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Driver Training in Switzerland today

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basic driver training: New models

Final report

Editors:
Mika Hatakka, Esko Keskinen and
Chris Baughan, Charles Goldenbeld, Nils Petter Gregersen,
Heleen Groot, Stefan Siegrist, Georg Willmes-Lenz,
Martin Winkelbauer

University of Turku, Finland

Other contributing organizations:

VTI, Sweden
CIECA
Swov, the Netherlands
bfu, Switzerland
TRL, UK
BASt, Germany
KfV, Austria
 2

1 Foreword ......................................................................................................... 7
2 Avant-propos ................................................................................................... 9
3 Vorwort .......................................................................................................... 11
4 Summary and recommendations of the BASIC project................................. 13
5 Résumé et recommandations du projet BASIC............................................. 15
6 EU-Projekt BASIC: Ergebniszusammenfassung und Empfehlungen............ 18
7 Goals of the BASIC project ........................................................................... 21
7.1 New models in basic training....................................................................22
8 How to classify the essential features of the systems ................................... 24
8.1 Driving school instruction..........................................................................24
8.2 Layman instruction ...................................................................................24
8.3 Short training period .................................................................................25
8.4 Extended learning period..........................................................................26
8.5 Combined models.....................................................................................26
8.6 Multi-phase models ..................................................................................27
8.7 Liberal models ..........................................................................................27
9 Description of essential elements of training that may have learning effects 28
9.1 Quantity of training/practice......................................................................28
9.2 Duration of training ...................................................................................29
9.3 Goals and contents of training..................................................................29
9.4 Interpretation and targeting of goals .........................................................31
9.5 Degree of structure and control of training ...............................................32
9.6 Amount and quality of feedback ...............................................................33
9.7 Training environment: How well the environment is supporting training...34
9.8 Climate of training/teaching: Does it encourage attitudinal change?........34
9.9 Training methods: Practical, theoretical ...................................................35
9.10 Relationship between practical and theoretical instruction .......................35
10 Criteria for effectiveness of driver training models ........................................ 37
11 Traditional and new driver education systems,
description of systems and evaluations......................................................... 40
11.1 Development of the driver training system in Germany
(Georg Willmes-Lenz and Michael Bahr)..................................................40
11.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................40
11.1.2 Development of driver training...........................................................41
11.1.3 Development of the driving instructor occupation..............................49
11.1.4 Driving test.........................................................................................51
11.1.5 Effectiveness .....................................................................................52
11.1.6 Further development of the driver training system ............................54
11.1.7 Conclusions .......................................................................................62
11.2 The training and licensing system for car drivers in Great Britain
(Chris Baughan) .......................................................................................63
11.3 Driver Training in Switzerland today (Stefan Siegrist, Jacqueline
Bächli-Biétry, Mario Cavegn and Markus Hubacher)................................66
11.3.1 Structure and contents of the present approach................................66
11.3.2 Process evaluation ............................................................................67
11.4 New measures introduced in the Netherlands (Martina Hendrix) .............68
11.4.1 A new driving method focusing on environmentally friendly driving
(Het Nieuwe Rijden, HNR, 2003).......................................................68
11.4.2 Driver Training Stepwise (DTS, 2003) ...............................................70
11.4.3 The beginner’s License (Ministry of Transport and CBR, 2003)........72
11.4.4 The Learner Interim Test or TTT
(Tussentijdse Toets, Ministry of Transport and CBR, 2003)..............72
11.4.5 BOVAG driving license guarantee
(BOVAG Rijbewijsgarantie, 2003) .....................................................73
 3

11.5 Driver Education In Steps – Results of two small-scale

evaluation studies into the effectiveness and efficiency
of a new educational commercial programme in the Netherlands)
(Charles Goldenbeld) ...............................................................................75
11.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................75
11.5.2 Aims...................................................................................................76
11.5.3 Methods .............................................................................................76
11.5.4 Main results .......................................................................................77
11.5.5 Considerations about the evaluation of RIS ......................................79
11.6 The effect on accident risk of a change in driver education in Denmark
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg).............................................80
11.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................80
11.6.2 Results...............................................................................................81
11.6.3 Conclusions .......................................................................................82
11.7 Phase 2 in the Norwegian driver education. Effect on the accident risk
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg).............................................83
11.7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................83
11.7.2 Results...............................................................................................84
11.7.3 Conclusions .......................................................................................85
11.8 The Finnish two-phase driver training (Mika Hatakka) .............................87
11.8.1 Characteristics ...................................................................................87
11.8.2 Pedagogical guidelines in the second phase.....................................88
11.8.3 Practical methods ..............................................................................89
11.8.4 Theoretical background .....................................................................90
11.8.5 Evaluation studies .............................................................................91
11.8.6 Structural demands............................................................................94
11.8.7 Cultural aspects .................................................................................95
11.8.8 History................................................................................................96
11.9 Swiss new 2-phase-driver training model (starting January 2005)
(Stefan Siegrist, Jacqueline Bächli-Biétry, Mario Cavegn
and Markus Hubacher) .............................................................................97
11.9.1 Structure and aims of Swiss 2-phase-driver-training model ..............97
11.9.2 Planning the second phase-courses: aims and methods ..................98
11.9.3 Formal elements of the 16 hours further training...............................99
11.9.4 Methods ...........................................................................................100
11.9.5 Quality control..................................................................................100
11.9.6 Detailed content of the three training sessions................................100
11.9.7 Evaluation plan ................................................................................102
11.9.8 Aims and methods of evaluation......................................................104
11.9.9 Study design for the outcome evaluation part .................................105
11.10 Multiphase driver education in Austria (Martin Winkelbauer) .................107
11.10.1 Abstract ...........................................................................................107
11.10.2 The Multiphase Concept..................................................................107
11.10.3 The feedback drives ........................................................................109
11.10.4 The safe driving course ...................................................................109
11.10.5 The traffic psychological seminar ....................................................109
11.10.6 Consequences for participants ........................................................109
11.10.7 Economical aspects.........................................................................109
11.11 Skid training in Sweden (Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg) ....111
11.11.1 Background .....................................................................................111
11.11.2 The origins of the new curriculum....................................................111
11.11.3 A research program about skid training...........................................112
11.11.4 Education and extension courses for skid track instructors.............113
11.11.5 Final remarks ...................................................................................114
11.12 Evaluation of new national curriculum for skid training in Sweden
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg)...........................................116
 4

11.12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................116

11.12.2 Results.............................................................................................117
11.12.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................118
11.13 Evaluation of the 16-year age limit for driver training in Sweden.
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg)...........................................120
11.13.1 Introduction ......................................................................................120
11.13.2 Results.............................................................................................121
11.13.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................123
11.14 Novice drivers´ crash risk before and after the age limit for driver
training in Norway was lowered from 17 to 16 years
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg)...........................................125
11.14.1 Introduction ......................................................................................125
11.14.2 Results.............................................................................................126
11.14.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................128
11.15 Lay instruction during driver training – A study on how it is carried
out and its impact on road safety
(Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg)...........................................129
11.15.1 Introduction ......................................................................................129
11.15.2 Main results from the process study ................................................129
11.15.3 Main results from the analysis of accidents during practice ............131
11.15.4 Cost-benefit estimation ....................................................................132
11.15.5 Conclusions and suggestions ..........................................................132
11.16 Development of demands on lay instruction and practising in
driver training in Sweden (Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg) ..134
11.16.1 Introduction ......................................................................................134
11.16.2 Recent trends in developing driver education in Sweden................134
11.17 Accompanied driving in France, overview of evaluations.
(Mika Hatakka) .......................................................................................137
11.17.1 Introduction ......................................................................................137
11.17.2 Quantitative studies .........................................................................137
11.17.3 General conclusions from quantitative studies: ...............................141
11.17.4 Qualitative study (Chatenet, 1999) ..................................................141
11.17.5 Conclusions from the qualitative study ............................................143
11.18 “L 17” Combined professional and layman driver training model
in Austria (Martin Winkelbauer) ..............................................................143
11.18.1 Requirements for applicants ............................................................144
11.18.2 Training............................................................................................144
11.18.3 Stages of training.............................................................................145
11.18.4 Post licensing measures..................................................................147
11.18.5 Professional trainers ........................................................................147
11.18.6 Motives of the L17 ...........................................................................147
12 Evaluation studies made especially for BASIC project................................ 149
12.1 "L17" Analysis of Austrian Central Licence File Data
(Martin Winkelbauer) ..............................................................................149
12.1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................149
12.1.2 Description of sample ......................................................................150
12.1.3 Licensing age ..................................................................................151
12.1.4 Layman instructors ..........................................................................152
12.1.5 Comparison by CLF offence record.................................................153
12.1.6 Comparison L17/SE by offences .....................................................153
12.1.7 Comparison by use of alcohol and drugs ........................................154
12.1.8 Comparison by registration of accidents..........................................155
12.1.9 Comparison by official measures.....................................................156
12.1.10 Comparison by multiple offences.....................................................157
12.1.11 Summary of analysis of central licence file data..............................157
12.2 "L17" Analysis of questionnaire survey...................................................158
 5

12.2.1 Description of sample, statistical methods.......................................158

12.2.2 Licensing age ..................................................................................159
12.2.3 Duration of licence holding ..............................................................159
12.2.4 Selection of transport mode.............................................................160
12.2.5 Social Bias .......................................................................................162
12.2.6 Licence test pass rates ....................................................................164
12.2.7 Legal behaviour ...............................................................................164
12.2.8 Exposure..........................................................................................166
12.2.9 Motives for vehicle use ....................................................................167
12.2.10 Risk attitudes ...................................................................................168
12.2.11 Opinions about models of driver education .....................................170
12.2.12 Accident rates ..................................................................................173
12.2.13 The quality of accidents ...................................................................175
12.2.14 Time between licensing and accident..............................................179
12.2.15 Summary of Austrian instruction model evaluation..........................181
12.3 Accidents while learning to drive: Results of a survey in the UK
(Martti Peräaho, Chris Baughan, Trevor Wedge and Mika Hatakka) .....182
12.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................182
12.3.2 Results of main questionnaire .........................................................182
12.3.3 Amount of driving.............................................................................183
12.3.4 Accidents .........................................................................................184
12.3.5 Results of accident questionnaire....................................................185
12.3.6 Accident characteristics ...................................................................187
12.4 Accidents while learning to drive in Finland
(Mika Hatakka and Inkeri Salo) ..............................................................191
12.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................191
12.4.2 Results.............................................................................................191
12.4.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................192
12.5 Questionnaire study on novice driver's accidents in the beginning
of driving career in Finland (Sirkku Laapotti, Esko Keskinen,
Mika Hatakka, Martti Peräaho, Inkeri Salo and Ari Katila)......................193
12.5.1 The aim of the study ........................................................................193
12.5.2 Description of the data.....................................................................193
12.5.3 Comparison between drivers of professional and
layman instruction............................................................................195
12.5.4 Number of accidents........................................................................198
12.5.5 Number of violations ........................................................................201
12.5.6 Description of accidents...................................................................202
12.5.7 Factors related to violations.............................................................208
12.5.8 Factors relating to accident involvement .........................................209
12.5.9 Accidents during the follow-up.........................................................210
12.5.10 Accidents immediately before and after the second phase .............213
12.5.11 Quality of driving and quality of accidents in the intermediate
phase and after the 2nd phase ........................................................219
12.5.12 Accidents in the drivers’ career in relation to the second phase......220
12.5.13 Conclusions of the Finnish survey results .......................................222
13 Evaluation of results .................................................................................... 223
13.1 Introduction.............................................................................................223
13.2 Accident trends at the beginning of drivers’ careers...............................223
13.2.1 Conclusions .....................................................................................225
13.3 Review of the new models in basic driver training..................................225
13.4 Evaluation of support for learning, costs and benefits
and cultural demands .............................................................................227
13.4.1 Support for learning and pedagogical and didactic solutions ..........227
13.4.2 Costs and benefits, who pays and who benefits..............................229
13.4.3 Cultural and structural demands of application of new methods .....230
 6

13.5 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the models ........................................231

13.5.1 Satisfaction of the learners ..............................................................231
13.5.2 Passing rates ...................................................................................232
13.5.3 Attitudes...........................................................................................232
13.5.4 Violations .........................................................................................232
13.5.5 Amount of driving.............................................................................233
13.5.6 Accident involvement.......................................................................233
13.6 Accidents while practising ......................................................................234
13.6.1 Conclusions .....................................................................................235
13.7 The effects of amount of practising on accidents after licensing ............235
13.7.1 Conclusions .....................................................................................236
13.8 Graduated access to driving...................................................................237
13.8.1 Graduated licensing system (GLS)..................................................237
13.8.2 Conclusions .....................................................................................237
13.8.3 Demerit point systems .....................................................................237
13.8.4 Conclusions .....................................................................................238
13.9 Multi-phase training systems ..................................................................238
13.9.1 Conclusions .....................................................................................240
13.10 Degree of structure of training ................................................................240
13.10.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................241
14 Recommendations from earlier projects...................................................... 242
15 Recommendations of the BASIC-project concerning
driver education in Europe .......................................................................... 245
16 Some points for further discussion concerning basic driver education ....... 248
17 Les recommandations du projet BASIC relatives à la formation
du conducteur en Europe. ........................................................................... 249
18 Quelques thèmes à discuter concernant la formation initiale du
conducteur .................................................................................................. 252
19 Empfehlungen zur Fahrausbildung in Europa ............................................. 253
20 Gesichtpunkte zur weiteren Diskussion ...................................................... 256
 7

1 Foreword

The BASIC –project is one in a series of studies on driver training co-financed

by the European Commission of the European Community. Others include
GADGET, DAN, ANDREA and ADVANCED. The TEST- and NovEv- projects
are still running and will be completed in 2004. The general aim of these
studies and development projects has been to increase safety among young
and novice drivers. They may also focus on the safety of experienced drivers
whenever they have suffered from problems where education and training
methods have been thought to be helpful (problems such as drinking and
driving, or speeding). As in earlier studies, as in BASIC, new empirical data
has been collected but relevant literature and theories have also been used
to formulate the recommendations concerning new models in driver training.
Since the launching of the first project (GAGDET) in this series, many
changes have occurred in the field of driver education in Europe and a new
enthusiasm has arisen concerning the potential of driver education. There
have been several reasons for this enthusiasm: positive empirical results
from a range of countries, a new theoretical way of looking at driving, and
wide-reaching co-operation between research institutes and universities as
well as between professionals in the field of driver education across Europe.
Without such multinational, multi-organizational and multi-professional
organization this project may never have come to fruition. The following
experts in different organisations in different countries have actively
contributed to the project.

Authors and members of the project group:

Baughan, Chris, Chief Research Scientist, MSc, BSc, Transport Research
Laboratory (TRL), UK
Hatakka, Mika, PhD, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Keskinen, Esko, Prof, PhD, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Goldenbeld, Charles, PhD, Psychologist, Swov, the Netherlands
Gregersen, Nils Petter, Prof. PhD, Psychologist, Väg- och
transportforskningsinstitutet (VTI), Sweden
Groot, Heleen, MA, Secretary General, CIECA, the Netherlands
Siegrist, Stefan, PhD, Psychologist, Schweizerische Beratungstelle für
Unfallverhütung (bfu), Switzerland
Willmes-Lenz, Georg MA, Sociologist, Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen
(BASt), Germany
Winkelbauer, Martin, DI, Kuratorium für Verkehrsicherheit (KfV), Austria

Member of project group

Cummins, Robin, Chief Driving Examiner, Driving Standard Agency (DSA),
CIECA representative, UK
 8

Other authors:
Bahr, Michael, MA, BASt, Germany
Bächli-Biétry, Jacqueline, Psychologist, bfu, Switzerland
Cavegn, Mario, bfu, Switzerland
Hendrix, Martina, Project Assistant, CIECA, the Netherlands
Hubacher, Markus, bfu, Switzerland
Katila, Ari, MA, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Laapotti, Sirkku, MA, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Nyberg, Anders, MA, VTI, Sweden
Peräaho, Martti, MA, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Salo, Inkeri, MA, Psychologist, University of Turku, Finland
Wedge, Trevor, Deputy Chief Driving Examiner , DSA, UK

Supervisors in European Commission:

Ruyters, Herald, Jurist Drs. DG TREN, European Commission, Brussels,
Belgium
Jansen, Frederick, DG TREN, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium

This project benefited from subsidies from the European Commission, DG

TREN

The project was coordinated by the University of Turku, Finland

 9

2 Avant-propos

Le projet BASIC est un projet dans une série d’études sur la formation du
conducteur qui est co-financé par la Commission européenne de la
Communauté européenne. D’autres études dans la même série comprennent
les projets GADGET, DAN, ANDREA et ADVANCED. Les projets TEST et
NovEV sont actuellement en cours et ils termineront en 2004. Le but général
de ces études et projets de développement a été d’accroître la sécurité des
conducteurs jeunes et novices. Certaines d’entre elles se concentrent sur la
sécurité des conducteurs expérimentés où on croit que l’éducation et les
méthodes de formation peuvent être utiles (par exemple, pour les problèmes
de la conduite et la consommation d’alcool ou la conduite au-dessus de la
limite de vitesse). Comme dans les études précédentes, le projet BASIC a
récolté des données empiriques, mais la littérature et les théories pertinentes
ont également été utilisées afin de formuler des recommandations
concernant les nouveaux modèles de formation des conducteurs.

Depuis le lancement du premier projet de cette série (GADGET), beaucoup a

changé dans le domaine de la formation du conducteur en Europe, et on
s’aperçoit d’un nouvel enthousiasme vis-à-vis du potentiel de cette éducation.
Il y a plusieurs raisons pour expliquer cet enthousiasme, à savoir les résultats
empiriques positifs dans beaucoup de pays, une nouvelle approche théorique
à la conduite, et la coopération approfondie entre les instituts de recherche,
les universités et les responsables dans le domaine de la formation du
conducteur à travers l’Europe. Sans cette mobilisation multinationale, multi-
professionnelle et multi-organisationelle, il se peut que ce projet ne se soit
jamais réalisé. Les experts suivants, en provenance des organisations et des
pays différents, ont activement contribué à cette tache.

Auteurs et membres du groupe de projet:

Baughan, Chris, rechercheur principal, MSc, BSc, Transport Research
Laboratory (TRL), Royaume-Uni
Hatakka, Mika, PhD, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Keskinen, Esko, Prof, PhD, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Goldenbeld, Charles, PhD, psychologiste, Swov, Pays-Bas
Gregersen, Nils Petter, Prof. MD, psychologiste, Väg- och
transportforskningsinstitutet (VTI), Suède
Groot, Heleen, MA, secrètaire générale, la CIECA, Pays-Bas
Siegrist, Stefan, PhD, psychologiste, Schweizerische Beratungstelle für
Unfallverhütung (bfu), Suisse
Willmes-Lenz, Georg MA, sociologiste, Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen
(BASt), Allemagne
Winkelbauer, Martin, DI, Kuratorium für Verkehrsicherheit (KfV), Autriche

Membre du groupe de projet

Cummins, Robin, Examinateur principal, Driving Standards Agency (DSA),
représentant de la CIECA, Royaume-Uni
 10

Auteurs supplémentaires:
Bahr, Michael, MA, BASt, Allemagne
Bächli-Biétry, Jacqueline, psychologiste, bfu, Suisse
Cavegn, Mario, bfu, Suisse
Hendrix, Martina, Assistant de projet, la CIECA, Pays-Bas
Hubacher, Markus, bfu, Suisse
Katila, Ari, MA, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Laapotti, Sirkku, MA, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Nyberg, Anders, MA, VTI, Suède
Peräaho, Martti, MA, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Salo, Inkeri, MA, psychologiste, Université de Turku, Finlande
Wedge, Trevor, DSA, Royaume-Uni

Responsables auprès de la Commission européenne :

Ruyters, Herald, Juriste Drs. DG TREN, Commission européenne, Bruxelles,
Belgique
Jansen, Frederick, DG TREN, Commission européenne, Bruxelles, Belgique

Ce projet a profité d’une subvention de la Commission européenne, DG

TREN.

