EXPERIMENT 3

OBJECTIVE
mitosis.
onion root tip to study
mount of
To p r e p a r e temporary

REQUIREMENTIS
corked vialltube, petriaisnes,
scisSsors, forceps, needles modl
bottles, covoe
Onion bulbs, conical flasks/glass distilled water, spirit lamp, microscope, slides.,
acetocarmine,
alcohol, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid,
blotting paper etc.

-Onion bulb
PROCEDURE Onion
the Roots
1. Take amedium sized bulb of onion and trim off
old roots from its base by means of a sharp blade. Bottle
2. Place the onion on a conical flask/glass bottle full of Onion root
water, with its base touching the water. Keep it for a
week to grow the roots. Water
- Beaker

3. Cut 5 mm off the tips of roots and put them into a vial Water
containing a mixture of 1:3 acetic acid and metha-
nol. Keep for one hour. This process is called fixation.
(Cutting of root tips should be done in the morning
between 7.00 a.m. to 8.00 a.m. during the summer andd Fig. 6.1. Method of growing onion root tips.
between 9.30 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. during the winter).
 4. Remove 2 or 3 root tips and hydrolyse them by warming to 60°C in 1N hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes.
5. Remove the root tips and wash them thoroughly in water.
6. Place a drop of acetocarmine on a slide. Put one hydrolysed root tip in a drop and place a coverslip on the
root.

7. Gently squash the root by tapping the coverslip with the blunt end of a pencil or needle until the cells
separate and spread out into a very thin layer.
Make sure that there are no air bubbles under the coverslip.
8. Gently warm the slide over a flame for a few seconds.
9. Observe first under the low power of the microscope to locate the dividing cells. Examine the different stages
of mitosis under the high power of the microscope.

OBSERVATIONS

Under low power of the microscope, rectangular cells with pink nucleus are seen seattered. Under high
power of the microscope following stages become distinct: (Figs. 6.2 and 6.3)

Maturation zone-

Zone of elongation- Prophase

Metaphase
Meristematic zone-

Telophase

Anaphase
Interphase
Fig. 6.2. Different stages of mitosis in the onion root tip.

1. Interphase
) I t is a non-dividing phase of the cell cycle between two successive cell divisions.
within the nucleus.
(i) Chromatin fibres appear in the form of a network
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct.
2. Prophase
structures called chromosomes.
) Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread like
(i) Each chromosome consists of two chromatids, jointed at a point called centromere.
(ii) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus start disintegration and disappear at the end of prophase.

3. Metaphase
of each chromosome
) A bipolar spindle develops in the cell. Chromosomes become thick and two chromatids
become clear.
u) Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle.

(ii) Each chromosome get attached to the spindle fibres at its centromere.

4. Anaphase
) The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from the centromere and move towards the oppo-
site poles.
(i) The daughter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appear V, J, L and I shapes, depending upon the
position of centromere.
 OLoGY ACT
24
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Nuclear
- membrane

Chromatin
fibres
Nucleolus

-Cell membrane

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Interphase stage
Nuclear
Cell wall membrane
Nuclear
membrane Disappearing
nucleolus
Nucleolus
Chromosomes
Chromosomes Cell wall
Mww

Late prophase
Early prophase

Daughter
Spindle chromosomes
fibres

Chromatids Spindle fibres

Early anaphase

Metaphase stage
Daughter cells

-Cell wall Daughter nuclei

Chromosomes
(Chromatids) Cell plate
Nuclear
membrane
Spindle fibres

Late anaphase Telophase stage

Fig. 6.3. Various stages of mitosis in onion root tip cells.

poles
wo
5. Telophase at
uncoil to form chromatin fibres
(i) The spindle disappears and the daughter chromosomes
nucleolus reappears and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite pole>
membrane and
(ii) Nuclear
occurs by cell plate
formation between the two daughter nuclei.
(ii) Cytokinesis
 25
PRECAUTIONS

1. The base of the onion bulb should be in contact

of water while
2. Root tips should be fixed in the growing the roots.
morning between 8 to 1A.M.
3. The slide should be warmed
gently much above the flame of thespirit lamp.
 EXPERIMENT 31 4
OBJECTIVE

