Refrigeration

& Heat Pumps

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Introduction

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the cold medium;
the objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.
Introduction

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Conceptual Example You Can’t Beat the Second Law of Thermodynamics

Is it possible to cool your kitchen by leaving the refrigerator door open or to

cool your room by putting a window air conditioner on the floor by the bed?

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

The heat pump uses work to make
heat from the wintry outdoors flow
into the house.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Some Definitions
ƒ Refrigeration effect -represents the amount of energy
removed from the cold chamber by a refrigerator.
ƒ Refrigeration capacity-the amount of heat removed from
the cold reservoir per unit time.
Units: kW, ton, hp, ton=3.516 kW; 1 hp = 0.746 kW
Introduction

ƒ Coefficient of performance:

COP COP
ƒ Refrigeration efficiency : η= =
COPideal COPcanot
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 Refrigeration Systems

• Vapor compression system (phase-change);

Introduction

• Absorption systems (phase-change);

• Reversed-Brayton cycle (gas system);
• Thermoelectric refrigerator

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Vapor-Compression
System

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 Evaporation and Condensation

A Macroscopic Comparison of Gases, Liquids and Solids

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Vapor Compression Evaporation and Condensation

In a liquid
• Molecules are in random motion;
• There are appreciable intermolecular forces holding
molecules close together
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Vapor Compression Evaporation and Condensation

evaporation--->
LIQUID Add energy VAPOR
break IM bonds

make IM bonds
Remove energy
<---condensation

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 Evaporation

• Molecules at the surface break away

and become gas.
• Only those with enough KE escape
• Evaporation is a cooling
process.
• It requires heat.
• Endothermic.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Condensation

‰Change from gas to liquid

‰Achieves a dynamic equilibrium with vaporization
in a closed system.
‰What is a closed system?
‰A closed system means matter can’t go in or out.
(put a cork in it)
‰What the heck is a
“dynamic equilibrium?”

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 Dynamic equilibrium

‰When first sealed the molecules

gradually escape the surface of the
liquid
‰As the molecules build up above the
liquid some condense back to a
liquid.

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 Dynamic equilibrium

‰As time goes by the rate of vaporization

remains constant
‰ but the rate of condensation increases
because there are more molecules to
condense.
‰Equilibrium is reached when

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 Dynamic equilibrium

Rate of Vaporization =
Rate of Condensation
‰Molecules are constantly changing
phase “Dynamic”
‰The total amount of liquid and vapor
remains constant “Equilibrium”

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Vaporization

„Vaporization is an endothermic process

- it requires heat.
„Energy is required to overcome
intermolecular forces
„Responsible for cool earth.
„Why we sweat. (Never let them see
you.)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Boiling

• A liquid boils when the vapor pressure = the

external pressure
• Normal Boiling point is the temperature a
substance boils at 1 atm pressure.
• The temperature of a liquid can never rise
above its boiling point.

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 Changing the Boiling Point

• Lower the pressure (going up into the

mountains).
• Lower external pressure requires lower
vapor pressure.
• Lower vapor pressure means lower boiling
point.
• Food cooks slower.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Changing the Boiling Point

• Raise the external pressure (Use a pressure

cooker).
• Raises the vapor pressure needed.
• Raises the boiling point.
• Food cooks faster.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Evaporation and Condensation

Critical Point
T Ph
Sat. Liquid Line
Vapor Compression

Sat. Vapor Line

Subcooled
Saturation region Superheated
Pl region
region

s
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Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

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Vapor Compression How refrigeration works?

Video

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© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Heat Pump Heats a House in
Winter and Cools it in Summer
Cooling Mode
Vapor Compression

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Heat Pump Heats a House in
Winter and Cools it in Summer
Cooling Mode

A heat pump is essentially an air conditioner with a few additions. A heat pump has a
reversing valve, two metering devices and two bypass valves. This allows the unit to provide
Vapor Compression

both A/C and Heat. The diagram above shows a HP (heat pump) in cool mode. The cycle
goes like this:
The compressor (1) pumps the refrigerant to the reversing valve (2);
The reversing valve directs the flow to the outside coil (condenser) where the fan (3) cools
and condenses the refrigerant to liquid;
The air flowing across the coil removes heat (4) from the refrigerant;
The liquid refrigerant bypasses the first metering device and flows to the second metering
device (6) at the inside coil (evaporator) where it is metered;
Here it picks up heat energy from the air blowing (3) across the inside coil (evaporator) and
the air comes out cooler (7). This is the air that blows into the home;
The refrigerant vapor (8) then travels back to the reversing valve (9) to be directed to the
compressor to start the cycle all over again (1).