Le projet a été géré par l’Université de Turku, Finlande.

 11

3 Vorwort
BASIC gehört zu einer Reihe europäischer Projekte zur Aus- und
Weiterbildung von Fahrern, die von der Europäischen Union gefördert
wurden. In diese Reihe gehören die Projekte GADGET, DAN, ANDREA und
ADVANCED. TEST und NOVEV werden zur Zeit durchgeführt - ihr
Abschluss ist Ende 2004 vorgesehen. Das allgemeine Ziel dieser
Forschungs- und Entwicklungsvorhaben besteht in einer Erhöhung der
Verkehrssicherheit junger Fahranfänger. Die Verkehrssicherheit erfahrener
Fahrer ist dabei mit einbegriffen, soweit Probleme im Zusammenhang von
Alkohol- oder Geschwindigkeitsdelikten angesprochen sind, denen mit Mitteln
der Nachschulung begegnet werden kann. Ebenso wie in den
vorausgegangenen Projekten wurde auch in BASIC neues empirisches
Datenmaterial erhoben und die einschlägige wissenschaftliche Literatur
herangezogen, um Empfehlungen zu neuen Ansätzen der Fahrausbildung zu
formulieren. Seit dem ersten Projekt (GADGET) konnten in der
Fahrausbildung in Europa viele Veränderungen beobachtet werden.
Bezüglich der Möglichkeiten der Fahrausbildung hat sich ein neuer
Enthusiasmus herausgebildet. Für ihn können einige Gründe angeführt
werden: positive empirische Befunde aus einigen Ländern, neue theoretische
Sichtweisen zum Fahren, insbesondere aber eine umfassende europaweite
Kooperation zwischen Forschungsinstituten und Universitäten unter
Beteiligung zahlreicher Experten auf dem Gebiet der Fahrausbildung. Ohne
diese multinationale, organisations- und professionsübergreifende
Kooperation hätte das Projekt BASIC nicht zu seinem erfolgreichen
Abschluss finden können. Die nachfolgend aufgeführten Experten aus
unterschiedlichen Organisationen und Ländern haben aktiv zum Projekt
beigetragen:

Autoren und Mitglieder der Projektteams:

Baughan, Chris, Forschungsleiter, MSc, BSc, TRL, GB

Hatakka, Mika, Dr., Psychologe, Universität Turku, Finland
Keskinen, Esko, Prof. Dr., Psychologe, Universität Turku, Finland
Goldenbeld, Charles, Dr., Psychologe, SWOV, Niederlande
Gregersen, Nils Petter, Prof. Dr., Psychologe, VTI, Schweden
Groot, Heleen, MA, CIECA-Generalsekretärin, Niederlande
Sigrist, Stefan, Dr., Psychologe, bfu, Schweiz
Willmes-Lenz, Georg, M.A., Soziologe, BASt, Deutschland
Winkelbauer, Martin, DI, KfV, Österreich

Mitglieder der Projektteams

Cummins, Robin, Prüfleiter, CIECA-Repräsentant, DAS, GB

 12

Weitere Autoren

Bächli-Bietry, Jacqueline, Dr., Psychologin, Schweiz

Bahr, Michael, Dipl.-Soz.wiss., Sozialwissenschaftler, BASt, Deutschland
Cavegn, Mario, bfu, Schweiz
Hendrix, Martina, Projektmitarbeiter, CIECA, Niederlande
Hubacher, Markus, bfu, Schweiz
Katila, Ari, MA, Psychologe, Universität Turku, Finland
Laapotti, Sirkku, MA, Psychologin, Universität Turku, Finland
Nyberg, Anders, VTI, Schweden
Peräaho, Marttti, MA, Psychologe, Universität Turku, Finland
Salo, Inkeri, MA, Psychologin, Universität Turku, Finland
Wedge, Trevor, DSA, GB

Projektbetreuer der Europäischen Kommission

Ruyters, Herald, Jurist DRs, Europäische Kommission, DG TREN, Brüssel,

Belgien

Janssen, Frederick, Europäische Kommission, DG TREN, Brüssel, Belgien

Das Projekt wurde von der Europäischen Kommission, DG TREN, gefördert.

Projektkoordinator: Universität Turku, Finnland

 13

4 Summary and recommendations of the BASIC project

Goals and study questions: The BASIC project was launched by the
European Commission in order to examine recent developments in basic
education for category B drivers. Basic education in this case refers to driver
education aimed at obtaining a driving license.
The specific aims of the project were:
1) To review the new models in use and under development in Europe.
2) To analyse and evaluate the new models (aims, contents, methods)
concerning: support for learning and pedagogical and didactic solutions,
functionality and internal consistency, costs and benefits and cultural and
structural demands for the application of new methods.
3) To evaluate the effectiveness of models (possible safety and other effects)
and possible restrictions of use, (e.g. effects of self-selection)
4) To make recommendations concerning new models in driver training in
Europe.

In describing the models essential features of the systems were used (driving school
instruction, layman instruction, short training period, extended learning period,
combined models, multi-phase models and liberal models). The project also
described the essential elements of training that may have learning effects. These
elements were quantity of training/practice, duration of training, goals and contents
of training, interpretation and targeting of the goals, degree of structure and control
of training, amount and quality of feedback, training environment (how well the
environment is supporting training), climate of training/teaching (does it encourage
attitudinal change), training methods (practical, theoretical) and the relationship
between practical and theoretical instruction.

Also, the different criteria for the effectiveness of driver training models was
described and discussed (learners’ satisfaction, immediate learning effects like
passing rates and quality of mistakes in examination, attitudes of new drivers and
their driving behaviour: violations and different kind of accidents). The timing of the
accident is also an important cue for evaluating the effectiveness of the system
(during training, in intermediate phase, after licensing).

Traditional and new driver education systems were described and evaluated in
Germany, Great Britain, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Finland,
Sweden, France and Austria. Evaluation studies made especially for the BASIC
project included evaluations concerning the Austrian "L17" –model (Central Licence
File data and a questionnaire survey), accidents while learning to drive in UK and in
Finland (questionnaire surveys) and a questionnaire study on the accidents at the
beginning of a driver's career in Finland.
.
The recommendations of the BASIC-project concerning driver education in Europe
are based on both empirical results and theoretical considerations.

On the basis of the project material the ideal driver education system can be
described as follows.

The ideal education system offers:

-clear goals and contents for training,
-enough feedback to improve behaviour and to learn,
 14

-theoretical and practical training supporting each other,

-a possibility to gain enough experience,
-a valid environment to practice the necessary skills,
-a learning period long enough to commit the skills and knowledge
learned to memory, and a learning climate favourable for safety.

Recommendations of the BASIC project:

1. All the available training measures for achieving goals should be used.
There is no single measure, which could be effective enough.
2. An Integrated Driver Education Approach (IDEA) is recommended, where
structured professional methods are combined with accompanied
practice.
3. Training should start in a structured way from the two lowest levels of the
driving hierarchy and then continue to allow drivers to learn these skills
automatically in traffic with an accompanying person.
4. An integrated approach is especially important for the youngest learner
drivers before allowing them independent access to traffic.
5. In an integrated education approach the demands for professional
instructors increase and thus, training of traffic instructors should be
improved.
6. Accompanied driving should include not only a minimum amount of driving
but also a structure and methods to control it.
7. The content of the driver examination depends partly on where it is
situated in the integrated approach.
8. The interventions of professionals after the accompanied driving phase
should clearly support more risk awareness and self-evaluation, rather
than being technically oriented.
9. To be effective in increasing safety the whole process of the integrated
driver education approach does not necessarily have to exceed two years,
for example.
10. Professional driver education should be always available as an alternative
to persons who do not have the possibility to follow the integrated
approach.
11. If unnecessary examinations, meaning very low passing rates, were to be
reduced, giving more structure to the training would be an effective
alternative.
 15

5 Résumé et recommandations du projet BASIC

Les objectifs et la mission du projet: la Commission européenne a lancé le

projet BASIC afin d’examiner les développements récents relatifs à la
formation initiale des conducteurs de catégorie B. La formation initiale porte
dans ce cas sur l’éducation du conducteur qui est nécessaire pour obtenir un
permis de conduire.

Les buts spécifiques du projet sont les suivants :

1) Récolter des informations sur les nouveaux modèles actuellement en

cours ou sous développement en Europe.
2) Analyser et évaluer les nouveaux modèles (les objectifs, le contenu et les
méthodes) par rapport à l’encadrement du conducteur dans le processus
d’apprentissage et aux solutions pédagogiques et didactiques, le
fonctionnement et la cohérence interne, les avantages et les inconvénients,
ainsi que les limitations culturelles et structurelles pour la mise en œuvre de
ces nouvelles méthodes.
3) Evaluer l’efficacité des modèles (des effets de sécurité et d’autres effets)
et les limitations possibles d’utilisation (par exemple, les effets d’auto-
sélection).
4) Faire des recommandations sur les nouveaux modèles pour la formation
du conducteur en Europe.

Afin de décrire les modèles, les traits essentiels de chaque système ont été
utilisés, tels que la formation professionnelle, la formation d’un profane, une
période de formation courte où étendue, les modèles conjugués, les modèles
à phase multiples et les modèles libéraux. Le rapport décrit également les
éléments de la formation qui pourraient avoir un effet d’apprentissage sur le
conducteur. Ceux derniers comprennent la qualité de la formation et de la
pratique, la durée de la formation, les objectifs et le contenu de la formation,
l’interprétation et la mise en œuvre de ces objectifs, le niveau de structure et
de contrôle de la formation, la quantité et la qualité du feed-back,
l’environnement de la formation (comment l’environnement soutient la
formation), l’ambiance de la formation et de l’instruction (si elle encourage un
changement d’attitudes), les méthodes de formation (pratiques, théoriques)
et les relations entre l’instruction pratique et théorique.

D’ailleurs, les critères différents pour l’efficacité des modèles de formation du

conducteur ont été décrits et discutés (le niveau de satisfaction des
conducteurs débutants, les effets d’apprentissage immédiats tels que le taux
de réussite à l’examen, les attitudes des conducteurs novices et leur
comportement au niveau de leur conduite : les infractions et leurs accidents).
Le timing de l’accident est également un facteur important pour évaluer
l’efficacité du système (si l‘accident s’est produit pendant la formation, dans
la phase intermédiaire, ou après le permis de conduire).
 16

Les systèmes d’éducation traditionnels et nouveaux ont été décrits et évalués

en Allemagne, la Grande Bretagne, la Suisse, les Pays-Bas, le Danemark, la
Norvège, la Finlande, la Suède, la France et l’Autriche. Les études
d’évaluation ont également été effectuées dans le cadre de ce projet pour
l’Autriche (le modèle L17 : un sondage par questionnaire et les données de la
base de données centrale sur le permis de conduire), la Finlande et la
Grande Bretagne (les accidents pendant la formation : sondage par
questionnaire) et en Finlande sur les accidents au début de la carrière du
conducteur.

Les recommandations du projet BASIC tiennent compte des résultats empiriques et

des connaissances théoriques. Sur cette base, le système idéal d’éducation peut
être décrit de manière suivante.

Le système idéal d’éducation offre:

- des objectifs clairs et un contenu de formation structuré
-suffisamment de feed-back pour améliorer le comportement et pour
apprendre
- une formation théorique et pratique interdépendante
- la possibilité d’accroître l’expérience sur la route,
- un environnement adapté pour tester les capacités nécessaires
- une période d’apprentissage assez longue pour acquérir les capacités et
connaissances, et un climat d’apprentissage favorable à la sécurité
 17

Les recommandations du projet BASIC:

1. Toutes les mesures de formation disponibles pour atteindre les

objectifs doivent être utilisées. Aucune mesure unique n’est
suffisamment efficace à elle seule.
2. L’approche de l’éducation du conducteur intégrée (Integrated Driver
Education Approach = IDEA) est recommandé, où tant les méthodes
professionnelles structurées que la conduite accompagnée d’un
profane sont utilisées.
3. La formation devrait commencer de manière structurée à partir des
deux niveaux inférieurs de l’hiérarchie du conducteur. Ensuite elle
devrait permettre aux conducteurs d’automatiser ces compétences
dans la circulation avec un profane.
4. Une approche intégrée est particulièrement importante pour les jeunes
conducteurs débutants avant qu’ils conduisent seuls
5. Dans le cadre de l’approche d’éducation intégrée, les exigences
relatives aux instructeurs professionnels augmentent. Donc, la
formation des instructeurs doit s’améliorer.
6. La conduite accompagnée devrait non seulement comporter un
volume de conduite minimum mais aussi une structure et des
méthodes pour la contrôler.
7. Le contenu de l’examen de conduite dépend en partie où il se situe
dans l’approche intégrée.
8. Durant la période après la phase de conduite accompagnée
(deuxième ou multi-phases), les professionnels devraient encourager
la prise de conscience des risques et l’auto évaluation des
conducteurs plutôt que chercher à améliorer leurs capacités
techniques.
9. Pour améliorer la sécurité routière il ne faut pas que l’approche de
l’éducation du conducteur intégrée prenne 2 ans, par exemple.
10. La formation professionnelle du conducteur devrait toujours exister
pour ceux qui n’ont pas la possibilité de suivre l’approche intégrée.
11. Si l’on souhaite réduire le nombre d’examens inutiles, qui mène à un
taux de réussite très bas, il importe de mieux structurer la formation
 18

6 EU-Projekt BASIC: Ergebniszusammenfassung und

Empfehlungen

Das Projekt BASIC wurde von der Europäischen Kommission in Auftrag

gegeben, um neue Entwicklungen in der Pkw-Führerscheinausbildung
(Fahrerlaubnisklasse B) in Europa aufzugreifen und zu verfolgen.

Das Projekt war auf folgende Ziele ausgerichtet:

1. Die Betrachtung und Analyse neu eingeführter oder geplanter Modelle der
Fahrausbildung in Europa.

2. Die Analyse und Bewertung von Zielen, Inhalten und Methoden dieser
Modelle. Dabei kamen unterschiedliche Bewertungsgesichtspunkte zum
Tragen: die Unterstützung des Lernprozesses, die Auswahl
pädagogischer und didaktischer Ansätze, die Funktionalität und interne
Konsistenz der Modelle, das Kosten-Nutzenverhältnis sowie die
Anwendung innovativer Methoden, die unter kulturellen und strukturellen
Gesichtspunkten gefordert werden.

3. Die Bewertung der Modelle hinsichtlich ihrer Auswirkungen auf die

Verkehrssicherheit sowie auf andere Aspekte. Mögliche
Nutzungseinschränkungen, z.B. durch freiwillige Zugangsmöglichkeiten,
wurden dabei berücksichtigt.

4. Die Formulierung von Empfehlungen zu neuen Modellen und Ansätzen

der Fahrausbildung in Europa.

Im Ergebnisbericht werden die Modelle und Ansätze in ihren

charakteristischen Bestandteilen und Eigenschaften beschrieben. Zu nennen
sind die Fahrschulausbildung, die Laienausbildung, das Begleitete Fahren,
die Dauer der Ausbildungs- und Lernphase (Kurz- und Langform), die
Kombination von Elementen, der mehrphasige Aufbau von Modellen und die
liberale Modellgestaltung. Darüber hinaus werden wesentliche
Ausbildungsbestandteile unter dem Aspekt ihrer Lernwirksamkeit
beschrieben. Hier sind zu nennen: Umfang und Dauer von Ausbildung und
Übungspraxis, Ausbildungsziele und -inhalte, Methoden im praktischen und
theoretischen Unterricht und das Verhältnis dieser beiden Bereiche
zueinander, lernzielorientiertes Vorgehen, Strukturiertheit der Ausbildung
und Kontrolle ihrer Durchführung, Umfang und Art der pädagogischen
Rückmeldung, Unterstützung durch einen geeigneten Ausbildungskontext
sowie Förderung von Einstellungsänderungen durch ein geeignetes
Lernklima.

Der Projektbericht geht auch auf die Kriterien zur Einschätzung der
Wirksamkeit der Ausbildungsmodelle ein. Als direkte Kriterien wurden die
Ausbildungszufriedenheit, die Bestehensrate in der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung und
die Art der Falschantworten in der theoretischen Prüfung betrachtet, als
 19

indirekte Kriterien Art und Umfang der Verkehrsverstöße und der

Unfallbeteiligung am Anfang der Fahrkarriere. Auch der Zeitpunkt der
Unfallverwicklung - während der Ausbildung, in einer Zwischenphase oder
nach dem Erwerb der Fahrerlaubnis - ist als ein wichtiger Gesichtspunkt bei
der Untersuchung der Wirksamkeit der Ausbildung zu nennen.

Im Projektbericht werden herkömmliche und neue Fahrausbildungssysteme

aus Deutschland, Großbritannien, der Schweiz, den Niederlanden,
Dänemark, Norwegen, Finnland, Schweden, Frankreich und Österreich unter
Berücksichtigung vorliegender Evaluationsergebnisse beschrieben. Im
Rahmen des Projekts wurden eigene Evaluationen durchgeführt: zum
Fahrausbildungsmodell "L17" (Österreich), zum Unfallgeschehen während
der Fahrausbildung (Großbritannien, Finnland) und zum Unfallgeschehen am
Anfang der Fahrkarriere (Finnland). Die Evaluationen wurden auf Grundlage
von Befragungsdaten durchgeführt. Bei der österreichischen L17-Ausbildung
konnten zusätzlich Daten zu Verkehrsverstößen und Unfällen aus dem
österreichischen Zentralen Fahrerlaubnisregister herangezogen werden.

Die BASIC-Empfehlungen zur Fahrausbildung in Europa beruhen sowohl auf

empirischen Befunden wie auf theoretischen Analysen.

Ausgehend von dem im Projekt berücksichtigten Material kann eine

idealtypische Fahrausbildung wie folgt beschrieben werden:

Sie bietet:

- klare Ausbildungsziele und -inhalte,

- ein ausreichendes Maß an Rückmeldungen an den Lernenden, um das

Fahrverhalten und das Lernen zu verbessern,

- sinnvoll aufeinander bezogene theoretische und praktische

Ausbildungsbestandteile,

- die Möglichkeit zu einer ausreichenden fahrpraktischen

Erfahrungsbildung,

- eine valides Übungsfeld zu Einübung der notwendigen Fahrfertigkeiten,

- eine ausreichend lange Ausbildungs- und Lernphase zur Festigung der

Fertigkeiten und des Wissens und

- ein förderliches Lernklima für die Verkehrssicherheit.

Empfehlungen

1. Zur Erreichung der Fahrausbildungsziele sollten alle verfügbaren Lehr-

und Lernmethoden eingesetzt werden. Als Einzelmaßnahme erreichen
die Systemelemente keine ausreichende Wirksamkeit.
 20

2. Es wird ein Integrierter Fahrausbildungsansatz (Integrated Driver

Education Approach - IDEA -) empfohlen, in dem strukturierte
professionelle Ausbildungsmethoden mit Begleitetem Fahren
kombiniert werden.

3. Die Fahrausbildung sollte auf der Ebene einfacher Fertigkeiten

(Fahrzeugbedienung, Bewältigung von Verkehrssituationen - vgl. die
unteren beiden Ebenen der GADGET-Matrix) in strukturierter Form
ansetzen und anschließend eine Einübung mit einer Begleitperson im
realen Verkehr vorsehen, und zwar bis zur Entwicklung einer
ausreichenden Fahrroutine.

4. Das Durchlaufen des Integrierte Fahrausbildungsansatzes vor dem

Zugang zu einer selbständigen motorisierten Verkehrsteilnahme ist
insbesondere für die jüngsten Fahranfänger wichtig.

5. Der Integrierte Fahrausbildungsansatz stellt höhere Anforderungen an

die professionelle Ausbildungstätigkeit der Fahrlehrer. Dies ist in der
Qualifizierung der Fahrlehrer zu berücksichtigen.

6. Für das Begleitete Fahren sollte nicht nur ein

Mindestfahrleistungsumfang sondern auch Strukturen und Methoden
vorgesehen werden, die eine Überprüfung der Übungspraxis erlauben.