Collect water from two different water bodies around you and study them jor pt.
REQUIREMENTS

such pond water, tap water, tube well

Water sanmples from
two different sites
as
water,
etc., test tubes, pH
papers. riverlcanal wat
PROCEDURE
small piece of broad range n .
different test tubes. Dip a
Take different water samples in paper in each
paper in eack
of the pH paper with the
colour scale given on the pH panopH
paper
water samples. Match the colour bookle
take piece of narrow range of pH paper of the vala
approximate pH. For more accurate value,
range of pH paper and dip them seperately
in the water samples. Match the colour of the now
f the
paper with
the correct value of the pH of water samples. the pH
given on the pH paper booklet. This will give Scale
OBSERVATIONS
Record the pH of diífferent water samples in the observation table.
S. No. Water Samples pH
1.
2.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Take clean and dried test tube.
2. Dry the pH paper before comparing the colour with the
3.
colour scale.
Match the colour carefully and
determine pH accurately.

EXPERIMENT 3.2
OBJECTIVE
Collect water from two
of particulate matter different water bodies around you and
(suspended pollutants) in study them
for clarity and presen
different samples of water.
REQUIREMENTS
Cardboard box, electric bulb,
beaker, two different samples of water.
PROCEDURE
Take a
cardboard box
making pencle size hole in and
a prepare a Tyndal
the cardboard box andset-up from it to test
fixing a light source turbidity. Tyndal set-up can be
box.
Place the
beaker containing the samples (electric bulb/torch) on the otnerpreCthe
torch. Observe the
sample of water of water one by one.
through the hole. Make your
laboratory dark and lign bulb
Compare the turbidity of different
water sampic
 17
OBSERVATION

Suspended particulate pollutants (such

as clay particles, organic matter, bacteria, uni
cellular organisms etc.,) may be observed.
Suspended Box
particles
PRECAUTIONS
Torch
1. The hole in the cardboard box should not
be large. oO
2. The light source should be of sufficient
intensity. Beaker with
water

Fig. 3.2.1. Tyndal set-up showing presence of

particulate pollutants in water.

EXPERIMENT 3,3 | 3

OBJECTIVE

water bodies around you and study them for the presence of
Collect from
water two different
living organisms.

REQUIREMENTSS

pond water, river water, canal water etc., microscope, glass

samples from two different sites such
as
Water
ete.
slides, droper, methylene blue, spirit lamp,

PROCEDURE
different water samples. Spread the drops
to
a few drop of
water seperately from
Take a clean slide and put the slide through the flame of spirit
film of water on the slide.
Allow it to dry. Pass the
lower
side of slide. Add a few drop of a methylene
make thin the
a
fix the living organisms present in water on to
lamp two or three times to
the slide and observe the slide under the microscope.
two minutes. Wash
blue on the slide. Leave the slide for

OBSERVATION as bacteria, protozoa,

diatoms, some algae, cyanobacteria) are

of microorganisms (such in Figs. 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.

A number of types in water samples are given
oDserved. Different types of
organisms present

CONCLUSION in water.
microorganisms
indicates the presence of organie pollutants
number of
Presence of large

PRECAUTIONS on the slide from it.

before putting
the drops of water
Shake the water well it dry.
the flame only to get
2. Pass theslide through
 ACTIVITIES VOL.

BACILLI VIBRIO
ns SPIRILI

COcCI
Bacterias
Different types of

E G H
A B C D
D. Triceretium, E. Nostoc
A. Pleurosigma, B. Navicula, C. Amphiplura,
l. Gloeotricha.
F. Oscillatoria, G. Spirogyra, H. Asterionella,

Rotifer Water strider

Daphnia Copepod
microorganisms found in water samples collected from different water bodies.
Fig. 3.3.1. Some

2 3 A 5

6 7 8 9 10
1. Amphipod, 2. Mosquito larva, 3. Isopods, 4. Dysticus larva, 5. Dysticus, 6. Water scorpion
7. First instar may fly nympn, 8. Second instar may fly nymph, 9. and 10. Instar nymph of dragon fly

Fig. 3.3.2. Some arthropods found in fresh water bodies.