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Heat Pump Heats a House in
Winter and Cools it in Summer
Heating Mode
Vapor Compression

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Heat Pump Heats a House in
Winter and Cools it in Summer
Heating Mode

The diagram above shows the heat pump in heat mode. The difference in the two
Vapor Compression

diagrams is the reversing valve (2) directs the compressed refrigerant to the inside coil
first. This makes the inside coil the condenser and releases the heat energy (3-4). This
heated air is ducted to the home. The outside coil is used to collect the heat energy (3-7).
This now becomes the evaporator.

Both heating and A/C modes do exactly the same thing. They PUMP HEAT from one
location to another. In these examples the heat in the air is moved out of or into the home.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Vapor Compression Carnot Cycle

QL TC ( s2 − s1 ) TC
COPref = = =
Wnet TH ( s3 − s4 ) − TC ( s2 − s1 ) TH − TC
QH TH ( s3 − s4 ) TH
COPhp = = =
Wnet TH ( s3 − s4 ) − TC ( s2 − s1 ) TH − TC
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Theoretical Cycle

(Fig. 10-3)
Vapor Compression

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 P-i Diagram of an Ideal Vapor-
Compression Refrigeration Cycle

(Fig. 10-5)
Vapor Compression

i
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 ENERGY RELATIONS:
1-2: win = (i2 - i1)
Vapor Compression

2-3: QH = (i2 – i3)

3-4: i3 = i4
4-1: QL = (i1-i4)
COPref = QL/win
Refrigeration capacity= m
& QL

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Actual Cycle

PH
Vapor Compression

TH (atmosphere)
pc
Tc (cold room)

s
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Compressors
THE HEART OF THE VAPOR COMPRESSION
AIR CONDITIONER IS THE COMPRESSOR.
Vapor Compression

ƒ Positive Displacement - Increases the pressure of

the vapor by reducing the volume of the
compression chamber
ƒ Dynamic Compressors (Centrifugal) - Increase the
pressure of the vapor via exchange of angular
momentum between rotating element and
refrigerant.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Positive Displacement
Compressors

ƒ Reciprocating
Vapor Compression

ƒ Rotary (Rotary Vane, Screw)

ƒ Scroll

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 Reciprocating Compressors

Semi-Hermetic
Vapor Compression

Hermetic

Applications: smaller horsepower sizes for high pressure ratio

and low mass flow rate applications © T.S. Zhao, 2004
Vapor Compression Rotary Compressors

Vane compressor
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Rotary Compressors

Screw compressor
Vapor Compression

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Vapor Compression Rotary Compressors

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Vapor Compression Dynamic Compressors

Centrifugal compressor
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Vapor Compression Refrigeration Control Valves

Thermostatic expansion valve

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Vapor Compression Refrigeration Control Valves

Capillary tube

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Refrigerants

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 General Requirements

ƒ Thermodynamic characteristics;
ƒ Physical & chemical characteristics;
Refrigerants

ƒ Safety factors;
ƒ Environmental impacts.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Thermodynamic Requirements

ƒ High latent enthalpy of vaporization hfg;

ƒ Low freezing temperature. The refrigerant
must not solidify during normal operating
conditions;
Refrigerants

ƒ Positive evaporating pressure. Pressure in the

evaporator should be above the atmospheric to
prevent air from leaking into the system;
ƒ Relatively low condensing temperature.
Otherwise expensive piping and equipment
will be required.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Physical & Chemical Requirements

ƒ Good heat transfer characteristics.