7. Der Inhalt der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung bestimmt sich auch danach, an

welcher Stelle die Fahrerlaubnisprüfung in einem Ansatz der
Integrierten Fahrausbildung angesiedelt ist.

8. Anstatt fahrtechnische Fertigkeiten zu vermitteln sollten professionelle

Interventionen nach dem Begleiteten Fahren eindeutig darauf
ausgerichtet sein, die Gefahrenwahrnehmung zu schärfen und die
Fähigkeiten zur Selbsteinschätzung zu verbessern.

9. Um Effekte zugunsten einer erhöhten Fahranfängersicherheit zu

produzieren, benötigt eine Integrierte Fahrausbildung nicht
notwendigerweise einen Zeitraum von zwei Jahren.

10. Professionelle Fahrausbildung sollte stets als eine Alternative für

Personen zugänglich sein, die keine Möglichkeit zu einer Integrierten
Fahrausbildung haben.

11. Dem Problem einer zu hohen Quote von Wiederholungsprüfungen

beim Fahrerlaubniserwerb sollte durch eine stärkere Strukturierung der
Fahrausbildung begegnet werden.
 21

7 Goals of the BASIC project

The BASIC project was launched by the European Commission to take a look
at recent developments in basic education for category B drivers. Already at
the beginning of the project it became clear that existing systems are the
result of a long tradition in each country. Decision-making has been affected
by a range of conditions and even single "one idea"-persons. Discussion is
typically based on costs, variability, safety or availability of training. However,
scientific evaluation is only rarely involved. This also seems to be the case as
far as recent developments are concerned. This project report evaluated the
decision-making processes behind different new solutions in driver education.
What was also seen in the starting phase was that basic driver education and
suggestions for renewals are continuously under discussion in several
countries.

Driver training has an interesting history in Europe. It started from the self-
evident needs of new car owners who had to receive some instruction to use
their vehicle, but it took a long time before training became a society-
regulated activity which was seen to have possibilities in the safety area too.
Not even the driving licence was self-evident in the beginning.

It is interesting how different systems concerning driver training have been

developed in different European countries. The main difference is that some
countries have reserved training for professionals only. Only driving school
instructors are allowed to teach driving. Some countries have a liberal
legislation allowing lay instruction without any demands for special education
for driving school teachers. Some countries allow both lay training and
professional training. Also, the demands and criteria concerning the driving
school curriculum vary considerably from one country to another (Neumann-
Opitz and Heirich, 1995).

One of the basic problems in driver training has been that no clear safety
effects of formal, professional training have been found when compared to
lay instruction. This has, in a way, given a free hand to decision-makers to
choose a system using criteria other than safety.

The BASIC project aims to evaluate “new” basic driver training models
(category B) and to support the development towards improving safety for
novice drivers by making recommendations concerning basic training models.
The project goals are divided into the following subcategories:

1. To review the models in use and under development

- The review is carried out according to the classification of the
systems presented in chapter 2
2. To analyse and evaluate the new models (aims, contents, methods)
concerning
- Support for learning and pedagogical and didactic solutions,
- Functionality, internal consistency
- Costs and benefits, who pays and who benefits
 22

- Cultural and structural demands of the application of new

methods
3. To evaluate the effectiveness of models (possible safety and other
effects) and possible restrictions of use, e.g. effects of self selection
4. To make recommendations concerning new models in driver
training in Europe
- Recommendations are based on both empirical results and
theoretical considerations. How theory works in practice is also
discussed.

7.1 New models in basic training

After a long, quiet period with only a few changes in basic driver training in
Europe, (except in Norway where a two-phase driver training was launched),
a new interest in driver training arose at the beginning of the nineties. Norway
began its new two-phase curriculum in 1979. Finland adopted its two-phase
system at the beginning of 1990 after two decades of planning and debate.
The partly negative results in Norway (Glad 1988) were already published at
the time and Finland learned from these. The Finnish results were more
promising than in Norway. Later, Luxembourg also introduced a two-phase
model but, in the beginning, the ideology of the second phase in Luxembourg
was somewhat different from the Finnish one.

France introduced a new training model (conduite accompagnée or AAC) in

1986 on a trial basis and in 1988 across the whole country. In this model lay
instruction for learners from 16 years of age was included as a part of the
training to ensure that learners gain enough experience before the licensing
age of 18. The results of first unpublished (at least unpublished in
international journals) evaluation studies were promising but after that the
evaluation results were less promising.

After the initial results from France a large enthusiasm arose concerning the
French model. Sweden was the next country to lower the age limit for lay
instruction to 16 years old. Sweden also made one of the best evaluations
ever done in the area of driver training. After two years’ evaluation after
licensing, the results, which are convincing, showed a reduction in accident
risk (Gregersen et al., 2000).

An example of the new approaches is the Dutch experimental new driver

education model (rijdopleiding in stappen= driver training stepwise). It
represents an attempt to provide more structure to a very liberal training
system. Another trend is the implementation of an extended learning period.
Austria has given permission to 16-year-old learners to practise driving
(Vorgezogene lenkberichtigung). At the same time, Austria also lowered the
age limit for learning to drive to 17 years. This is part of a new trend of
decision-making concerning the licensing age. Earlier Great Britain as well as
Iceland, Ireland, Poland and Hungary decided to give the full driving licence
to youngsters of 17 years of age. All other countries have set the minimum
age at 18. Some countries, however, only give a probationary licence for the
first few years.
 23

As driver education has been looking in new directions for some time, it was
a good opportunity to collect the findings and evaluate some new models as
well as to evaluate some future models. This work is done to draw
conclusions for decision-makers and to provide ideas for models and for
curriculum developers to be applied in their work.

At the moment, important work has already been done in this area. Lynam
and Twisk (1995) described and evaluated, on the system level, driver
training models in Europe concentrating on Great Britain, Germany and
France. However, they did not concern themselves with the contents and
pedagogical solutions in different models. Neumann-Opitz and Heinrich
(1995) made an extensive description of driver training and testing in Europe.
However, the study is more like a dictionary, but at the time it presented a
good overview of the wide variety of training and testing models. In the
GADGET-project WP 3: Driver Training, Testing and Licensing (Siegrist,
1999), the aim was - besides the empirical evidence - to use theoretical
evidence to evaluate the possibilities for training and testing in safety work.
Those evaluations provide a valuable backdrop for the present study.

The GADGET study was especially important, because it was the first such
kind of theoretical attempt in the history of driver training. In the DAN-project
(Description and Analysis of Post Licensing measures for Novice Drivers,
Bartl, 2000) the aim was to describe and evaluate post-licensing methods
used in Europe. The DAN project provided important experience concerning
methods. In this context, the ANDREA project on the rehabilitation of drivers
with drinking and driving problems is also relevant (ANDREA-report, Bartl et
al., 2002). Furthermore, a project on driver improvement - other than alcohol
related drivers improvement - was concluded (ADVANCED, Sanders et al.
2002). In Sweden there has been made an extensive evaluation of the new
Swedish driver education system. CIECA has collected data on curricula in
Europe and this database is available on CD-ROM (CIECA, 2001).

The systems that were already in use at the beginning of the project were in
France (conduite accompagnée), in Austria (Vorgezogene lenkberichtigung
L17), in the Netherlands (rijdopleiding in stappen RIS or Driver Training
Stepwise), and in Sweden and Norway (a prolonged 2-year practising
period). Obligatory two-phase systems were found in Finland and
Luxembourg. From the beginning of 2003 Austria began a multiphase
system. Unfortunately, the Austrian multiphase system is so recent that it is
impossible to get evaluation results at this stage. In Switzerland there is a
plan for the introduction of a two-phase model and in Germany there has
been an ongoing debate concerning two-phase driver training for some years
now. Following a recent decision made in Germany it is now possible to start
a new model combining professional education and supervised practising in
traffic. A discussion is also going on in Sweden about a new stage-wise driver
education system, but it has not yet been introduced.
 24

8 How to classify the essential features of the systems

As presented above, the earlier work on describing the driver training
systems around Europe has concentrated on structure and practical aspects
such as the duration of training, the distribution of theoretical and practical
training, licensing requirements, etc. (GADGET-report, 1999; Lynam and
Twisk, 1995; TRAINER-project, 2001). The focus of the present study was to
look at qualitative (psycho-socio-pedagogical) features of the systems and
their essential components.

8.1 Driving school instruction

A typical system in Europe requires compulsory professional driver education

in driving schools for all applicants of a category B license. The basic idea is
that (only) professional instructors effectively deliver the knowledge and skills
needed in driving a car and in getting a driver's license. Theoretical and
practical instruction are separate and both are provided by professional
instructors. The professional instructor is expected to master the task and to
be able to transfer this mastery to the learner who is the receiver of the
message. This is the traditional idea of formal training familiar to all of us. A
problem may arise from the fact that there seems to be large variation in
pedagogical training of driving school instructors, but the expectation is still
as presented above.

The use of professional training is often associated with rather short learning
periods (varying from one week to several months). In countries where a
driving school is the only option, education is typically arranged according to
a curriculum and is controlled by the authorities.

Local traditions and conditions such as traffic density influence the methods
used in driver training in driving schools. One original approach is applied in
Japan where the basic training of vehicle-manoeuvring skills and the mastery
of elementary traffic situations are trained in realistic traffic parks and only the
final part of training is conducted in real traffic. The candidates do not drive in
real traffic until the basic skills become automatic, at least under low-speed
conditions, in a traffic park.

8.2 Layman instruction

The underlying idea behind lay instruction is that driving is a skill, which can
be learned by practising by oneself. The role of the lay instructor is not
exactly that of a teacher but is directed to securing safety, tutoring and
perhaps giving feedback. The idea of "learning by doing" is prevalent and the
role of theoretical aspects in driving skill is secondary. This is reflected in the
fact that theoretical education is usually not strictly controlled. Successful
operation in traffic or teaching of it does not require elements that are
specifically mastered by trained professional driving instructors.

In this report both expressions “lay instruction” and “accompanied driving” are
used. There is no clear distinction between the two concepts, although lay
 25

instruction is referred to here when the emphasis is on training the learner

with basic driving skills. This is the case when a lay instructor is preparing the
learner for the driving test and the responsibility for learning lies with the lay
instructor. The role of the lay instructor is more like an accompanying person,
such as in the French AAC model. A professional instructor is teaching the
basics and a lay instructor is accompanying driving practise and ensuring
safety. This is also the case in the German system. In Sweden, Norway and
the UK, the role may vary during the process. In the beginning, the role may
be more like an instructor’s role, changing later to the role of accompanying
person.

Layman instruction does not exist as the sole option in any country in Europe.
However, lay instruction is widely accepted as a part of training or as an
alternative to training in driving school. Lay instruction is an essential part in
models that aim at extended learning periods (L17 in Austria, conduite
accompagnée in France and starting to drive at age 16 in Norway and
Sweden). The essential difference between training in driving schools and lay
instruction is the requirements of the instructor. No professional certificate is
required from a lay instructor, but other requirements may exist, such as age,
age of the license or family relationship between the student and instructor. In
some countries there is no defined accompanying driver or lay instructor and
in other countries the lay instructor has to be defined. Some countries also
allow several lay instructors and in others the number is limited to one
instructor. Lay instruction is not as strictly controlled as professional
instruction. Even when a curriculum exists, it is not followed in detail.
Logbooks may be used.

8.3 Short training period

The length of the training period is an essential element in any discussion

about driver training. Acceptance of a short training period is based on the
idea that driving in traffic requires some basic skills and knowledge provided
by training and that the rest ( i.e. becoming an expert) is learned while driving
in traffic on one's own. The driver's license is considered as a permit to
practise independently. It is assumed that driving is based on knowledge
about what should be done and how it can be done. When this is known, the
novice driver will try to follow these guidelines in his/her driving behaviour.

The length of the training period is also associated with the training system.
Largely as a result of the cost, professional training is usually shorter in
length than lay instruction where economical limits are not as strong an
obstacle. In general, professional instruction is rather short in duration. One
form of very short training periods is intensive courses of one or two weeks
preparation for the driving license. A short period is an advantage when
availability of the license is important. However, learning results are likely to
be questionable with very short training periods. If experience is considered
as the main element in achieving good learning results, professional training
clearly has shortcomings, namely the number of kilometres driven is limited
typically to around 500 - 1000 kilometres. Also, the distribution of resources
over time (e.g. a longer period versus a compact learning period) will most
likely affect the learning outcome.
 26

8.4 Extended learning period

The pedagogical idea underlying the extended learning period is that driving
is a task that requires both technical and motivational skills. This is why the
beginning of a novice driver's career should take place in the form of a
prolonged and protected learning period. In addition to control of the vehicle
and mastery of traffic situations, the driver should be familiarised with risks
caused by traffic and him/herself and be motivated to avoid these risks.

Extended learning periods have recently become more used in driver

licensing. Countries such as Sweden, Norway, France and Austria have
offered a possibility to start driver training as early as age 16. The idea
behind extended learning periods is to increase the experience of the drivers
before they receive a license. In addition to increasing the driving experience
itself, the learner may slowly grow to become a driver. This may also have
motivational effects. Driving after licensing may no more be a new and
enthusiastic thing. Extended learning period has also elements of graduated
licensing systems, where driver is allowed to gather experience in a protected
setting. The extended systems vary in relation to degree of structure. French
and Austrian systems emphasise co-operation with driving schools. Swedish
and Norwegian systems leave the structure and contents of training to a large
extent to be decided by the candidate and lay instructor. Probational licensing
systems and multiphase systems also include the element of extension of
learning period.

8.5 Combined models

Some driver education models combine lay instruction with professional

instruction. Explicit combined models exist in France and Austria but there is
plans and experiments also in other countries e.g. Sweden. Professional
instruction follows a curriculum and aims at basic knowledge and skills for the
learner to be practised further with a lay instructor. Professional training is
extended with gaining practical experience in lay instruction. There may be
lessons in driving school also for lay instructor. The role of professional
instruction is to give formal information and to guide and structure training.
The German idea is that the candidate passes full-scale driver training in
driving school and after that he or she is allowed to drive accompanied until
the age of 18 and final licensing. Still, the idea behind German-style
accompanied driving is to gain more experience before licensing.

In practise, combined models exist also in other countries, where the system
is more liberal. E.g. in the UK and Sweden a vast majority of the candidates
do not rely only on lay instruction even though it is allowed. Candidates
typically use professional instruction services more or less. However, the
amount, timing and content of professional training are left open. In Finland
lay instruction is an option but it is not allowed to combine it with professional
instruction.
 27

8.6 Multi-phase models

With multi-phase models we refer to models where a compulsory further

training after preliminary licensing is required to get a permanent license. At
the moment two-phase models are in use in Finland and Luxembourg.
Austria has a multiphase system from the beginning of year 2003. Training
systems that include two or more phases are under discussion in several
countries and experiments are going on (NOVEV-project).

The idea behind multiphase models is twofold. First, learning period is

expected to be longer when the driver is supposed to have further training
after a period of independent practising in traffic. This time is expected to be
affected by "learner status" that is associated with preliminary license.
Second, higher goals for training are introduced in the second training period,
based on the idea that after getting some experience the novice driver is able
to follow more advanced training and to do more demanding exercises. The
personal experiences with problems at the beginning of a driver's career can
be used as a tool for training.

8.7 Liberal models

The idea behind the liberal approach to driver training is that there is actually
no reason to control training itself. The test is expected to be reliable and
valid enough to pass those candidates who are able to behave in an
appropriate way in traffic, and to fail those who do not meet the criteria.

According to this reasoning, the safety of novice drivers is expected to result

from selection and not from training. Liberal models are liberal with respect to
training but not in respect to knowledge and skills required for licensing. This
liberal system is descriptive of the Netherlands, Switzerland and UK. Belgium
has a slightly different approach. There are exact forms of training
possibilities but the candidate has the freedom of choice and it is possible to
mix the systems according to personal preferences. In liberal systems the
candidate has the freedom to choose his or her driving school or driving
instructor.
 28

9 Description of essential elements of training that may have

learning effects
The aim of this chapter is to describe on a conceptual level the mechanisms
behind learning effects. What are the elements that are expected to produce
learning and what kind of learning can be expected with a specific
pedagogical element?

9.1 Quantity of training/practice

The reduction of accident liability of novice drivers during the first years after
licensing is thought or interpreted to be a function of practice. It is known from
the learning of skills and development of expertise that even simple skills
need thousands or even millions of repetitions to become perfect.

Rapid reduction of accident liability of novice drivers after licensing has been
found in several studies (Maycock, Lockwood and Lester, 1991; Sagberg,
1997; 2000; Mayhew, Simpson and Pak, 2003). In their study Maycock et al.
emphasise the effect of experience in accident reduction, but also age has an
independent and similar effect. Rapid accident reduction with mileage after
licensing could be explained by a lack of sufficient experience before
licensing. If the mileage before licensing would be greater, the accident
reduction after licensing could start from a lower level.

Already the ancient Romans said that "repetitio est mater omnia studiorum"
(repetition is the mother of all learning). However, there has not been much
explicit analysis of the experience effect. It seems that the main hypothesis is
based on achieving automatism of necessary skills. Both vehicle handling
and mastery of traffic situations are expected to become automatic as
experience increases. Automatic performance is less error prone, is not
disturbed by intervening factors (such as fatigue or pressure) and requires
less attention and thus requires less information processing capacity than
non-automatic performance. Cognitive workload is reduced when automatism
takes place. Gregersen et al. (2000) reported a lower experienced workload
for drivers who had started practising at age 16 when compared to other
drivers with less practice.

Reason et al. (1990) have made a distinction between drivers' errors,

violations and slips and lapses. Rimmö and Åberg (1997) have named these
errors as inexperience factors. Errors and violations are associated with
accidents. Errors are involuntary mistakes of drivers whereas violations are
more intentional breaking of rules. The effects of increased experience or
training on accidents can be assumed to reduce accidents associated to
errors but not to the same extent accidents due to intentional violations.

The quantity of training refers explicitly to the amount of training but does not
tell us anything about its contents. As a pedagogical element, quantity of
training remains rather obscure if it is not connected to a definition of the
quality or contents of training. There is always quality in quantity, but it is not
possible to know if the quality is high in those aspects that are targeted or
 29

striven for. Quality and quantity are in this respect not necessarily associated
with each other. Nevertheless, an increase in the quantity of training is
presented as one method for improving the skills of novice drivers. In general,
quantity allows for the necessary repetition of basic skills and may also offer
more possibilities to cover the necessary contents of training.

9.2 Duration of training

The duration of training can be associated with quantity but it may simply
mean that a long time is used. For example, training may be distributed over
a long time but not be intensive (Sagberg, 2000). However, duration also has
some independent properties. One relevant assumption is that better learning
results can be achieved by distributing the available teaching resources over
a longer time period. The principle of spaced training versus massed training
has been studied widely in pedagogy. The results show generally better
learning results with spaced practise (Dempster and Farris, 1990). Better
results are also reached in the area of learning motor skills (Shea et al.,
2000). Distributing exercises over a period of time enables better processing
of experiences. Other mechanisms may be better targeting attention and
development of memory traces. Another advantage of spaced practise is the
possibility to combine different pedagogical methods. The learner may, for
example, be given independent learning tasks between training sessions.

There are several ways to increase the duration of training: to start training
early (16) and to get a license when 18 or starting later, but continuing later
by use of second phase or multiphase systems that make use of probational
or provisional license after licensing.

9.3 Goals and contents of training

Training resources set limits to training but the contents of training is equally
as essential i.e. the question of what is being trained. The latest analysis of
coverage of the learning goals of driver training is presented in the GADGET-
matrix or later Goals of Driver Education GDE-framework (Hatakka,
Keskinen, Gregersen, Glad and Hernetkoski, 2002). The idea in the GDE-
framework is to cover the driver's task as a whole including relevant aspects
ranging from basic vehicle handling to general life skills (e.g. personal
motives or impulse control). The drivers' task is described as a functional
hierarchy (Keskinen, 1996), where higher levels give the meaning to the
lower levels and guide the decisions that the drivers make in traffic situations.
The four levels described in the hierarchy, from the bottom up, are vehicle
manoeuvring, mastery of traffic situations, goals and context of driving and
goals for life and skills for living. These hierarchical levels are cross-tabulated
with columns including basic knowledge and skills, risk-increasing factors and
self-evaluative skills. Cross-tabulation results in a framework with 12 fields
that can be filled with specific contents or training methods (Table 1). The
GDE-framework is more thoroughly described in the report by Peräaho,
Keskinen and Hatakka (2003).

