT
The force available at the contact between the drive wheel tyres and road is known as “Tractive
effort”. The ability of the drive wheels to transmit this effort without slipping is known as “Traction”.
Hence, usable tractive effort never exceeds traction. The tractive effort relate to engine power as
follows,

Engine torque, TE = Nm

Torque at the drive wheels, Tw = TE * GR * AR* ƞt

Tw TE G ƞ t
Tractive effort, F = =

Where, PE – Engine power (kW)

TE – Engine torque (Nm)

Ƞt – Transmission efficiency (%)

GR – Gear ratio ; AR – Axle ratio ; G – Overall gear ratio = GR * AR

N – crankshaft speed (rpm)

r – Radius of the tyre (m)

Numerical

The coefficient of rolling resistance for a truck weighing 62293.5 N is 0.018 and the
coefficient of air resistance is 0.0276 in the formula R = KW + KaAV2 where A is m2
of frontal area and V the speed in km/hr. The frontal area is 5.574 m2. If the truck
has to have a maximum speed of 88 km/hr in top gear, calculate the engine power
required. Assume mechanical efficiency in top gear as 90%.