ƒ Miscible with lubricating oil;
Refrigerants

ƒ Inertness and stability. The refrigerant must

not react with materials that will contact it
and its own chemical makeup must not
change with time.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Safety Factors

ƒ Non -flammability;
ƒ Non-toxicity;
Refrigerants

ƒ Non-irritability

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Common Refrigerants

• Halocarbons
– CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons):
R-11 (CCl3F); R-12 (CCl2F2);
– HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons):
Refrigerants

R-22 (CHCl2F); R-123 (CHCl2F3);

• Azeotropes: R-500 (R-12/152a); R-502 (R-22/115)
mixture of two refrigerants
• Hydrocarbons: R-50 (CH4); R-170 (CH3 CH3);
• Inorganic Compounds:
R-717 (NH3); R-718 (H2 O); R-744(CO2 );

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Environmental Concerns

Both CFC and HCFC:

– non-toxic;
– free of fire and explosion risk;
Refrigerants

– ideal thermodynamic properties. However,

¾Ozone Depletion cause environmental problem.

¾Global Warming

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Refrigerants CFCs and Ozone Depletion

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

CFC will react with Ozone and create other things, and with cause ozone deplete
 Effects of Ozone Depletion

• Reductions in ozone levels will lead to higher

levels of UV reaching the Earth's surface.
• Effects on Human Health
Refrigerants

skin cancer; cataracts

• Effects on Plants

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Refrigerants

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Refrigerants

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 CFC Phase-out

• The end of 1995, CFCs had all been

banned (China and India, 2010);
Refrigerants

• HCFCs will be phased out in 2015

(China and India, 2040).

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Refrigerants Global Warming

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 Greenhouse gases

• Carbon dioxide;
• Methane;
Refrigerants

• Nitrous oxide
• CFC Refrigerants

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Refrigerants Effects

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Effects
Health Impacts
Whether-related mortality
Infectious diseases

Agriculture Impacts
Crop yields
Irrigation demands
Refrigerants

Forest Impacts
Change in forest composition
Shift geographic range of forests

Water Resource Impacts

Changes in water supply
Water Quality

Impacts on Coastal Areas

Erosion of Beaches
Inundate coastal lands

Species and Natural Areas

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Environmental Evaluation

• Ozone Depletion Potential ( ODP) - the ratio of the

impact on ozone of a chemical compared to the
impact of a similar mass of CFC-11.
Refrigerants

– ODP of CFC-11 is defined to be 1.0;

– ODPs of CFCs and HCFCs vary from 0.01 to 1.0;
– HFCs have zero ODP (containing no chlorine).
• Global Warming Potential (GWP) - ratio of the
warming caused by a substance to the warming
caused by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.
– The GWP of CO2 is defined to be 1.0 .
– HCFCs and HFCs have GWPs ranging from 93 to 12,100.
– Water, a substitute in numerous end-uses, has a GWP of 0.
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 ODP and GWP of Refrigerants
Refrigerant ODP GWP Comments

CFC-11 1 4000
CFC-12 1 8500
CFC 500 0.66 6300 CFC-12 + HFC-152a
Refrigerants

CFC-502 0.28 5600 HCFC-22 + CFC-115

HCFC-22 0.055 1700
HCFC-123 0.02 93
HFC-134a 0 1300
R41OA 0 1890 HFC-32 + HFC-125
Propane 0 3 Very flammable
Ammonia 0 0 Toxic and flammable
ODP Ozone depletion potential relative to CFC-11 = 1
GWP = Global warming potential relative to CO2 = 1
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Alternative Refrigerants

Applications Past
Present Future

Refrigerators CFC-12 HFC-134a HFC-134a or hydrocarbons

HFC-134a in new equipment HFC-134a in new
Chilled
Refrigerants

CFC-12 & as drop-in with new equipment & as drop-in

cabinets
lubricant in existing. with new lubricant in
HCFC-22 in new equipment. HFC blends with new
Freezer
CFC-502 Drop-in blends of HCFC-22, lubricant in new equipment
cabinets
HFCs and hydrocarbons in or as drop-in replacement.
Large AC CFC-11 HCFC-123 (requires Replace with new system
centrifugal CFC-500 modification to gearing and using ammonia or HFCs in
chillers CFC-502 lubricant in retrofits). due course
Small & HFC blends with new
medium AC HCFC-22 HCFC-22 lubricant in new equipment
sized units or as drop-in replacement.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Alternative Refrigeration
Systems