Table1. Structure of goals in driver training (Hatakka et al., 1999)

 30

Hierarchical Essential contents

level of (examples)
behaviour
Knowledge and skills Risk-increasing
factors Self evaluation

Goals for life Knowledge about/control Risky tendencies Self-evaluation/ awareness of

over how life-goals and
and skills for personal tendencies affect „ acceptance of risks „ personal skills for impulse
living driving behaviour „ self-enhancement control
through driving „ risky tendencies
(general) „ lifestyle / life situation „ high level of „ safety-negative motives
„ group norms sensation seeking „ personal risky habits
„ motives „ complying to social
„ self-control, other pressure
characteristics „ use of alcohol and
„ personal values drugs
„ values, attitudes
towards society
etc. etc. etc.

Goals and Knowledge and skills Risks connected with: Self-evaluation / awareness of
concerning
context of driving „ driver’s condition „ personal planning skills
„ effects of trip goals on (mood, BAC etc.) „ typical goals of driving
(trip related) driving „ purpose of driving „ typical risky driving
„ planning and choosing „ driving environment motives
routes (rural/urban)
„ evaluation of requested „ social context and
driving time company
„ effects of social pressure „ extra motives
in car (competing etc.)
„ evaluation of necessity of
trip
etc. etc. etc.

Mastery of traffic Knowledge and skills Risks caused by Self-evaluation / awareness of

situations concerning
„ traffic rules
„ observation/selection of
signals
„ anticipation of course of
situations
„ speed adjustment
„ communication
„ driving path
„ driving order
„ distance to others /
safety margins
etc.
„ wrong expectations „ strong and weak points of
„ risk-increasing basic traffic skills
driving style (e.g. „ personal driving style
aggressive) „ personal safety margins
„ unsuitable speed „ strong and weak points
adjustment for hazard situations
„ vulnerable road- „ realistic self-evaluation
users
„ not obeying rules /
unpredictable
behaviour
„ information overload
„ difficult conditions
(darkness etc.)
„ insufficient
automatism/skills
etc. etc.

Vehicle Knowledge and skills Risks connected with Awareness of weak

concerning
manoeuvring
„ control of direction and
position
„ tyre grip and friction
„ vehicle properties
„ physical phenomena
etc.
„ insufficient „ strong and weak points of
automatism/skills basic manoeuvring skills
„ unsuitable speed „ strong and weak points of
adjustment skills for hazard situations
„ difficult conditions „ realistic self-evaluation
(low friction etc.)
etc. etc.
 31

In the GADGET and DAN projects a conclusion was made that traditional
driver training is mostly limited to focusing on basic skills and knowledge on
vehicle manoeuvring and mastery of traffic situations, and some attention is
given to risk-increasing factors on these levels of the hierarchy. Fewer in
number and less frequently used are training goals and training methods
aimed at aspects associated with goals and contents of driving, and general
personal and motivational aspects related to driving. In addition, goals and
methods for the enhancement of self-evaluative skills are uncommon. There
are, however, explicit goals and methods in driver improvement programs
associated with the two highest levels in the hierarchy (DAN; ANDREA). It
can be concluded that there could be some methods used in driver
improvement that could be applicable to basic driver education.

A large body of research covers evaluation of the effects of formal driver

education in US. The general result is that there is no evidence regarding the
superiority of formal training when compared to other forms of learning. This
result has been repeatedly misinterpreted to highlight the overall fallibility of
formal training. However, it merely shows that formal training in the US,
typically consisting of 30 hrs of classroom teaching and 6 hrs of driving on the
road, does not provide better results.

The criticism of formal training in the US is based on the ideas that in formal
traffic education specific crash-reducing skills are not taught. Not enough
attention is paid to the importance of motivation in applying new skills or the
overconfidence that may result from skills acquisition. Furthermore, lifestyle
factors related to risky driving and the development process are not
addressed. Overall, young drivers are treated as a homogeneous group
rather than as individuals (NTHSA Status Report, 1997). The American
experiences suggest the need for development of the contents of driver
education.

The problem of goals and contents of driver education is the question about
the validity of activities. This validity question can be phrased as follows: do
educational systems provide novice drivers with the skills and knowledge
which they need in the real world to cope with problems?

9.4 Interpretation and targeting of goals

If there are goals for driver education the question is how these goals are
conveyed to instructors and learners and how detailed these goals are.
Professional driver education is typically guided by explicit curricula or at
least by some kind of list of the skills and knowledge which the learner has to
learn and master to pass the driving test. There is variation in how detailed
these guidelines are and what aspects are included and emphasised. The
description of goals forms a kind of dimension from very general ("The driver
has to be able to use the car in traffic safely") to very specific ("The driver
also has to make observations by turning his/her head when turning right
across a bicycle path"). It is considerably more difficult to develop concrete
training methods from general goals than from more targeted goals. Also,
very detailed learning goals may lead to difficulties. The goals set in
curriculum should constitute a basis for the development of training methods.
 32

The interpretation of training goals determines to a large extent practice in the

field. These goals also form the basis for controlling training contents and
practises.

9.5 Degree of structure and control of training

Goals and their interpretation provide the basis for what is actually taught.
However, a third factor closely related to these is the control/auditing of
teaching practises. Control may be based either on the results of training
(driver testing) or on the process itself. Pass-rates in the driving test seem to
vary a lot in European countries (Neumann-Opitz and Heinrich, 1995). Pass-
rates tend to be low where training systems are rather free of structure and
control is mainly based on testing. This is a reflection of the variation in
instruction itself. The idea underlying the test-based control of training is that
the passed candidates finally master the skills and knowledge needed.

The question of structure and control of education is a question of both

validity and reliability. Reliability in this case refers to the maintenance of
even quality. Another question is whether the correct things are learned. If the
quality of training varies (low reliability) validity also suffers. To achieve a high
level of validity in training, a high reliability is needed. When training itself is
not controlled, strong demands on testing arise. One especially problematic
aspect is training contents that are difficult to assess in driver testing, such as
drivers' attitudes and motives, as well as driving style factors. Driver testing
typically aims at measuring maximal performance (i.e. what the driver is able
to do) and not typical performance (what the driver will do).

Another problem is the development of the system. When the level of control
and structure of training process is low, it is difficult to introduce new learning
goals and training methods. In the case the only option is to make changes in
the test. Furthermore, learning is difficult in a situation where learning goals
are not explained.

Control of the training process directly or via testing is not a sufficient

prerequisite for success. It has to be considered what is controlled. An
example could be taken from Finland. Some years ago there was more active
control of driving school activities than nowadays. However, control of training
was concentrated, for example, on length of the lessons, whether the
contents of training followed the curriculum in detail or whether the classroom
was large enough by square and cubic meters per student. Features of
instruction, such as climate and pedagogical methods, were secondary.

Quality assurance and certification of training methods is a relevant question

in this respect. Evers (DAN-report) has presented a relevant paper on quality
assurance in the field of further training of drivers. Successful quality
assurance is based on documentation of the goals of measure and quality
monitoring i.e. checking that there are no deviations from the goals. Quality
monitoring should result in feedback and correction of deviations. It should be
noted that investment in quality assurance does not improve the training
goals and methods, and the final goal of safe driving is dependent on these.
 33

9.6 Amount and quality of feedback

In addition to the goals of training, feedback is the most important aspect that
has an effect on the results of training. The key question is in which direction
feedback guides behaviour and how effective it is? The feedback given to the
learner points out the important aspects of driving. This feedback can
concentrate on the lower levels, manoeuvring and traffic situations, but it can
also focus on the higher levels of driving hierarchy. The feedback can also
refer to knowledge and skills, or risks or self-evaluations.

According to Finnish results (layman and professional instruction cannot be

combined in Finland) professionally trained candidates have considerably
higher passing rates in both the theoretical and practical parts of the driving
test (Katila and Keskinen, 2003). Also, in Sweden candidates take
professional driver training hours before going to the test in order to
guarantee their success. These results may indicate that learners evaluate
the feedback connected to the goal of passing the test (and thus, also about
goals of driver training) to be better and more effective and reliable in
professional instruction. In the new Dutch system (RIS or Driving Training
Stepwise), improved feedback for the candidates and instructors is given in
the form of an interim driving test by testing authorities.

Feedback may contain both explicit and implicit messages. When the
hierarchy of driver behaviour is considered, feedback can form an idea of
driving simply as a psychomotor task (feedback is concentrated on vehicle
manoeuvring and traffic situations) or manipulate the driver to see driving as
a wider task including, for example, one’s mental state and journey planning.
Questions and comments concerning these aspects give the driver an idea of
driving in a larger perspective.

Certain forms of training and pedagogical methods affect the quality and the
amount of feedback. Lecturing with a low level of interaction leaves the
learner rather alone with learning whereas small group discussions provide a
good environment for peer feedback. In addition, individual training in a car is
naturally very good for individual feedback.

Nevertheless, what is conveyed in feedback is a different issue altogether.

Katila, Keskinen and Hatakka (1996) showed that in track training the
message of avoiding dangerous situations is easily misinterpreted by the
learner. Learners receive the idea of mastering manoeuvres but do not get
the idea of avoiding risk. This process is probably conveyed in the form of
subtle hints during feedback, for instance when the instructor says "good"
and when he or she is giving negative feedback or only correcting the
manoeuvring. In in-car training, messages associated with speed selection,
observation of vulnerable road-users and observation of road-users that have
to yield, form the image of driving.

In general, there is not much knowledge of feedback given in driver training,

especially in layman instruction. However, the Swedish results presented
below, show that with changes made in skid-training the message that is
conveyed in instruction can be redirected towards risk avoidance.
 34

9.7 Training environment: How well the environment is supporting

training

The training environment has always its effects on learning: how fast and
effective the learning is and, especially where driving is concerned, what the
content of learning is and what the learner learns. There is a conflicting
situation in driver training. Learning to drive in urban areas makes later
driving more comfortable and easy and may also save money in the form of
minor accidents. Driving in urban areas also gives the feeling that learning is
taking place and that it is important to practise handling traffic situations. Of
course, basic manoeuvring and mastering traffic situations are important
prerequisites to safe and effective driving.

On the other hand, serious accidents, fatalities and serious injuries, often
take place outside urban areas on rural roads and highways. Driving there
may be felt to be less demanding and in driving school training (at least in
Finland) not so much time is spent there. In lay instruction more time is spent
outside urban areas on rural roads (at least in Finland, Sweden and France)
and during trips to more far away destinations.

The testing environment is an important determining factor of the practising

environment. The test is easier if it takes place in a familiar environment and
that is the reason why training also often takes place near potential or
probable testing areas. As testing remains the most powerful tool for
changing the contents and goals of training, it is important to have the test in
places where there are possibilities to examine different components of
driving skill.

One further aspect affecting the training environment is, of course, the
environment where the driver is living. It is important to be able to drive in
one’s own living environment. The problem is, however, that it may not
always be complicated enough to teach the candidate how to drive in a more
complicated or less familiar environment.

9.8 Climate of training/teaching: Does it encourage attitudinal change?

The climate of training refers here to the attitudes of the instructors towards
other drivers or pedestrians and cyclists, his or her attitudes towards safety,
or even his or her motives concerning driving and driving style. One could
also speak about driving culture, which is delivered to the candidate during
the teaching and learning process.

It has not been studied, as far as the author knows, but it seems evident that
driving school instructors tend to concentrate more on contents that are
evaluated in the driving test, whereas lay instructors may also give other
kinds of feedback. They may support cultural traits which belong to their own
repertoire of driving. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Whether
it is an advantage or a disadvantage depends purely on the instructor’s own
values, attitudes and motives. They may be safety-promoting but they may
also promote a fast and aggressive driving style. What can at least be
concluded is that changing the curriculum and particularly the driving test
 35

may also change the contents of training- especially in driving school training
but also in lay instruction. Teaching according to a curriculum guarantees that
at least official norms and values will be delivered to candidate. However, in
Sweden, for example, only 8% of lay instructors use the national curriculum,
even though about 90% of the candidates also receive instruction from a
driving school (Gregersen, in this publication).

It is not so important for the lowest level of driving hierarchy but already at the
level of mastering traffic situations these cultural and attitudinal contents are
important and they become even more important when ascending the
hierarchy.

9.9 Training methods: Practical, theoretical

Classical training methods in driving school training include lecturing

theoretical subjects and practising practical contents on the streets and
roads. In lay instruction the theoretical knowledge needed in the driving test is
learned often by using books etc., without lectures. The amount of obligatory
theoretical teaching varies a lot. In some countries (UK) there is nothing
obligatory whereas in other countries it may be 20 hours (Finland).

The lower levels of the driving hierarchy are mainly learned by practising but
higher in the hierarchy the learning of more theoretical aspects or knowledge
becomes necessary. Knowledge content can, however, provide a starting
point for more practical learning tasks. However, also the highest level may
need “practising”; not practising in the sense of practising certain skills but
more like practising certain situations or experiencing certain feelings. This is
one of the main assumptions of the Finnish second phase training or in driver
improvement courses in central European countries, namely to use the
driver’s own experiences as a starting point in learning new things concerning
one’s personality and habits.

9.10 Relationship between practical and theoretical instruction

The amount of theoretical lectures or needed theoretical knowledge is

perhaps not the most important point, but the content of this knowledge and
especially it’s relation to the practical part of training is. The question is how
these two parts are linked to each other. Another question is in what order
knowledge and practical skills are learned: does one help the learning of the
other, or do they just run parallel and without co-ordination?

In a traditional driver education in USA the suggestion was that there should
be 30 hours lectures and 6 hours practical training. When we now take a look
at the European curricula, we find that the practical part is getting longer
whereas the theoretical part is getting shorter. And what is even more
important is that the method of teaching theoretical contents is not so often
lecturing anymore but using different kinds of multimedia as well as
discussion and other active learning methods.

The application of theoretical knowledge in real-life driving is important even if

the connection has not always been so evident. Now it looks like knowledge
 36

contents which are needed on the lower levels of the GDE-framework can be
learned more effectively by using technical methods but learning knowledge
and self-evaluations on higher levels, for example, require even more
teacher's time than earlier. The teacher is, however, not lecturing but
promoting discussion.
 37

10 Criteria for effectiveness of driver training models

Any evaluation of the effectiveness of a driver education system or a driver
education method needs criteria. If the value of this criteria after training is
good, then we can conclude that the education method is also good. Usually
only one criterion, accidents or even serious accidents after licensing, is used
in evaluations and this criterion has been used to conclude whether
education meets its goals or not.

For a more complete evaluation of driver training systems and methods it is

necessary to use various kinds of criteria (on evaluation see also: Keskinen
and Baughan, 2003). At least the following criteria for a “good” driver training
system can be found:
Satisfaction
Learners’ satisfaction with training

Immediate learning effects:

Pass rates
Theoretical examination
Practical examination
Quality of mistakes made in
Theoretical test
Driving test

Attitudes

Driving behaviour
Violations and other measures of driving style
Amount of driving

Accidents:
Severity of accidents
Quality/type of the accidents
Time of the accidents
During training
Intermediate phase
After licensing

Learners’ satisfaction concerning the training is an important and useful

criterion. Especially if this information is collected after some driving
experience, it is possible for the new driver to evaluate how the training fulfils
the demands of traffic. In Finland that kind of evaluation questionnaire is sent
four times a year to 1000 new drivers at a time of one year of driving
experience.

Other kinds of satisfaction data can be collected immediately after driver

training in driving school and these evaluations can provide some ideas for
development of training. In lay instruction area there are no such evaluations.

There are some indications concerning immediate learning effects of driver

training: Pass rates in driving test (theoretical and practical) and the quality of
 38

mistakes made in both examinations. All these measures can be used when
evaluating the effectiveness of the training system. It cannot be argued that
low pass rates would be better than high ones if the driving test is strict
enough. The quality of mistakes made by the candidates provides, above all,
important information concerning the problem areas of training compared to
the demands of the driving test.

Passing the driving test does, however, not tell us about how well the driver is
going to manage in traffic. What is known is that he or she has enough skills
to manoeuvre the car and to master some traffic situations. In one word, it is
possible to decide what he or she is able to do. What is unknown at this stage
is how he or she is going to behave in traffic. This makes evaluation of driving
behaviour after licensing one of the important targets of evaluation. Attitudes
are closely connected to driving style, goals in traffic and also to violations.
Violations and other measures of driving style can be used to assess the
usefulness of the training system. It is also useful to know the amount of
driving when comparing effects of training. It is especially useful to know
about the quality of mileage.

One of the ultimate goals of driver training is, of course, safety, which is
usually measured as accidents. For evaluation purposes it is important to
take into account the quality of accidents: how serious they are, and when
they happen in relation to the training process (during training, in intermediate
phase (if there is one) or after licensing).

A problem which arises with the new models in driver training, is accidents
during the training period. Earlier, the problem was small in traditional driving
school education: the training period was short, there was a trained person in
the car and there were also dual control systems to help control the car. In
some countries the layman instruction period can be long (two years or
3000km) and it means that exposure in traffic increases significantly when
compared to driving school instruction.

Amazingly little is known about the accidents during long training periods.
The most reliable data before this evaluation has come from Sweden, where
serious accidents during long training period have been found to be a
problem (see Gregersen, in this publication). In this report accidents during
driving practice are studied in the UK and in Finland. One of the reasons why
so little is known concerning accidents during long training is that lay
instruction is not the main training system in countries which offer the
possibility for lay instruction.

Another thing that is missing in lay instruction is the dual control system. In
Sweden dual controls are not obligatory, but in Finland it has been obligatory
for a long time. The effects of dual brakes in lay instruction was evaluated in
a Finnish study (Peräaho, Keskinen and Ojanen, 2001) made for the Swedish
Road Administration. The main conclusion was that there was no
disadvantage or problems related to the extra pedal and there were some
safety and pedagogical benefits. However, having dual controls in the driving
school car and not having it in lay instruction emphasises the difference
between these two teaching models.
 39

Male and female drivers have different accident profiles. In the beginning of a
driver's career males have more serious, more night-time, more alcohol
related and more speed-related accidents than females. Methods which may
reduce male driver’s accidents may not be valid for female accidents and vice
versa. That is why it is necessary to report what accidents are under
evaluation in each study. Often this is not done, and there are no separate
results for males and females, which makes it difficult to evaluate the real
effects of training.
 40

11 Traditional and new driver education systems, description

of systems and evaluations

11.1 Development of the driver training system in Germany by Georg

Willmes-Lenz and Michael Bahr

In this chapter, the German system is described in a detailed way in order to

give an idea of the development of the system from a very traditional system
emphasising professional training to a system combining various elements.

11.1.1 Introduction

Over the past 30 years, some central aspects of the driver training system in
Germany have been modified and developed.
- The length of the theoretical and practical parts of driver training has
increased considerably.
- The catalogue of contents has been expanded and the main areas of the
training have gradually moved from handling the vehicle and knowledge of
rules and regulations towards instruction of the risks involved in driving
and the development of attitudes adapted to meet the requirements of
participation in traffic.
- With regard to methodology, new requirements have been made of driver
training: it aims to make driving instructors work to a greater extent on the
learner drivers' attitudes and on being able to use a more demanding
repertoire of pedagogical methods in training and instruction for this
purpose.
- Linked to this are ongoing efforts to develop the occupational profile of the
driving instructor by extending pedagogical, methodological and didactic
skills.
- Driver training has become increasingly structured and systematised:
today, all learner drivers undergo training which has the same basic
components and which is of comparable quality.
- Finally, mention must be given to the increasing institutionalisation of the
driver training system. This can be seen in the expansion of binding legal
regulations for driver training and in the establishment of standards for the
practical part of driver training through structured support by the driving
instructor associations.