OBJECTIVE
EXPERIMENT 25
Collect soil from at least two different sites and
study them
for texture and moisture content of soils.
Humus
REQUIREMENTS
Water
Digger, polythene bags, hand lens, meshes of different pore sizes,
measuring cylinder, water etc. Clay
Silt
PROCEDURE Fine sand
-Coarse sand
Collect soilsample from two different sites like-crop field, roadside, Fig. 2.1.1. Different layers formed by
park, river bank, dried pond, etc., in polythene bags and bring them to the different types of soil particles in water.
laboratory.
 TEXTURE
STUDY OF SOIL
feel it between fingers in dry a s vell
hand lens and as in
Examine the soil samples by amount of particlen
a
sizes and record the mois
meshes of different pore
250 ml measuring cyinder. Add 200 m l f
rough te. p
dried soil samples on
50 from a sample in
of soil water andd Pla
Take about gm
Allow the soil particles to settle
down. Record thickness
layers formed by.
of the different
of ypes ake it wel
measuring cylinder, and calculate their relative percentage. Similarly
record relative percento
particl
particles present in different soil samples.
of soil fferent byy
OBSERVATIONS
Heavy particles settle down first and lighter ones afterwards. fumus tloats on the water surfa
these layers carefully and record your observations in tabular form as under.

S. No. Soil samples Colour Texture Relative percentage

Sol class
Sand Silt
Clay
1.
2.

STUDY OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Take small amount of soil from a
on a burner to sample in a dry crucible and weigh it. Record the
dry the soil and then cool it. Weigh the crucible again to record the weight. Heat the crucible
process for the other soil sample. weight of dry soil. Repeat the
OBSERVATIONS
Record the initial and final
in the form of a weights of each sample and the difference
table. Higher difference
soil (Fig. 2.1.2). between initial and final between initial and final weights
weight shows higher moisture content in the
S. No. Soil samples
Initial weight
(x) gm Final weight
Moisture content
(y) gm
2.
y-x)gm

PRECAUTIONS
1, Soil samples should be separately www.

Crucible
ratory. packed and brought to e*******seesssesescce.

Soil
the labo-
***nees. **********

2. The thickness of layers *************-***

should be carefully formedand

by
measured different
be accurately calculated. their particles in the
relative cylinder -Flame
percentage should

- Stand

Fig. 2.1.2.
Heating of soil in
cruciD
 EXPERIMENT 2.2 2

OBJECTIVE

Collect soil from at least two

different sites and study pH of soil.
REQUIREMENTS

Soil samples from two different sites such as garden soil, roadside soil, pond, river-bank soil, etc. test tubes,
funnel, filter paper, pfH paper of different range, distilled water, beaker.

PROCEDURE

Dissolve one tablespoon of soil from each soil sample in 100 ml of distilled water in separate beakers. Stir
the solutions well and keep for half an hour to settle down the suspended particles. Filter off each solutionin
different test tubes. Dip a small piece of broad range pH paper in each of the soil solution. Match the colour of the
p H paper with the colour scale given on the pH paper booklet. This gives an approximate pH. For more accurate
value, take a piece of narrow range pH paper of the value indicated by broad range pH paper and dip them sepa-
rately in the soil-water suspensions. Match the colour of the paper with the pH scale given on the pH paper booklet.
This will give the correct value of the pHl of the soil samples.

OBSERVATIONS

Record the pH of different soil samples in the observation table.

S. No. Soil samples pH

1.
2

PRECAUTIONS
1. Wash the glassware thoroughly and get it oven dried before the experiment.
2. Use standard reagents.

EXPERIMENT 2.3
OBJECTIVE

Collect soil from at least tuwo different sites and study the water holding capacity of soil.
REQUIREMENTS
Garden soil, roadside soil, measuring cylinders, funnels, filter papers, beakers, balance, oven etc.

PROCEDURE
funnels and line them with filter paper. Label them A and B. Place them on measuring cylinders
Take twooven
Take 100 gm dried sample each of the garden soil and roadside soil. Put the garden soil in funnel A and
roadside soil in funnel B. Pour 100 ml of water in each funnel. Record the volume of filtered out water in the
measuring cylinder when the dripping of water stops from the funnel.
 CORE EXPERIMENTS
15

Funnel

Garden soil
Filter paper Roadside soil
+water
+water

Measuring cylinders

www

. . Water that drained

through the soil

Fig. 2.3.2. Experiment to study water holding capacity of soils.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULT

Record the observations and result in the table as follows
S Soil types Weight of Volume of Volume of
No. soil X)
Volume of Water holding
water poured water collected water retained capacity of the
Y in measuring the soil soil in percentage
cylinder (Z) (Y Z) 2 / 8 x 100
1. Garden soil
2. Roadside soil

CONCLUSION
Garden soil has a bhigher water holding capacity than the roadside soil, because the
quantities of sand and silt. roadside sail haiarger

PRECAUTIONS
1. Weighing of soil samples should be done accurately.
2. Pour water slowly and gently on the soil in the funnel.
3. Record the volume of collected water in the measuring cylinders carefully.