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Alternative Refrigeration
Systems Using Natural Fluids

• Ammonia
Alternative Systems

– Vapor compression
– Ammonia/water absorption
• Water
– Water / Lithium Bromide Absorption
– Evaporative cooling
– Desiccant cooling
• Carbon Dioxide

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration
Cycle
generate ammonia with heat energy, as NH3 with
a lower boiling point

(Fig. 10-21)

vapour
Absorption

heat exchangers, one side is NH3

solution, one side is H2O

as the pressure is different, it is for

reduce the pressure to be return.

pump for liquid,

compressor is for gas

as water have a higher intermolecular force

than NH3 and therefore it will© absorb
T.S. Zhao, 2004
it and form
low till 0 ODP and GWP
a mixture liquid form!
 Water/LiBr Absorption
refrigerants absorbents

vacuum chamber

compensation
Absorption

regeneration

LiBr solution

refrigerant water Related Webs:

1, 2, 3
LiBr

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Absorption Water/LiBr Absorption

real chiller, generate water vapor, does not use electric energy, only
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heat energy
 Evaporative Cooling
Alternative Systems

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 Spring Cooling Scheme
Alternative Systems

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 Alternative Systems
Spring Cooling Scheme

the air need to be dry for use this scheme

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

clay pot refrigeration

 Transcritical CO2 Cycle

Pcri=73.9 bar Tcri=31.2oC

cant not use a condensor as the critical temp is only 31.2, need to higher the pressure, while the tube need
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
to be string enough for the strong pressure
only very limited application.
Alternative Systems
Transcritical CO2 Cycle

Condenser in the conventional

refrigeration systems is replaced by a gas
cooler!

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Alternative Systems
Thermoelectric Power Generator

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Thermoelectric Refrigerator
Alternative Systems

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Comparison
Standard Compressor System Peltier Cooling Unit
6500 BTU/hr 6500 BTU/hr
607W/5A 2124W/14.5A
Maximum Noise Level 54dBA Input Voltage (24VDC)
Input Voltage (115VAC/60 Hz) Shipping weight 21bs
Gross Weight 55lbs *Requires a Power supply (115 or
230VAC)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Power Consumption Vs Cooling Capacity

Standard Compressor System

Btu
6500
hr = 1903W = 3.136
607W 607W
Peltier Cooler
Btu
6500
hr = 1903W = .896
2124W 2124W

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Advantages

• No moving parts
• Small and lightweight
• Maintenance-free
• Acoustically silent and electrically “quiet”
• Heating and cooling with the same module (including
temperature cycling)
• Wide operating temperature range
• Highly precise temperature control (to within 0.1°C)
• Operation in any orientation, zero gravity and high G- levels
• Environmentally friendly
• Sub-ambient cooling
• Cooling to very low temperatures (-80°C)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Disadvantages

• Must have a heat sink

• Must have a DC Power source
• Low performance

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Applications

Water/Beer Cooler Cryogenic IR Night Vision

Electronic Cooling

Cooled
Car Seat

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Chapter Summary
• The transfer of heat from lower temperature regions to higher
temperature ones is called refrigeration. Devices that produce
refrigeration are called refrigerators, and the cycles on which they
operate are called refrigeration cycles. The working fluids used in
refrigerators are called refrigerants. Refrigerators used for the purpose
of heating a space by transferring heat from a cooler medium are called
Summary

heat pumps.
• The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms
of coefficient of performance (COP), defined as

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 10-16
Chapter Summary
• The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot
cycle. A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot
cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs
are
Summary

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 10-17
Chapter Summary
• The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the
refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled to the
saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then throttled to the
evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.
• Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when
there is a source of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to
Summary

2000C is absorption refrigeration, where the refrigerant is absorbed by a

transport medium and compressed in liquid form. The most widely used
absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-water system, where
ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as the transport medium. The
work input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP of absorption
refrigeration systems is defined as

© T.S. Zhao, 2004