These changes are presented below to give an outline of the structure of the
driver training system in Germany and the prospects for its further
development.

The main criterion for assessing a driver training system and its individual
elements is the contribution it makes to reducing risk for novice drivers. The
high risk for novice drivers in Germany means that there are great
expectations of the driver training system to contribute towards solving this
problem.
 41

Developments in the German driver training system have therefore continued

accordingly. New ideas and prospects which may help solve the problem with
novice drivers can be seen in the reform of the system of provisional driving
licences, the incorporation of school into the system of preparing novice
drivers, the introduction of a voluntary second phase of driver training and the
discussion about and possible introduction of accompanied driving, an
approach which is new for Germany. These will be presented at the end of
the description of the situation in Germany.

11.1.2 Development of driver training

Legal basis

Driver training in Germany is based on extensive legal regulations with far-

reaching rules on the content and scope of the training. There are also
handbooks and curricula which give extensive practical guidance and
assistance. The legal regulations comprise the Driving Licence Ordinance
(Fahrerlaubnisverordnung - FeV), the Road Traffic Act (Straßenverkehrs-
gesetz), the Driving Instructor Act (Fahrlehrergesetz), the Ordinance on the
Training of Learner Drivers (Fahrschülerausbildungsordnung), the Ordinance
on the Training of Driving Instructors (Fahrlehrerausbildungsordnung) and the
Ordinance on the Examination of Driving Instructors (Fahrlehrer-
prüfungsordnung).

Important and fundamental non-legal works include the "The curricular

guidelines for practical training for car drivers" (Lamszus, 2000) published by
the Federal Association of Driving Instructor Associations (Bundes-
vereinigung der Fahrlehrerverbände), the "Curriculum for the training of
driving instructors" (Heilig et al., 1995) and the fundamental work "The
Driving Instructor as a Traffic Teacher" (Heilig et al., 1997).

The Driving Licence Ordinance and the Road Traffic Act are the main
legislative acts on the driving licence system and contain regulations inter alia
on the requirements which must be met by driving licence applicants, on the
procedures used for granting a driving licence, on legal liability when
participating in road traffic as the driver of a vehicle and on measures taken
when people have committed traffic offences. This fundamental legislation
does not contain specific regulations on driver training (the rules on moped
training are an exception in this regard). The Driving Instructor Act contains
the regulations pertaining to the occupation of driving instructor. It states inter
alia that instruction concerning the risks involved in driving must be one of the
main areas in driver training, and that the learner driver must be trained until
he is ready to drive before the driving instructor enters him for the driving test.
The Ordinance on the Training of Learner Drivers regulates the scope and
content of the theoretical and practical parts of driver training. The Ordinance
on the Training of Driving Instructors lays down the compulsory scope and
content of the driving instructor training which the officially approved institutes
for training driving instructors must follow. The Ordinance on the Examination
of Driving Instructors lays down the scope, content and modalities of the
driving instructor examinations and the composition of the examination
committees.
 42

Curricular guidelines have been created for driver training and the training of
driving instructors; these guidelines implement the legal specifications and
provide details on pedagogical, methodical and didactical points of view. The
Curriculum for practical training for car drivers was drawn up by the Federal
Association of Driving Instructor Associations and is made available to the
members of the organisation at no cost and imparted to driving instructors in
more detail in further training courses. The Curriculum for the Training of
Driving Instructors contains important fundamentals for the pedagogical
profile of the driving instructor and is regarded in practice as being very
demanding.

The handbook “The Driving Instructor as a Traffic Teacher” presents the

fundamentals of driving school instruction and provides an introduction to
traffic instruction and traffic psychology.

Particular attention must be drawn to the practice of further and advanced

training for driving instructors as an important foundation for having a
consistent professional driver training system in Germany which supplements
the above legal and technical guidelines.

How it began

Driver training in Germany can be traced back to the "Law on Motorised

Vehicle Transport" (Gesetz über den Verkehr mit Kraftfahrzeugen) of 3rd May
1909. Under this law drivers were, for the first time, required to have a driving
licence. In order to acquire the licence they were required to pass an oral and
a practical examination. The required qualifications were related to technical
knowledge and knowledge of regulations. The law did not prescribe
obligatory training by driving instructors. In view of the level of motorisation at
the time (maximum permissible speed of 15 km/h within built-up areas) there
were large differences in the qualification profile compared with today’s
drivers.

Through the Ordinance on "the Training of Drivers of Vehicles" (Verordnung

über die Ausbildung von Kraftfahrzeugführern“) of 1921 and the subsequent
modifications in driver training, there was a gradual movement towards
training learner drivers professionally.

Changes in 1969

In 1969, new regulations were passed in driving licence law. The driving
instructor occupation was legally established (cf. below) and hazard
instruction was explicitly included as a main area of training in the Driving
Instructor Act, but without any more detailed explanations of the specific
contents of the training.

Regulations on the scope of driver training did not exist at that time. The
amount of theoretical and practical driver training was a fraction (1/3 - 1/2) of
today’s in scope. It was therefore possible to acquire a driving licence with
only 5 or 6 hours of practical driving lessons.
 43

An indirect regulation was passed to determine the necessary scope of driver

training. This regulation assigned the decision concerning whether the learner
driver was ready to take the test to the driving instructor. This regulation
meant that the learner driver had to continue his training until the driving
instructor was able to attest that he was ready and register him for the test.
The criteria for judging whether a person was ready for the test were also laid
down in the law: the learner driver was supposed to be able to answer the
test questions and have the practical driving skills to pass the test drive.

Changes in 1976

In 1976 the Ordinance on the Training of Learner Drivers (Fahrschüler-

Ausbildungsordnung - FahrschAusbO) was passed which, as amended, still
lays down the legally binding foundation for driver training today.

It contains details of the risk instruction which was introduced in the Driving
Instructor Act of 1969 as a main area of driver training. All safety-relevant
types of behaviour are included in hazard instruction, in particular adequate
observation of traffic, recognition and anticipation of hazards.

According to Lamszus, Bongard and Bongard (1983:14ff) the introduction of

the Ordinance on Training Learner Drivers in 1976 marks a paradigm shift
from a type of training which is oriented towards norms and signs to a type of
training which claims to enable a driver participating in traffic to behave in a
way that other road users can anticipate and to adapt his behaviour to the
respective situation.

As well as consolidating this new guiding principle, quantitative and

qualitative specifications for driver training were also issued. For the first time
so-called special drives were made obligatory. They had to be taken in
addition to the basic training; the reason for these drives was to prepare the
learner driver for potentially very hazardous situations. There were a total of 4
training drives, each lasting 45 minutes, of which two were on autobahns, one
was on rural roads and one was a drive using lights.

With regard to quality assurance of the training offered, the driving schools
were obliged by law to offer standardised theoretical instruction in a total of
12 lessons (for the basic training in driving licence category 3 or B) and to
prove this to the competent State authorities by means of training
programmes.

The regulations provided for the monitoring of driving school lessons by the
competent authorities as an instrument of quality assurance.

Changes in 1986

In 1986 the driving licence system in Germany was extensively amended. In

addition to the provisional driving licence and the phased driving licence for
motorcycles being introduced, the scope of driver training was again
 44

significantly increased and additional training aims were included in the

Ordinance on Training Learner Drivers.

From this point onwards, all learner drivers had to take part in 12 double
lessons of theoretical instruction in the driving school. Unless the learner
driver completed all these, the driving instructor was not allowed to register
him for the test.

The number of special drives, each lasting 45 minutes, was increased from 4
to 10 (5 on rural roads, 3 on autobahns and 2 at night or using lights). The
considerable increase in drives on rural roads was intended to address the
high accident involvement of novice drivers on roads outside built-up areas.

At the same time the provisions related to the special drives were made more
stringent: for example, a certain number of kilometres had to be driven and
drives using lights had to actually be carried out at dusk or in darkness and
not merely when visibility was reduced due to rain or fog.

The catalogue of contents for driver training laid down in the Ordinance on
Training Learner Drivers was extended to include the subjects: "responsibility
for people and environment" and "defensive and considerate driver
behaviour“.

Changes in 1999

The reform of the driving licence system in 1999, which also incorporated the
EU driving licence categories, made provisions related to the driving licence
more stringent (extension of the probationary period if the driver commits
offences) and provided for further changes to the driver training system. For
example, the theoretical instruction for learner drivers of category B
(passenger cars) was extended by two lessons to 14 double lessons (cf. the
subject areas in overview 1 which are contained in the legally binding
framework plan).

The subjects "self-criticism and realistic self-assessment" and "awareness for

the significance of emotions when driving" were included in the catalogue of
contents for driver training. The number of special drives which must be
completed in addition to the basic training was again raised by 2 lessons to a
total of 12 (5 on rural roads, 4 on autobahns and 3 at night). The subject
areas laid down by law for the practical driver training are given in overview 1.

Overview 1:
Theoretical instruction according to appendices 1 and 2 of § 4 Ordinance on
Training Learner Drivers
The theoretical instruction
shall be based on the
framework plan laid down in
§ 4 FahrschAusbO
appendices 1 and 2. The
framework plan is divided
into a general part for
applicants of all driving
licence categories (12 double
lessons, each of 90 minutes),
and a part with additional
material specific to the
respective driving licence
category which has been
applied for (for category B
this comprises at least 2
double lessons)
The framework plan for the
basic material (12 double
lessons) provides for the
following content:
1. Personal requirements
- Physical abilities
- Vision– sight test,
significance of health and
fitness
- Limitations to physical
fitness
- Diseases and ailments
- Deficits in attention
- Lack of concentration
- Alcohol, drugs and
medication
- Tiredness and
distraction
- Psychological and
social requirements
- Attitude and values
regarding vehicles, driving
and road traffic
- Orientation towards the
guiding principles of traffic
behaviour.
2. People as a risk factor
- Influence on traffic
behaviour due to
- Aggression, fear, driving
pleasure, stress, other
emotions
- Offences committed
when driving may be due
to various reasons,
reaction to aggressive
driving
- Not answering
aggression with
aggression; learning how
to control one's
annoyance
- Causes of stress;
learning to be aware of
stress
- The experience that
stress is a risk factor
- Learning how stress can
be avoided and coped
with
- Feelings may influence
drivers positively or
negatively
- Risks due to fear, panic,
feelings of superiority
- Learning to master and
control feelings
- Self-images
- Realistic assessment:
overestimation and
underestimation
- Driving ideals and driver
roles
3. Legal framework
conditions
- Driving motorised
vehicles
- Categories of driving
licence
- Provisional driving
licence
- Licensing of vehicles
- Vehicles liable to
registration and vehicles
not liable to registration
- Expiry of operation
permit
- Vehicle tests
- Insurances
- Legal liability, part
comprehensive cover and
fully comprehensive cover
- Accident involving
vehicle occupants
- Legal expenses
insurance
- Vehicle documents and
driving licence
- Vehicle registration
document, vehicle licence,
operating permit, proof of
insurance
- Proof of exhaust test
- Alteration inspection
report in accordance with §
19 section 3 StVZO
- International motorised
traffic
4. Road transport system
and its use
- Traffic infrastructure and
its significance
- Road, roadway, road
lanes, hard shoulders,
special road lanes, special
roads, autobahn and
vehicle-only roads
- Basic regulation § 1
StVO
- Perception of danger
when using the traffic
infrastructure (e.g.
avenues)
- Traffic observation,
control of risk when
changing lanes
- Congestion.
5. Right of way and traffic
regulations
- Behaviour
- in special traffic
situations
- at junctions and
intersections
- with traffic regulations
by means of light signals
and the police
- In particular through
- acting in the correct
order (inter alia braking,
changing gears,
accelerating)
- learning to estimate
acceleration power and
need for road space and
time when crossing a
junction
- assessing the risk of a
junction, necessity of
communication and
understanding in traffic at
junctions
- learning to think for the
other road users
- importance of
composure and patience, if
necessary also not
insisting on the right of way
- environmentally-aware
driving at junctions and
intersections.
6. Traffic signs, traffic
devices and railway
crossings
- Traffic signs and
devices
- Warning signs,
prescriptive signs,
guideline signs
- Other signs (additional
signs), traffic devices
- Knowledge of the
systematics and logic
- Shapes, colours,
graphics, lettering on the
traffic signs, "reading" of
traffic devices and
consequences for one's
own suitable behaviour
- Railway crossings
- Safety and
environmentally-aware
behaviour at railway
crossings.
7. Other road users
- Peculiarities and
behaviour with regard to
- Public transport
- Buses/school buses
45
- Taxis
- Cars and motorcyclists
- Bicyclists
- Large and heavy
vehicles
- Pedestrians
- Children and elderly
people
- The disabled
- Behaviour at pedestrian
crossings
- Traffic-calming
measures
- Traffic-calmed area and
the 30 km/h zone
- Construction measures.
8. Speed, vehicle-to-vehicle
distance and
environmentally sound
driving methods
- Significance of speed
- Speeds adapted to the
respective situation
- Links between speed,
vehicle-to-vehicle
distances and stopping
distances
- Estimation of the
stopping distance at
different speeds
- Becoming accustomed
to adequate safety
distances
- Knowledge of the risks
of excessively high speeds
- Continual control of
speed by adapting to traffic
conditions, visibility
conditions, weather and
visibility conditions
- Knowledge and
acceptance of speed
regulations
- Knowledge of the links
between speed and
emissions of harmful
substances
- Selection of
environmentally sound
speeds
- Realistic estimation of
one's own speed behaviour
- Knowledge about the
risk of becoming
"intoxicated" with speed
and speed habits
- Behaving with foresight
- Safety distances
- Selection of speed
depending on the road,
traffic, weather and
visibility conditions
- Noise prevention
- Speed regulations
- Warning signs.

9. Traffic behaviour during
driving manoeuvres, traffic
observation
- Driving into areas,
starting
- Overtaking, driving past
objects, avoidance
manoeuvres
- Driving next to another
vehicle
- Turning off roads
- Turning the car
- Reversing
- Knowledge of traffic
regulations for different
driving manoeuvres.
Particularly through
- knowing and perceiving
hazards during driving
manoeuvres
- practising traffic
observance
- the experience that they
require increased
concentration
- learning to decide
responsibly whether and
where driving manoeuvres
can be performed or
whether one should refrain
from doing them.
10. Stationary traffic
- Too little road space -
too many cars
- Stationary traffic
- Stopping and parking
- Devices to monitor
stationary traffic
- Getting in and out of the
vehicle
- Making the vehicle
secure
- Making abandoned
vehicles secure
- Bump-starting, towing
away, towing.
11. Behaviour in particular
situations, consequences
of traffic regulation
offences
- Use of lighting devices
- Behaviour towards
special vehicles
- Blue and yellow flashing
lights
- Special rights
- Behaviour after traffic
accidents
- Securing and
assistance for injured
persons
- Obligations
- Punishment of wrong
behaviour
- Warning, fines, driving
ban, punishment
- Central traffic register
- Points system
- Confiscation of driving
licence
- Loss of insurance
protection
- Compensation for
damage, recourse
- Agency for assessing
driver aptitude
- Medical and
psychological test
12. Lifelong learning
- Special risk factors in
the case of
- Novice drivers
- Young drivers
- Elderly drivers
- Assistance
- in particular through
- Supplementary
seminars (provisional
driving licence)
- Supplementary
seminars for drivers of
motorised vehicles
(Aufbauseminare für
Kraftfahrer - ASK)
- Traffic psychology
counselling
- Exchange of experience
for novice drivers
- Risks through deficits in
information and
communication in road
traffic
- Road safety through
further training
- Safety training
- Courses for developing
an environmentally sound
method of driving.
The framework plan for
additional material specific
to category B (2 double
lessons) provides for the
following content:
1. Technical provisions,
transportation of persons
and goods -
environmentally aware
handling of motorised
vehicles
- Technology, physics
- Operational and traffic
safety
- Servicing and care of
vehicles
- Vehicle test in
accordance with §§ 29,
47a StVZO
- Effect of forces when
driving, physical laws
46
- Transportation of
persons and goods
- Transportation of
persons
- Loading areas and
loading
- Environmentally sound
handling of vehicles
- Driving in an energy-
saving manner
- Environmentally sound
strategies for driving and
avoiding driving.
2. Driving with single
vehicles and trains
- Driving speed
- Driving in lanes
- Driving in different road
and weathering conditions
- Driving while using
lighting devices
- Negotiating bends,
declines and inclines
- Braking
- Braking systems (brake
assembly, locking brake,
trailer brake)
- Use of the brakes
(degressive - progressive)
- Braking on a decline
and when in danger
- Marshalling of trains
- Device to connect
vehicles
- Supporting load
- Coupling, uncoupling,
shunting
- Lighting
- Social regulations and
traffic bans (e.g. in
accordance with the so-
called Ozone Law)
- How it is distinct from
category BE.

Overview 2:
Practical instruction (in accordance with appendix 3 of § 5 section 1 FahrschAusbO)
Pursuant to § 5 FahrschAusbO,
the practical instruction must be
related to the theoretical training
and the content of the two must be
dovetailed. The practical
instruction consists of basic
training and the "special training
drives". For driving licence
category B this comprises 5 drives
on federal or rural roads, 4 on
autobahns and 3 in dusk or
darkness. The proscribed number
of special training drives in the
different driving licence categories
are laid down in appendices 4 to 5,
section 3 FahrschAusbO.
It is intended that the basic training
should if possible be concluded
before the learner driver begins
with the special training drives.
The subjects for the practical
instruction (basic training and
special training drives) are laid
down in appendix 3 to § 5 section
1 FahrschAusbO:
1. Technical preparation for the
drive
- Testing the traffic safety and
operational safety of the vehicle
- Sitting position
- Positioning of mirrors
- Holding (and using) the
steering wheel
- Fastening and unfastening
the seat belt
- Positioning of the head rests
- Operating devices
2. Behaviour when starting on
level road, on an incline and on
a decline
3. Changing gear
(if the training vehicle has an
automatic power transmission, the
applicant must be made
accustomed to its particular
features)
- Environmentally sound
adaptation of gears to traffic
situations, road condition and
the course of the road
- Changing gear on inclines
and declines, also with regard to
environmental aspects
4. Roadway use
- Behaviour on roads with
one or several lanes
- behaviour at public transport
stops
5. Turning off roads and
changing lanes
- Turning off roads at
intersections and junctions
- Turning off roads onto a
person's property
- Moving into the right lane to
turn off a road
47
- Changing lanes when not 13. Stopping and parking
preparing to turn off the road - Stopping on inclines and on
6. Driving backwards and declines
turning - Driving into a parking space
- Correct body posture when - Between two cars when one
driving backwards is standing behind the other
- Driving backwards with and - Between vehicles standing
without changing the driving next to one another
direction - Measures when leaving the
- Turning vehicle
7. Observing the traffic area, the - Measures to secure
course and the state of the abandoned vehicles
roadway and observing traffic
14. Driving with foresight
signs and devices
8. Driving speed Observation of other
- Environmentally aware road users
adaptation of driving speed to - Observation of driving
the road, traffic, visibility and behaviour of other drivers of
weather conditions vehicles
- Distance from the vehicle in - Observation of the traffic
front (including at low speeds) area
- Behaviour in complicated
- Driving speed within built-up
traffic situations
areas
- Driving speed outside built- - Avoiding risky traffic
up areas situations
- Driving speed on autobahns The contents given
- Braking in dangerous above relate to all
situations driving licence
9. Autobahns and vehicle-only categories. Annex 3 to
roads
§ 5 section 1
- Driving onto and leaving
autobahns and vehicle-only
FahrschAusbO
roads contains additional
- Acceleration lanes and learning material for
deceleration lanes motorcycle, lorry, bus
10. Overtaking (overtaking and trailer categories
manoeuvres must also be as well as for
practised outside built-up areas
and on autobahns) agricultural and
11. Behaviour at junctions and forestry tractors.
intersections
- Sufficient observation of the
roads which meet at the junction
and timely adaptation of speed
to the visibility conditions
- Approaching the road with
the right of way
- Driving onto roads with the
right of way
- Willingness to brake
- Behaviour at junctions and
intersections with regulation by
the police or light signals
- Behaviour at junctions and
intersections with traffic signs
- Behaviour at junctions and
intersections without traffic signs
- Behaviour at railway
crossings
12. Behaviour towards
pedestrians and bicyclists
- When turning off roads
- When driving straight ahead
- At pedestrian crossings
- In traffic-calmed areas
- At public transport stops
 48

The curricular guidelines for practical driver training

The "Curricular guidelines for practical training for car drivers" (Curricularer
Leitfaden für die praktische PKW-Ausbildung), published in 1993 by the
Federal Association of Driving Instructor Associations (Bundesvereinigung
der Fahrlehrerverbände), means that there is now an important instrument
available for providing planned practical training geared towards the legal
regulations. The driving instruction associations first thought about the design
of a structured course of training in the early 70s. In the following years
different variations were developed and tested in practice. The following
description relates to the version as revised in 2000.

The curricular guidelines are intended to assist the driving instructor in

providing structured training in accordance with the principle "from easy to
difficult". It is not, however, intended to be an "obligatory corset" which would
impair the spontaneity of teaching and learning (Lamszus, 2000, p. 18).

In view of the changes made as regards the main training areas - increasing
weight given to awareness of responsibility, tolerance and the values and
attitudes of the driver - the guidelines want "(to make) a contribution … to
improving information and transparency with regard to the driving instructor's
pedagogical task … with a detailed representation of a teaching programme"
(Lamszus, 2000, p. 11).

Based on the Ordinance on Training Learner Drivers, which differentiates

between the "basic training" and the "phase of special training drives", the
curricular guidelines contain a further differentiation in the form of a five-
phase training model. The basic training is divided into the basic phase (1)
(Grundstufe), the supplementary phase (2) (Aufbaustufe) and the advanced
phase (3) (Leistungsstufe). The special drive phase (4) is followed by the test
phase (5) (Reife- und Teststufe).

Specially designed training maps are used to help to document the learner
driver's progress; these provide the driving instructor and the learner driver
with an overview of the following and remaining phases and content of the
course.

The individual training elements of each of the phases are structured to give
the content, the objectives and suggestions on didactics and methodology.
The first section of the training - the basic phase (1) - is concerned with
getting into the vehicle in a manner which is considerate to other traffic and
sitting in the optimal position and also deals with driving attitude, operation
devices, control devices and technical preparations. The basic phase also
contains exercises to practise starting and changing gears.

In the second training phase - the supplementary phase (2) - the gear-
changing exercises are continued and developed, different braking
techniques are taught, exercises are carried out on inclines and declines, and
the ability to reverse and to manoeuvre are practised.
 49

The third learning section - the advanced phase (3) - trains independent
driving in different traffic situations and teaches how to cope with difficult and
critical situations. This section also includes practice in how to use
momentum, how to drive in protected pedestrian areas and how to check the
operational condition and traffic safety of the vehicle.

The fourth learning section - the special drive phase (4) - may only be begun
when practically all of the basic training, which takes place largely inside built-
up areas, has been completed. The learner driver must be in a position to
cope with normal traffic situations and some difficult traffic situations without
assistance. The special drives concentrate, mainly outside built-up-areas, on
driving on bends, speed and distance behaviour, overtaking situations, driving
onto and leaving autobahns, and the particular problems of driving in the
dark.

After the last special drive in each category, a final consultation should take
place in which specific problems can be dealt with, any mistakes discussed
and future avoidance strategies developed. At the end of the night-time drives
an obvious possibility would be to discuss the problems connected with
leisure-time accidents at night.

The fifth training section - the test phase (5) - is carried out after all special
drives have been concluded. It contains a repetition of all the contents dealt
with in the supplementary and advanced phases and during the special
drives. The routes for the drives should be selected so that there is as large a
number of different situations as possible. The degree of difficulty must be
increased systematically and the assistance given by the driving instructor
steadily reduced. Simulated test drives should be carried out.

11.1.3 Development of the driving instructor occupation

The development of the driving inspector occupation is an important aspect in

the overall development of the German driver training system. This is due to
the central role which the driving instructor plays in the German driver training
system, a system where the only form in which a person can learn to drive for
the purpose of obtaining a driving licence is through driving lessons with a
professional driving instructor. The developments in the driving instructor
occupation since 1969 have been marked by it becoming more
professionalised, by its status being consolidated in law and by the
increasingly development of a pedagogical profile.

Changes in 1969

Until 1969 there were no legally-regulated requirements which had to be met

before a person could work as a driving instructor. The Driving Instructor Act
of 1969 took the first step of professionalising the occupation of driving
instructor in establishing the occupation in law and defining the minimum
requirements to be met before a person could become a driving instructor,
which were as follows: at least 23 years of age, mental and physical aptitude,
possession of all driving licence categories, sufficient driving experience (at
 50

least three years) and proof of the required ability by passing a driving
instructor examination.

Legal regulations were also drawn up for the first time on the driving instructor
examination; in 1979, these regulations formed the basis for the Ordinance on
the Examination of Driving Instructors. This ordinance made it compulsory to
carry out the driving instructor examination according to harmonised
standards. These concern the content and modalities of the examination and
the composition of the committees, before which the examination must be
taken.

The Driving Instructor Act of 1969 also introduced changes to the institutes
responsible for training driving instructors. These institutes were now required
an official approval and had to prove their suitability to the competent
authorities.

Changes in 1976

The amendment of the Driving Instructor Act in 1976 continued the

professionalization of the driving instructor occupation. The occupation was
classified as a "further training occupation" based on a first occupation. No
stipulations were made with regard to the field of the first occupation. This
was a more stringent regulation than the admission requirements laid down in
1969 which had not made it obligatory to have completed professional
training for another occupation.

The second change caused by the amendment of the Driving Instructor Act
made in 1976 concerned the training of driving instructors. From this point on
driving instructors had to complete a five-month full-time period of training at
an officially approved training institute.

The content of driving instructor training was at this point mainly geared
towards technical and legal aspects while pedagogical, methodical and
didactical issues were largely ignored.

Changes in 1999

In 1999 the training of driving instructors was extended considerably with the
introduction of a 4-and-a-half month period of vocational training and geared
more towards conveying pedagogical, methodological and didactical skills.
The net training time for prospective driving instructors ("driving instructor
candidates") therefore increased to 9-and-a-half months. Due to waiting
periods for free training places and test dates, in practice it takes up to two
years for a person to qualify as a driving instructor.

The new training model is borrowed from teacher training where the final
occupational qualification is also obtained via a practical traineeship after
concluding college or university training.
 51

The practical training for driving instructors is conducted in so-called training

driving schools. There the prospective driving instructors ("driving instructor
candidates") are monitored by a driving instructor who has qualified for this
function in a special course of training.

The pedagogical, methodical and didactical skills acquired during the

traineeship have to be demonstrated by the prospective driving instructor in
the test by actually teaching a unit of driving theory to learner drivers and in a
practical driving lesson in front of the test commission.

The new developments introduced in 1999 also include a change in the

composition of the driving instructor test committee. An educationalist must
now be a regular member as well as a jurist as chairman, an automobile
engineer and a driving instructor.

11.1.4 Driving test

The driver training system is geared towards the general aim of enabling
drivers to participate in traffic in a safe and responsible manner. However, it is
understandable that in practice many aspects can be seen which are more
closely connected with coping with the actual test requirements. The saying:
"Nothing is learned that is not tested!" perhaps expresses this slightly too
apodictically. At the same time, however, a training system must always be
viewed in connection with the test requirements. For this purpose the
essential characteristics of the driving licence test in Germany will be
described below.

Anyone in Germany who would like to take a driving licence test must first
have undergone a complete course of theoretical and practical training at a
driving school.

The driving licence applicants must be physically and mentally suitable and
may not have committed any significant or repeated offences of traffic
regulations or criminal laws.

A sight test is necessary to obtain driving licence categories A, B, M, L and T.

When categories C and D are first granted or are extended, the person
involved must be examined by an optician and a physician.

Proof must be given that instruction has been received in life-saving

measures (approx. 6 lessons) for categories A, B, M, L and T, and in First Aid
(16 lessons) for categories C and D.

The driving licence is a qualifying test. This means that it tests knowledge and
abilities in codified procedures for defined subject areas; the test applicant
shows these abilities and knowledge in solving the tasks in the test. No
conclusions are drawn regarding the fundamental aptitude of the applicant but
only as to whether the tasks were correctly solved taking into account the
specified general error tolerance. If the results show this to be the case the
test will be passed.
 52

The theory test covers knowledge of legal regulations, an environmentally-

aware and energy-saving method of driving, road traffic risks and necessary
methods of behaviour. The examination material is laid down by law and is
revised periodically.

The theory test comprises a written multiple-choice test.

For driving licence category B, 30 questions must be answered from the
official catalogue of questions. The questions are weighted differently
according to the significance of the content as regards safety and are marked
down accordingly if answered wrongly. A maximum of 2 to 4 questions out of
the 30 may be answered wrongly, depending on what weighting they have.
Admission to the practical test can only be obtained if the theory test has
been passed.

In the practical test, the applicant must show that he can drive a car safely in
real traffic and demonstrate the necessary technical knowledge and sufficient
knowledge about how to drive in an environmentally aware and energy-saving
manner. The exact test material is laid down by law for this area as well.

The length of the test differs according to the respective driving licence
category. In category B it lasts 45 minutes.

In addition to the legal regulations there are also specific rules for conducting
driving licence tests. They contain inter alia requirements concerning the
route to be driven, tasks to be carried out during the test drives and
specifications on how the examiner should evaluate the test performance.

The qualifications which examiners must have are laid down by law (Law on
Vehicle Experts - Kraftfahrsachverständigengesetz - KfSachvG): principles on
official approval as an expert or an examiner for motorised traffic).

The law lays down the following requirements for being approved as an
examiner: minimum age of 24 years, physical and mental aptitude,
possession of all driving licence categories, study of mechanical engineering,
vehicle engineering, electrical engineering at a university or technical college
or training as a vehicle mechanic or master vehicle electrician (authorisation
may be limited depending on the level of training and education), a career of
at least one-and-a-half years in whatever occupation the person has learnt,
additional training lasting at least six months at a technical testing agency,
proof of technical aptitude in an examination.

During the test drives the driving licence applicant must be accompanied by a
driving instructor.

11.1.5 Effectiveness

Tests in Germany on the efficiency of information and intervention measures

in improving road safety have in the past been mainly conducted in the field of
further training for drivers. Mention can be given in this regard to two tests on
 53

safety training for driving in cars (Seydel and Beetz, 1978; Kiegeland, 1999),
a test on motorcycle safety training (Grosse-Berndt and Niesen, 1983), a test
on a voluntary second phase of training for young novice drivers (Schulz,
Henning and Chaselon, 1995) and several tests on rehabilitation courses for
drivers who have committed offences (Jacobshagen, 1997). Mention can also
be given to the test on the effectiveness of introducing the provisional driving
licence in 1986 (Meewes and Weissbrodt, 1992). This study did not, however,
investigate any effects of the training - for instance the effects of the retraining
courses, which must, under the regulations relating to the provisional period,
be attended by novice drivers who have committed offences; instead, it
investigated the general preventative effects of the provisional-period
regulations themselves which contain a lower threshold for sanctions for all
novice drivers.

Hardly any tests have been carried out so far in Germany on the
effectiveness of the changes to those parts of the driver training system which
relate to the period prior to a person acquiring a driving licence. For instance,
a current test being carried out by the BASt only investigates the effects of the
introduction of the driving instructor traineeship in 1999. The results of this
study are not expected until the end of 2004.

With the exception of the test on the effectiveness of the provisional driving
licence, none of the studies named used changes in accident involvement as
an evaluation criterion. The reason for this is obviously that it was not
possible in these studies to attain the necessary random sample sizes for a
statistically sound assessment of effectiveness. Despite this the investigations
have provided findings on changes in knowledge, attitude and behaviour
which have been caused by the measures and which can be interpreted as
constituting improvements in safety skills (e.g. recidivist rates in drivers who
have committed offences, knowledge on the subject of braking and using the
"emergency braking technique" in an emergency braking manoeuvre).

The results of the investigation into the effectiveness of the provisional driving
licence showed a reduction in accidents of about 5 percent based on some
time series comparisons with regional deviations of differing sizes. The
provisional driving licence is consequently the only road safety measure
which has been shown in Germany so far to have an effect on accidents.

Based on the numerous quantitative and qualitative changes in driver training

over the past decades it could be presumed that there would be a cumulative
effect resulting in an improvement in the safety of novice drivers and which
would be shown in the accident statistics as a relative improvement for novice
drivers compared with other drivers who are no longer subject to the direct
effect of driver training.

However, a look at the development of the accident risk over the last decade
shows that the ratio of the disproportionately high accident risk for 18-20 year-
olds, the age group which contains the highest percentage of novice drivers,
to the higher age groups has been constant (cf. Figures 1 and 2). Although
 54

the 18-20 year-olds profit from the positive developments regarding fatal
accidents, they do not profit to a greater extent than the general trend.

2500
2031 2122
1995
2000

1465 1481 1455

1500
18- to 20
21- to 24
24- to 64
1000
596 601 597

500

0
1991 1992 1993 1995 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 1. Injured road user per 100 000 inhabitants in Germany during 1991-2001
according to age groups

45
40,8
40
33,3
35
30,2 30,6
30
22,2 18- to 20
25
19,9 21- to 24
20
25- to 64
15 12,9

8,3 7,7
10

0
1991 1992 1993 1995 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 2. Killed road users per 100 000 inhabitants in Germany during 1991-
2001 according to age groups

11.1.6 Further development of the driver training system

Co-operation between schools and driving schools

A model project on co-operation between schools and driving schools is one

of the actual initiatives in Germany to improve the preparation of novice
drivers for a safe start. The project is run in Lower Saxony and is under
 55

evaluation by the BASt. Results of the evaluation are expected at the end of
2003.

In the project, regular driver training from professional driving schools is

combined with a course in a public school, which comprises 14 double-
lessons lasting over six months. Pupils enter into the school course at an age
of at least 17 ¼ years.

The content of the school course and the subjects in the regular driver
training are co-ordinated between the driving teacher and the school-teacher.
The idea is to support regular driver training by a broader range of topics and
pedagogical methods to achieve stronger effects in developing safety-
oriented attitudes towards driving and a more reflective use of the car as a
means of mobility.

Contrary to the regular driver instruction, where learner drivers normally take
part as individuals, pupils in this model project learn together, starting and
ending the course at the same time, and sharing experiences on a common
learning way. Use of group dynamics in the learning group and via common
experiences are a specific element of the course concept.

The participation in the course is voluntary. Pupils are motivated by some

material and symbolic bonuses: regarding the theory test, which they are
allowed to pass at the end of the course in the school, they can profit from a
home advantage. An insurance company sponsors the project by granting
bonuses for self-insured vehicles. Schools, which organise courses, get a
reward of 1000 Euro from a public budget.

For the future in Lower Saxony, plans are being discussed to combine this
model with accompanied driving from 17, because the character of this
approach is, too, essentially a preventive one.

Second phase driver instruction

Second phase-model "Young people – driving safely" ("Jugend fährt

sicher")

"Jugend fährt sicher” is a pilot course of two-phase driver training in Germany

which was carried out at the beginning of the 90s and in which the usual
driver training was modified and the novice driver was monitored for 18
months after his driving test. The programme was developed by the German
Road Safety Council in co-operation with driving instructors and, in addition to
the usual training, incorporated the following elements:
- the course system (all learner drivers begin and end the course at the
same time);
- extended theoretical teaching (16 instead of the then usual 12 lessons of
1½ hours each);
- written interim supervision after the driving test (three informative letters
from the driving instructor in the first year after the person has obtained his
driving licence);
 56

- exchange of experiences (two group meetings, each of 135 minutes’

duration and a 45-minute journey in real traffic with feedback for the
participant from two novice drivers and a driving instructor who all travel
with the participant in the vehicle);
- written follow-up supervision (two informative letters, three months and six
months after the exchange of experiences);
- car safety training course (voluntary offer).
The aim of the model was to provide novice drivers with a longer period of
pedagogical supervision at the beginning of their independent participation in
motorised road traffic, to consequently encourage the driver to assess his
own driving ability realistically and to reduce his willingness to take risks
(Brückner, v. Bressendorf, Lamszus, 1990).

The evaluation study of the pilot course (Schulz, Henning and Chaselon,
1995) was intended to show the extent to which the test person demonstrated
changes in the areas of knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (frequency of
offences and accidents) compared with a control group.

A set of 16 scales were used to record the changes in knowledge-related,

attitudinal and behavioural aspects. Additional behavioural data on offences
and accidents registered by the police were recorded via self-reports.
Measurements were made (a) before obtaining the driving licence, (b) three
months after obtaining the driving licence, and (c) after one year of driving
practice.

The evaluations are based on random samples of up to 350 persons in the

test group and the control group respectively. The evaluation showed a
negative change of attitudes during the first year of driving – in the
experimental group as well as in the control group. An effect of the second
phase intervention could not be stated.

Introduction of a voluntary second phase instruction in 2003

In April 2003, a new model of a voluntary second phase driving instruction

was legally introduced. The description of the model in this section follows a
document of the German Traffic Council (DVR), who played the primary role
in the development of the model (cf. DVR, 2003).

The new voluntary second phase driving instruction aims to contribute to a

lower accident risk of young drivers. Improved abilities for hazard prevention
shall be developed by discussing and reflecting on initial driving experiences
and the driving motives that were pursued in these first experiences.
Participants of the second phase course shall be led to developing competent
driving strategies for safe future traffic participation.

Participation in the second phase instruction is voluntary and participants

have to pay for the courses. As an incentive to take part their probationary
period is reduced by one year. The probation time for novice drivers is two
years, as long as no traffic offences are committed (which then leads to a
compulsory retraining course). If such offences occur during the probation
 57

time two additional years of probation time will be added (cf. DAN-report,
2000 for details on offences which lead to a compulsory retraining course).
Consequently, novice drivers can reduce their driving time under probationary
conditions either to one year or to three years.

The new second phase model was introduced as a trial for a limited period up
to 2009. During this time it will be evaluated by the Federal Institute of Road
Safety Research (BASt).

As reflection on driving experience is the main strategy to develop safe

driving competencies, participants must possess a driving license category B
for at least six months.

Structure and contents

The second phase of driving instruction is conceived as a course with a

standardised schedule for 6 to 12 participants. It consists of
(a) three group sessions,
(b) one feedback-drive and
(c) one session of practical driving exercises on a track.

The time spent in the course is about 10 hours. The different parts are offered
over a period of two to eight weeks, starting and ending with a group session.
The content of the group sessions consists of a discussion about the personal
experiences, difficulties and problems, which the participants have had in the
first phase of their driving career. In the course concept the following topics
are explicitly mentioned:
- personal experience of driving situations
- hazards, accident causes and consequences of accidents, that are typical
to novice drivers
- anticipation of driving situations and behaviour of other road users
- effects on driving:
- by emotions and influences from the social context outside the car
- by passengers in the car
- by alcohol and drug impairment
- personal experience of feedback-drive and practical driving exercises
- results of feedback-drive and practical driving exercises:
- behaviour in connection with traffic rules
- strategies for permanent safe driving
- necessity of safety margins in connection with speed and distance
- additional offers of training as mentioned in the law (§ 3, 2 Verordnung
über die freiwillige Fortbildung von Inhabern der Fahrerlaubnis auf Probe –
FreiwFortbV).

For the feedback-drives groups of either two or three participants are set up.
Each participant drives for 60 minutes in real traffic, accompanied by the
other group member(s) and a driving instructor. During the drives, situations
are trained which the participants have expressed difficulty with. In addition,
safe and responsible driving behaviour is trained. During the group session
 58

which follows after the feedback-drive, different driving styles are put on the
agenda for discussion.

The track-training with practical driving exercises lasts 240 minutes.

Participants have the opportunity to exercise braking and driving around
bends under different conditions (different speeds, different grip, with and
without ABS, with cars loaded and unloaded).
In this course unit the participants shall
- gather experience with problematic driving situations,
- experience that already slight changes in single driving conditions can
heavily influence driving,
- make a critical check of their assessment concerning their own driving
abilities, and the impact in driving of different road conditions, vehicle
equipment and additional influences like loud music and talking,
- learn to detect differences between the driving behaviour of the
participants and their cars
- learn about the importance and the limits of a correct operation of handling
devices.

For performing the voluntary second phase instruction driving instructors and
moderators of safety training courses are used. Group sessions and the
feedback-drives are carried out by driving teachers who are authorised for
driver improvement courses under the regulations of the driving license on
probation and have passed a special induction course. The practical driving
exercises are carried out by moderators who are experienced in safety-
training-courses and have passed a special induction course, too.

Accompanied driving from 17

Shortly after the Wolfsburg Young Driver Conference in October 2001 (BASt,
2002) a discussion on experience focused approaches to reduce the accident
risk of novice drivers started in Germany (cf. Willmes-Lenz, 2002). During
2002 a BASt project group of leading experts in the field of licensing and
driver training developed a model of accompanied driving for Germany. The
outline and the essential contents of this model were publicly presented in
January 2003 (Projektgruppe begleitetes fahren, 2003). Since then, the
discussion on accompanied driving in Germany has broadened very much
and a final report of the project group - expected mid 2003 - and political
decisions on this new element in the German system of driver training are
prepared.

The concept of the project group, as it was presented in January 2003, is as

follows:
"Accompanied driving" aims to provide novice drivers with a broader basis of
driving skills before driving independently in order to contribute to reducing
accident risk in the initial phase of independent driving.

The idea is that, building on driver training, the driver has a phase where he
participates autonomously in traffic but with an accompanying person in the
vehicle (accompanied driving phase); it is intended that the driver should gain
 59

practical driving experience and be able to practise and reinforce the many
aspects of safe driving repeatedly and over a longer period of time.

Important areas for gaining practical driving experience include handling the
vehicle in different situations, experiencing a large variety of driving and traffic
situations in real road traffic and coping with the many different tasks
associated with them.

Having a person accompanying the driver serves the purpose of minimising

the risks which are connected with building practical experience in road traffic
- and which are greater for novices.

In order to enable young driving licence applicants to participate both in

accompanied driving and at the same time - as hitherto - in independent
driving from 18 years of age, the model implies a reduction in the minimum
age at which a person can acquire a driving licence and participate in driver
training.

It is intended that participation in the model should be voluntary. The model

should be acceptable and practical for the target group of novice drivers, the
people accompanying these drivers and for the authorities and institutions
involved.

The model does not specify any particular amount of time to be spent
engaged in accompanied driving, or any particular distance to be travelled. It
merely gives recommendations based on scientific findings on how accident
risk is reduced as driving experience increases. This assumes that the users'
self-interest and self-initiative will mean that they exploit the possibilities
provided by the model in a meaningful manner.

The central criteria for the suggested model of accompanied driving in

Germany are: safety gain, ease of access and the practicability of the model.
Safety gain is concerned with creating a regulation which gives young novice
drivers the chance to develop as much driving routine as possible while at the
same time ensuring that the risks connected with the practice are minimised.
The essential point is the safety balance between the reduction in accident
risk which is gained after accompanied driving and additional risks which may
be directly connected with engaging in accompanied driving.

Ease of access aims to prevent barriers to access for use of the model, as
less participation and use will lead directly to reductions in the safety benefit
produced by the model. Ease of access should therefore only be restricted
when it is apparent that safety would otherwise be reduced. Ease of access
therefore relates both to the participation quota, which should be as high as
possible, and to the intensity of use which is expressed in the length of
participation and in the distance travelled.

Practicability concerns the development of regulations which can be expected

to meet a high level of acceptance in the target group, which keep additional
 60

financial and organisational expense low and which can be established with
the minimum of legal expenses and effort.

The criteria describing the role and tasks of people accompanying novice
drivers in the "Accompanied driving" model are derived from scientifically
sound findings on the risk-reducing effects produced by novice drivers being
accompanied by another person. The criteria also result from the fundamental
understanding that driver training - in accordance with the current legal
position - should continue to be only carried out by driving schools and that
the role of the person accompanying the novice driver should therefore be
located outside driver training. This differs from foreign models (Austria,
France, Belgium, Sweden, Norway) where the person accompanying the
novice driver is integrated into the driver training process before the novice
driver has acquired his driving licence.

The essential aspects of the role of an accompanying person and of the tasks
associated with this role are consequently:
- Being present during the drive without performing training functions
- Acceptance of the driver as the person in charge of the vehicle and
acceptance of one's own role as a person accompanying the driver
- Ensuring freedom for independent decisions of the driver
- Being a communication partner for the driver during the drive
- Restriction to occasional remarks without direct intervention in the driving
decisions and driving manoeuvres
- Exerting a moderating influence on the driver in stressful and conflict
situations
- Answer to the driver's questions

Before and after drives:

- Advise the driver on routes which would provide good practice
- Being a partner for exchanging driving experiences

The ideas of the project group are based on scientific findings on the initial
phase of the driving career. German and foreign follow-up data on the
accident risk show that the highest risk for novice drivers is directly at the start
of their driving carrier (Schade, 2001; Maycock, 1991; Sagberg, 2002;
Gregersen, 2000).

The data also shows that the accident risk decreases significantly as driving
experience increases. In Germany - which is comparable with other countries
- the accident risk is halved after 9 months and decreases to a residual risk of
10 percent after 2.6 years (Schade, 2001).

Driver experience is therefore an efficient learning factor which is of the

greatest interest for enabling novice drivers to have a safe start to their
participation in motorised traffic. Developing skills through driving experience
is, however, linked with the problem that it falls within the phase where traffic
risk is at its highest, namely when the novice first starts driving independently.
Tests conducted on inexperienced drivers being accompanied show that if
experienced drivers accompany the novice driver, his risk is not as high as
 61

would otherwise be expected. In large-scale tests it was ascertained that

accompanied novice drivers had a risk far below the normal risk for novice
drivers in traffic (Gregersen, 2002). Accompanied driving therefore enables
novice drivers to gain practical driving experience in comparatively safe
conditions.

6
rate per mio. km

4
men

1
women
0
0 1 2 3 4

y = 1,02 + 4,42 exp (-0,888 * t) R² = 0,9614 t90 = years since acq. of driving license
*
y(Males) = y. y(Females) = 0,47
*
Figure 3. Accident risk of novice drivers in Germany during the first four years
of driving. Guilty accidents; driving license in 1987; representative samples;
males n=5205, females n=6095 (cf. Schade, 2001)

Large-scale Swedish tests again provided an answer to the question as to

whether the practical driving skills gained when the novice driver is
accompanied also led to a reduction in accident risk (Gregersen, 2000).
According to the tests, novice drivers who had gained significantly greater
prior practical driving experience through accompanied driving had an
accident risk which was between 24 and 40 percent lower compared with
novice drivers with normal experience (driver training from 17.5 years of age)
(Gregersen, 2000; Gregersen and Nyberg, 2002).

The project group regards its model of accompanied driving as a measure

which supplements the existing range of measures for preventing accidents
involving young drivers. Driving school training and mobility and traffic
instruction in schools, the second phase of driver training and other road
safety measures for young drivers focus particularly on influencing attitudes
specific to young people. Accompanied driving supplements these activities
by providing young novice drivers with more possibilities under safe
 62

conditions to build up driving skills and driving as a routine, which is essential

for safe driving.

11.1.7 Conclusions

During the last decades In Germany profound changes in the system of pre-
licensing and post-licensing measures for drivers have taken place.
Regarding driver instruction particularly an enlarged extent of theoretical and
practical lessons, a continuing enhancement of the training quality, progress
in the development of the driving instructor profession and the incorporation
of a broader set of educational objectives, aiming at safe driving attitudes and
behaviour, have to be mentioned. Important post-licensing measures are the
probationary license regulations, driver improvement measures connected to
these regulations, voluntary training courses and rehabilitation courses for
drivers who have committed offenses.

The steady development of the driver instruction is associated with a

development of the driving instructor occupation from an instructor, who is
merely oriented to technical aspects and traffic rules, to a pedagogue, who
seeks to 'form' attitudes and behaviour of novice drivers. Also in the post-
licensing sphere of driver improvement activities of driving instructors have
been assumed - just as traffic psychologists - to have a more important role.

Scientific evaluations so far were mainly directed at driver improvement

questions. Research during the next years will focus on the evaluation of the
voluntary second phase instruction and, once accompanied driving will be
introduced into the German system, on the role of the experience factor in the
learning process of novice drivers. Beside these topics, the role of computer-
based training and driving simulators, the further optimisation of driver
training, the development of the driving instructor profession and quality
assurance will be important research questions.

In general, two great perspectives in future driver instruction and licensing in

Germany can be discerned: the continuing enhancement of strategies for a
professional and psychologically well founded qualification of novice drivers -
in the pre-licensing and post-licensing period -, and, eventually, the
incorporation of enlarged practical skill acquisition into the preparation of new
drivers.
 63

11.2 The training and licensing system for car drivers in Great Britain
by Chris Baughan

In Britain there are no formal requirements for drivers to take any specified
amount or type of education, training or informal practice, either pre- or post-
test. The driving test is the main instrument for inducing learning drivers to
take sufficient training or practice.

A ‘provisional licence’ is available from age 17. In other countries, this might
be called a learner permit. It allows learners to drive when supervised by an
“Approved Driving Instructor” or by another adult aged 21 or over, and who
has held a full driving licence for at least three years. A computerised theory
test must be passed before the practical driving test can be booked. Since
November 2002 this has included a hazard perception test in which
candidates react to moving images of road scenes. Learner drivers are not
permitted to drive on motorways, and must display L-plates on the vehicle at
all times. They are not restricted to cars with dual controls. As soon as a
practical on-road driving test is passed, drivers are issued with a pass
certificate, which is valid for two years and enables them to apply for a full
licence – which they are encouraged to do as soon as possible.

The practical test lasts about 42 minutes and is conducted by a government

agency, the Driving Standards Agency. The examiner chooses one of several
set routes, and continuously monitors the candidate for 48 categories of pre-
defined error, each of which is assessed as a dangerous, serious or ‘driving’
(i.e. less serious) fault. Serious or dangerous faults are those judged to
involve actual or potential danger – and candidates who make one or more
such faults fail the test. The small number of candidates who make 16 or
more ‘driving’ faults also fail. There is no motorway driving during the test, but
many test routes incorporate sections of dual carriageway. At the end of the
test, candidates are given a copy of the examiner’s marking sheet, a written
explanation to help them understand the markings that have been recorded,
and an oral explanation of the main faults. The driving instructor is
encouraged to accompany the candidate on test and/or to listen to the
explanation at the end of the test.

Drivers who accumulate six or more penalty points for motoring offences
within the first two years after passing their driving test revert to learner
status. This means that they are not allowed to drive solo until they have
passed another driving test and must comply with all the restrictions that
apply to learner drivers. The intention is that this should reduce their
propensity to commit traffic offences, and to indulge in ‘offence-oriented’
behaviour of the type known to be associated with a raised accident liability.
In other words, the provision aims to exert a continued supervisory influence
on novice driver behaviour. Novice drivers are also permitted to carry ‘P’
plates to indicate their lack of experience, but few choose to do this.
 64

There have never been any requirements in Britain for learner drivers to take
professional instruction, so there is a very strongly established tradition for
supervision by parents or other adults, with over 50% of learners doing some
privately supervised driving. Nevertheless, over 99% of learner drivers have
some professional instruction, and 94% of driving tests in Britain take place in
a driving school car, though candidates are free to take the test in a non-
school car.

Results from a recent survey of people who had passed the driving test in
Britain showed that male candidates reported an average of about 35 hours
of professional instruction and about 21 hours of practice with a relative or
friend. The figures for female candidates were 51 and 23 hours respectively.
Table 1 gives more detail. Note that the response rate for test passers in this
survey was 45%.

Table 1 Total hours of driving, and hours of professional instruction, for 6492
candidates who passed the British driving test.
Age group Female Male
(years) Number Mean hours Mean hours Number Mean hours Mean hours
in group on-road on-road with in group on-road on-road with
training and professional training and professional
practice instructor practice instructor
17-19 2194 66.4 42.4 1924 53.4 32.1
20-24 699 78.7 59.7 376 60.6 39.4
25-29 333 80.7 62.1 161 54.2 43.1
30-39 371 91.6 65.8 197 78.4 48.6
40-49 129 98.5 66.1 41 80.3 53.6
50-59 49 137.7 106.4 7 75.1 32.7
60+ 9 120.3 80.9 2 126.0 93.5
Total 3784 74.5 51.3 2708 56.8 35.3

The training and testing system is regulated by the Driving Standards Agency,
which tests and checks Approved Driving Instructors (ADIs). The Agency also
trains and employs the driving examiners, who are subject to regular
supervision to maintain standards.

The Driving Standards Agency introduced a voluntary logbook scheme in

1998/9. This was intended to encourage learner drivers and their supervisors
to adopt a structured approach to learning to drive and take sufficient training
and practice to master all the competencies linked to safe driving.

Pre-driver education material is available for use in schools, but is not

compulsory. DSA has developed a national programme called ‘Arrive Alive’
where specially selected and trained examiners visit schools and similar
establishments to deliver road safety messages and explain what is involved
in the driving test. Post-test training (the Pass Plus scheme) is available on a
voluntary basis. It includes six modules, delivered by registered driving
instructors to develop a novice driver’s skills in areas such as driving on
motorways, at night, and in bad weather. Insurance discounts are available to
people who take Pass Plus training. The number of novice drivers taking
 65

Pass Plus is increasing, with over 11% of new drivers currently completing
the course.

Developments of the training, testing and licensing system to improve novice

driver safety are currently being considered in Britain. A review of the
practical driving test and related matters has recently been completed (e.g.
Maycock, 2002; Baughan and Simpson, 2002 and Baughan et al (in press)).
A public consultation document “Introducing a more structured approach to
learning to drive” was issued by the government in 2002 (Department for
Transport, Local Government and the Regions, 2002). A large-scale,
longitudinal study to monitor aspects of driver training and novice driver safety
is under way (Wells and Baughan, 2003) and will assess the effectiveness of
the hazard perception test as well as any other changes to testing, training or
licensing that may be introduced.
 66

11.3 Driver Training in Switzerland today by Stefan Siegrist, Jacqueline

Bächli-Biétry, Mario Cavegn and Markus Hubacher

11.3.1 Structure and contents of the present approach

In Switzerland applicants for a learner driver licence must declare their state
of health, provide information of possible addictions such as drugs or alcohol,
etc. An eyesight check-up carried out by an optician is compulsory;
furthermore a lifesaver course has to be attended, not longer than six years
beforehand. The minimal age for driver training is 18.

Table 1. Driver training in Switzerland (first phase)

Prerequisite to get a learner driver license:
Mandatory: • Life-saver course
Mandatory: • Eyesight test
Mandatory: • Form about physical and mental health status
Theoretical education
• VKU =Theory lessons about dangerous situations in traffic to
Mandatory: promote traffic sense and hazard perception (8 lessons)
• Preparation for the theoretical driving test. Theory lessons about
traffic rules are voluntary.
Practical education
• Preparation for the practical driving test. Practical lessons with a
driving teacher are voluntary.
• It is possible to practice with somebody who is older than 25
and in possession of a driving license for longer than 4 years
(layman instruction).
Mandatory: Driving test
• test about traffic rules (50 questions, multiple choice)
• Practical driving test (duration 50 minutes)
After passing the driving test, the driving license is issued for an indefinite period.
After failing the theoretical test 4 times or the practical driving test 3 times, the
candidate has to go to a traffic psychologist to test his driving aptitude with
psychological tests.

Since 1992 all beginners have to attend 8 theory lessons on cognitive skills
regarding detection of and coping with dangerous situations. These theory
lessons are called ”Verkehrskundeunterricht” (VKU).

The theoretical driving examination contains 50 questions about traffic rules

and a few on behaviour in traffic situations (multiple choice test). After
passing the theoretical examination, it is possible to apply for the practical test
which is a 50 minutes test-drive in real traffic (city and motorway). An expert
designated by the authorities accompanies the learner driver. When failing
the theoretical test four times or the practical driving test three times, the
 67

candidate will be sent to a psychologist in order to test his driving aptitude,

using psychological tests.

11.3.2 Process evaluation

An official survey in 1998 showed that over 80% of the young drivers
favoured the training promoting road sense during their first training phase.
More than 50% mentioned they would be prepared to visit the theory lessons
even if they were not mandatory. This fact can be interpreted as a clear sign
that the measure is based on broad acceptance. The study also showed that
male students were much more critical than young male drivers with a lower
educational level.

Attending professional theory lessons for traffic rules is voluntary. Over 60 %

of the learner drivers visit professional theory lessons. Students are taught
traffic signs, traffic rules and how to handle critical situations. There is no
need in Switzerland to practise with a professional driving teacher. Learner
drivers are allowed to practise with a layman instructor, but nevertheless most
learner drivers take 10 to 20 professional driving lessons. The following table
2 shows the distribution of professional driving lessons in a population of 601
learner drivers.

Table 2. Professional driving lessons (N= 601)

Professional driving lessons Average SD
male (N= 329) 14 lessons 8
female (N=272) 22 lessons 15
All 18 lessons 13

Table 2 clearly indicates that women visit more professional driving lessons
than men. There is also an effect of education: Young people with a higher
educational level take fewer professional driving lessons.

The possibility of layman instruction is often used in Switzerland. Nearly

everybody trains with a private person. The average is 23 hours (SD = 30
hours, 0 the minimum and 200 hours the maximum).

Table 3. Duration of the education (weeks) (N=601)

Duration of the education (weeks) average SD
male (N= 329) 31 weeks 22
female (N=272) 39 weeks 22
All 35 weeks 22

The duration of a ”normal driving education” is nearly 8 months (minimum 4

weeks, maximum 17 months). There is a difference between male and female
learner drivers. Women need more time than men. Over 40% of the learner
drivers fail the practical examination the first time.
 68

11.4 New measures introduced in the Netherlands by Martina Hendrix

11.4.1 A new driving method focusing on environmentally friendly

driving (Het Nieuwe Rijden, HNR, 2003)

The HNR programme is supported by the Ministry of Traffic and Waterworks,

the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment and the Ministry of
Economic Affairs. It is being run by NOVEM (the Dutch Organisation for
Energy and the environment) in co-operation with several branch and
consumer organisations like the BOVAG (a branch organisation whose
purpose is to serve as a platform for news, education and information).

General aims
The purpose of HNR is to introduce to (professional) drivers an optimal
driving method in relation to the technological developments in this field.
Except for a notable reduction in the emission of CO2, this driving style is
safer, more enjoyable, more comfortable and cheaper (as a result of lower
petrol costs, less wear and lower maintenance and damage costs).

Why?
Over the last 10-15 years cars have changed a lot, both in their design and
with regards to their engines: fuel injection systems, motor management
systems, improved lubricants and fuel, and more power at lower revs. This
requires a different driving style from drivers. The aim of HNR is to encourage
the use of these new appliances (reducing fuel consumption) and to educate
drivers in the techniques and advantages of environmentally friendly driving.

Basic principles
HNR is based on the following principles: fluent, safe, comfortable and
environmentally friendly driving. But it is more than just a driving style. It
targets 4 elements:
- driving style
- purchasing behaviour
- tire pressure
- fuel saving accessories

Driving style
HNR involves relatively small modifications to one’s driving style, albeit with
noticeable results. The most important tips are:
- shift gears as soon as possible (at a maximum of 2500 revs for gasoline
engines and 2000 revs for diesel engines) and to as high a gear as possible.
- step down fast and steadily on the gas pedal so that you can keep up with
the rest of the traffic easily.
- don’t shift down gears too quickly, and let the car roll in as high a gear as
possible for as long as possible without pressing down the clutch.
 69

Purchasing behaviour
Since January 2001, cars have energy labels, allowing consumers to sea how
economical a new car is.

Tire pressure
By regularly checking and maintaining the correct tire pressure, 1 to 2 full
tanks of petrol can be saved a year.
Other advantages are: good tyre grip, increased comfort, less wear.

Fuel saving accessories

Some examples are cruise control, on board computer systems and fuel
consumption meters.

HNR and the practical training for category B

To transmit the message of HNR to as many people as possible, it is
important for learner drivers to be introduced to this method as quickly as
possible. To achieve this, a training programme for instructors and examiners
was set up. In the development of this training a large number of
organisations were involved, like for example BOVAG-VAN (Traffic training
organisation), CBR (the Central Bureau of Licensing, the Dutch driver testing
authority), FAM (driving schools association), INNOVAM (training and testing
organisation for driving instructors), OTC-Rij (training centre for the army) and
the PIVM (the Dutch Police organisation for traffic and the environment). The
training programme consists of a theory and a practical part and focuses on
the application of the HNR techniques and how to pass these on to learner
drivers (for examiners the training focuses on recognising HNR if this is
applied by the candidate as it is not a compulsory part of the driving test).

Some examples of elements covered in the training include:

- HNR has a lot in common with anticipatory driving, traffic awareness
and defensive driving

- Be aware of other options. In other words, do you need to take the

car? Is it perhaps better to take the bicycle or use public transport.
Maybe you don’t need to use any type of transport but can deal with
the problem over the phone.
Another consideration is that short trips, especially when the engine is
cold produce a relatively large amount of pollution. The engine does
not reach a high enough temperature and the harmful exhaust fumes
are relatively high. Except for the negative environmental effects,
repeated short trips are also very bad for the car.

- Anticipation. Drivers should be aware of what is happening in front of

them by looking far enough ahead, continually changing their field of
view (looking in front of the car, looking in the rear view mirror in the
outside mirrors), looking far ahead and then close by. To be able to do
this, the driver must have a clear view provided by the correct sitting
position and correctly adjusted mirrors.
 70

By leaving enough space between yourself and the cars in front of you
and by anticipating what could happen, drivers have enough space to
react to situations without having to jam down the brake or accelerate
dramatically.

11.4.2 Driver Training Stepwise (DTS, 2003)

The DTS (Rijopleiding in Stappen) is a modular driver training system where

all the training requirements have been built into an integrated programme.
The starting point and guidelines for the development of DTS were developed
on the basis of what a car driver should know, what he should be able to
perform and how he should behave in traffic. The objective of DTS can be
summarised as follows:
“Driver Training Stepwise leads to novice drivers that are better educated,
that show safer and more responsible traffic behaviour and have less
accidents than novice drivers than followed traditional training.”

DTS consists of 4 modules:

Module 1: vehicle checks and vehicle operation (e.g. shifting gears, braking,
etc.)
Module 2: Control of simple manoeuvring and simple driving tasks (e.g.
driving on rural roads at a low speed)
Module 3: Advanced vehicle operation and control of complex manoeuvring
and complex driving tasks (e.g. driving in busy city traffic, driving on
motorways, etc.)
Module 4: Safe and responsible traffic participation (including driving under
difficult circumstances, plotting out journeys, etc.).

Throughout all the modules the learner driver is introduced to environmentally

friendly driving.

The learner driver is trained through “handling scripts” which describe the
essential steps that drivers must take to successfully complete a driving task.
DTS contains 39 scripts for the standard driving tasks and learner drivers can
only move to another script when they have mastered the one before. The
handling scripts provide a universal and understandable “language” improving
the communication between the learner driver, driving instructor and CBR
examiner. The scripts also make the learner drivers think about how and why
they are learning various driving tasks and ensure that the instructors teach
the driving tasks in a structured and uniform way. Another advantage of the
scripts is that the instructor needs to adjust to the learning style of the learner
driver. Each new student needs to be taught the scripts in the way that suits
him/her best (some start by learning the scripts from paper whilst others need
to be shown what the script involves before they can learn the theory).

An example of a script is the following:

Starting the engine

 71

Handbrake
Gearstick in neutral
Left foot down on clutch pedal
Turn the ignition key.

Each module of the DTS finishes with a test to monitor the progress of the
learner driver. The test after module 1 is taken by the instructor, the test after
modules 2 and 3 by a CBR examiner and the test after module 4 is the final
practical driving test and as such is also taken by a CBR examiner. These
intermediary tests mean that driving instructors and examiners meet on a
more regular basis, improving the communication between them.

The first study with DTS showed very positive results. Normally the pass rate
in the region where the study was done is about 43%. The pass rate for those
studying through DTS was 83%. One of the initial fears was that students
training through the DTS would require more lessons. This was not the case.
The number of lessons taken by DTS students was the same as the average
number of lessons taken by students training with the “traditional” method.

Another difference between the DTS drivers and drivers trained though
traditional methods was the quality. DTS candidates and traditionally trained
candidates were given marks (from 1, being very bad to 10, being very good)
for the following 3 elements: vehicle operation, insightful driving and rule
based driving (Figure 1).

50 %

40 %

30 %
DTS
20 % Traditional

10 %

0%
Vehicle Insightful Rule
operation driving based
driving

Figure 1. Percentage of candidates with assessments of 7 or higher DTS and

traditional training
 72

The second study of the DTS included 1000 learner drivers and 80 driving
instructors. This study will be concluded at the end of 2003. The preliminary
results are again very positive.

On the basis of these successes, the Dutch minister of Traffic and

Waterworks decided to proceed to a nationwide introduction of the DTS. The
CBR was approached to handle this and has been conducting an information
campaign, answering all kinds of questions from those who are interested in
this new approach to driver training. Preparations have been made for
training programmes for instructors and examiners and these will start in
2003. The DTS will be introduced at a national level in the 2nd quarter of
2003.

11.4.3 The beginner’s License (Ministry of Transport and CBR, 2003)

On 30 March 2002, the beginner’s license was introduced in The

Netherlands. The beginner’s license restricts new holders of a driving license
to good behaviour by punishing certain offences with penalty points. This
means that novice drivers will have to abide by stricter rules and will be
punished more severely if they commit serious offences.

Novice drivers will receive a penalty point if they are detained and convicted
for tailgating (following too closely to the vehicle in front), exceeding the
speed limit by more than 30 km/h, driving with a blood alcohol level higher
than 0.2‰ or causing lethal accidents or accidents where others are seriously
injured. After a novice driver has received 3 penalty points, his/her license will
be temporarily suspended and an investigation is carried out into the person’s
driving competence. If this proves to be unsatisfactory, the license will be
withdrawn and the novice driver will have to retake both the theory and the
practical test.

If the novice driver has received less than 3 penalty points over the 5 year
period after he/she received his/her license, the beginner’s license
automatically becomes a full driving license.

11.4.4 The Learner Interim Test or TTT (Tussentijdse Toets, Ministry of

Transport and CBR, 2003)

The pass rate for the practical test for category B in The Netherlands is
relatively low (43.2% in 2001). To increase this rate, several measures have
been introduced, like the DTS and the TTT. Tests with the TTT started in
1996 and in 2000, the TTT was formally registered in the traffic legislation.

The first tests conducted with the TTT took place in the south of The
Netherlands. The evaluation was done by the SWOV (a road safety research
 73

organisation) and Traffic Test (a traffic and transport research organisation)

and focussed on the effect of the test on pass rates and the expectations,
motives and experiences of learner drivers, examiners and instructors.
Despite the fact that there was an element of self selection (the learner
drivers were older that the average learner driver and 45% of those who took
the TTT were educated in driving schools with a pass rate that is higher than
the average), the results showed that the average pass rate of those who had
taken the TTT was 20% higher and that this was true irrespective of the
driving school that had trained the learner driver. As a result, it was decided to
make the TTT a part of Dutch traffic law.

All drivers preparing for the practical test for category B, B+E or A are eligible
to take a TTT.

The TTT is a driving test, conducted as though it was the final driving test. It
takes place when the learner driver is about three-quarters of the way through
his/her training and provides a guideline for the learner driver and instructor
concerning the areas that still need to be worked on. It gives candidates a
chance to familiarise themselves with an exam situation and therefore reduce
nervousness for the actual test. Candidates can choose to take the final test
with the same examiner as the one who conducted the TTT.

During the TTT, a CBR examiner evaluates the candidate’s driving skills. All
elements that are included in the final test are included (the special
manoeuvres, the vehicle check and driving in traffic) and the level required is
the same as for the final test. The test takes as long as the final test (about 55
minutes for category B) and the instructor accompanies the candidate during
the TTT. Once the TTT has been completed, the candidate receives an
advice form on which the examiner has indicated what areas need additional
attention.

An additional advantage and motivation for learner drivers to take the TTT is
that they can achieve an exemption from the special manoeuvres exercises
required in the driving test if they perform these correctly in the TTT.

To be able to take the TTT, candidates need to have a theory certificate. The
timing is decided by the candidate and the driving school. The CBR advises
candidates to take this test after having completed about three quarters of
their driving training.

11.4.5 BOVAG driving license guarantee (BOVAG Rijbewijsgarantie,

2003)

The BOVAG is an organisation for all those involved in vehicles, from sales to
training and even petrol stations. One of its departments is BOVAG-VAN (the
department driver training association). Driving schools in The Netherlands
can become a member of this department provided they meet a number of
criteria (e.g. a certain pass rate, a minimum number of driving tests per year),
 74

giving them several advantages (e.g. collective insurance coverage, or the

option to be assessed for the three-star BOVAG-VAN quality label). In 2002,
the BOVAG-VAN had 739 members.

The BOVAG driving license guarantee, introduced in September 2002, is a

driver training system whereby learner drivers can get their license for a
previously agreed price within an agreed upon period of time.

To be eligible for this type of driver training, the learner driver has to meet a
number of conditions. Some examples are:
- the learner driver must be at least 18 years old
- the learner driver must have followed at least four 60-minute lessons per
week throughout his training period
- the intake must show that the learner driver is a suitable candidate for the
BOVAG driving license guarantee
- the learner driver must have a theory test certificate before taking the TTT
- the driver training can take a maximum of 3 years

How does it work?

The aspiring learner driver presents himself at the driving school of his choice
(which must be a member of BOVAG to be able to offer this system) and
must then do an intake test. This consists of a personality test (which can be
done on Internet and consists of 110 questions) and a practical test (the
learner driver will drive for about one hour with an instructor, indicating what
he/she can and cannot do). On the basis of the intake test, it will be decided
which programme best suits the aspiring learner driver.

There are four possible packages in the BOVAG driving license guarantee:
- programme A (23 lessons)
- programme B (31 lessons)
- programme C (39 lessons)
- programme D (47 lessons)

Once the learner driver has passed his theory test, taken his Learner Interim
Test and completed his training programme he will take his final practical
driving test at the CBR. If he fails, he will take a predetermined number of
extra lessons and then retake his practical driving test (at no extra cost). If he
fails again, he will take more lessons and then the test (again at no extra cost)
until he passes the test or has failed the driving test 8 times (after which the
guarantee is no longer valid). There is also a maximum of 30 additional
lessons.

For the time being, the BOVAG driving license guarantee is only available for
category B driver training.
 75

11.5 Driver Education In Steps – Results of two small-scale evaluation

studies into the effectiveness and efficiency of a new educational
commercial programme in the Netherlands by Charles Goldenbeld

11.5.1 Introduction

In the Netherlands, candidate drivers are not required by law to follow a driver
education in order to apply for a driving test at the Central Bureau of
Licensing (CBR). In practice, almost all candidate drivers take several driving
lessons at commercial driving schools in order to prepare for the test.
Currently, there are about 5000 driving schools in the Netherlands. The Dutch
government cannot formally specify the requirements of driver education. In
co-operation with the Central Bureau of Licensing, the government can
indirectly exert some influence on driver education by changing the test
requirements. In general, driver education will adapt in some sense to the test
requirements.

There are two basic facts that indicate that driver training in the Netherlands
can be improved. First, in the Netherlands like in other European countries,
young car drivers are over-represented in traffic accidents. Second, in the
Netherlands, the persistently high failure rate of learner drivers (about half of
the candidates pass the first exam) is seen as a structural imbalance between
driver education and the demands imposed by driver testing. A high failure
rate tends to put negative strains on these relationships. The low pass rates
indicate that driver education does not prepare learner drivers well enough for
the test. There can be several reasons for this, such as applying for the test
too soon when the learner is not ready, insufficient time spent on reliable
acquisition of certain driving skills, or no time spent at all on certain driving
tasks.

In order to address these possible shortcomings of driver education, a

voluntary coalition was formed between representatives of government, local
safety organisations and the central driving licence authority. The goals were
to devise a new form of driver training which is both commercially viable and
attractive and which offers better quality in terms of both pass rate and driving
performance. The new driver training programme is called RIS (Driver
Education in Steps, or Rijopleiding in Stappen).

The modular driver education differs from the traditional (commercial) driver
education in the Netherlands in two fundamental respects:
1. The pupil learns how to drive a car in consecutive stages.
2. The pupil is only allowed to enter the next stage of learning if he or
she shows complete mastery of the previous stage. During the
modular education, at the end of each learning stage there is a test
to ascertain whether the pupil has acquired the expected level.

Besides the modular structure of the driver education, the modular education
programme also has a number of extra elements in comparison to traditional
 76

driver education, namely: emphasis on defensive driving, driving under

specific circumstances, self-reliant route driving and fuel-effective
environmentally-responsible driving.

11.5.2 Aims

In 1999, small-scale evaluation research (Vissers and Bos, 1999) was done
to establish:
1. the experiences of different stakeholders with the new educational
programme (process evaluation)
2. the effects of the new programme in terms of knowledge, insight,
ability and motivation of the newly trained pupils

In 2000 a second small-scale evaluation study was carried out (Traffic Test,
2001). In addition to questions about how the driving instructors and the
pupils experienced and rated the new programme, two new research
questions were:
1. Do candidate drivers who were trained according to RIS achieve a
higher pass rate than regularly trained candidate drivers?
2. Do candidate drivers who were trained according to RIS actually
drive safer than regularly trained drivers do?

11.5.3 Methods

During the trial programme 10 driving instructors taught 52 pupils according to

the modular programme. Of these 52 pupils, 40 (rate of return 77%) returned
the research questionnaire containing questions about the experiences with
the modular programme and their appreciation of these experiences.

Table 1. The sex and age composition of the sample.

18 years 19 years 20-24 years
Male 28% 10% 13%
Female 33% 3% 15%
Total 60% 13% 28%

In the research report it is mentioned (on page 19) that in view of the
characteristics of age, sex and education the research group is a cross
sample from the total sample of driving school pupils. This is not, however,
proved or supported in the report by a comparison of figures between the
research sample and the wider sample.

The first evaluation study collected the following information from the different
actors:
- The driving instructors completed a questionnaire and voiced their opinions
and experiences at a group discussion meeting.
- The CBR examiners who tested the newly trained pupils voiced their
opinions in a group discussion at the end of the pilot.
- The newly trained pupils filled in a questionnaire directly after the
educational programme was over (irrespective of whether they had passed or
 77

failed the final test). Also the test results of the specially trained pupils were
compared to the results of traditionally trained pupils.

In the second evaluation study a total of 109 candidates followed the RIS and
took the final test. These candidates were volunteers who received
information about RIS at the driving school (information about expected
quality and contents of the new training programme) and found this
information appealing. Of these 109 candidates, 75 (response rate 70%) sent
back questionnaires.

Table 2. Composition of RIS-group as to age and sex.

18 19-24 25 and older Total
Male 21% 8% 5% 33%
Female 28% 25% 13% 67%
Total 49% 33% 18%

In the Netherlands, a written survey was made amongst driving candidates in

1999 (Bos and Vissers, 2000). The aim of the survey was to establish the
performance of regular driver training in the Netherlands. A number of
questions in this survey were also included in the questionnaire sent to the
RIS candidates. In this way, a comparison was possible between the
perceived aspects of regular driver training and the RIS training.

11.5.4 Main results

Results of study 1

Results concerning instructors:

Instructors expressed the need for a clear working manual about the new
driver education in which the most important subjects are explained in
practical language. The general impression was that the instructors did not
significantly change their traditional style of instruction. The provision of the
modular structure and the detailed curriculum and detailed curriculum chart is
not enough to make the instructors aware of the desired changes in the
education programme. In general, more attention should be given to the
didactic skills of the instructors.

The instructors had the impression that the modular programme takes up
more time than the traditional programme, since more subjects had to be
treated than in the traditional programme. The driver instructors were positive
about the structure of the modular programme; they did not indicate parts that
were missing. They completely agreed with the division of the different
instruction parts over the four modules.

Results concerning pupils:

The pupils that were trained according to the modular programme did not
need more lessons than the traditionally trained pupils in order to qualify for
the test. The pass rate of the modular-trained pupils was higher (72% passed
the test at the first attempt) than the pass rate of the traditionally trained
 78

pupils in the region (pass rate 46%). The pupils were very much aware that
the teaching contents were offered in modules and they evaluated this
method positively. In practice, the principle of modular sequence was not
always upheld. One third of the pupils were given new teaching subjects
before they actually had achieved complete control over the previous subject.
The pupils found the interim testing after each module very sensible. They
expected to be less nervous at the final test and they think their insight into
their own learning progress is improved by the testing. In comparison to the
traditionally trained pupils, the modular-trained pupils reported more often that
they received good explanations, instruction and demonstration from their
instructors. According to pupils’ reports, defensive driving did not receive
more emphasis in the modular training program than in the traditional training
program. The modular-trained pupils are aware that they still have little driving
experience and in general are not overconfident about their skills.

Results of study 2

In respect to the results of the 2000 evaluation, there are some qualifications
to be made. First, the candidates for the RIS-programme selected themselves
for entry into the programme. It cannot be ruled out that a self-selection bias
has, to a certain extent, contributed to the positive findings. Second, it has not
been objectively established that the RIS programme takes up the same
amount of time as the regular training (although the RIS-instructors certainly
had that impression). Third, as the authors of the evaluation point out, there is
still no data on the possible long term effects of RIS-training on the behaviour
of the RIS-candidates.

In the RIS-sample females and persons of higher education were over-

represented in comparison to a general sample of driver candidates. In
comparisons between the RIS-sample and the larger sample no correction
was made for these differences. In comparison to regular training candidates,
candidates reported more frequently that the following points were applied
during their driving lessons:
-demonstration by instructor how behaviour should be performed
-explanation of instructor before the lesson of the main subject of the lesson
-explanation of the relevance of the subject
-explanation of new parts
-opportunity to exercise new points
-explanation of points for improvement
-discussion of the contents of the lesson
-regular judgement of performance
-integration of theory and practice
-keeping track of progress in written form

Of the candidates who were trained by RIS, 83% passed the test at the first
attempt. This is 35 percentage points higher than the average pass rate of
candidates with regular training and an Interim Test in the testing cities of
Arnhem and Nijmegen, and it is 37 percentage points higher than the average
pass rate in 2000 of the driving schools who co-operated in the pilot.
 79

11.5.5 Considerations about the evaluation of RIS

According to the principle of methodological soundness, the two evaluation

studies do not rule out alternative explanations for the results. Thus these
studies are not conclusive as to the effects of the new training on behaviour.
According to this criterion one could state that nothing has been proven yet.
There is something more to be said about the results if we take other
scientific criteria into account. The principle of parsimony states that in a
scientific sense, all things being equal, the simplest theory or explanation is to
be preferred above more complex theories.

According to the principle of parsimony, the totality of the results is most

simply explained by assuming that the new training course indeed produces
positive effects. In that case one explanatory mechanism – the RIS course
actually performs better than regular training – simply accounts for all the
different results concerning pass rate, impressions of instructors and of
trainees.

The alternative would be to assume that in both evaluation studies instructors,

examiners and candidates were very biased in their opinions, had biased
memories and perceptions as to the quality of the course. The examiners may
have had an interest in promoting RIS and acted upon that interest in
falsifying exam results. The instructors may have had very skewed
impressions as to the duration of the RIS course, that selection bias was
operating to favour the pass rate results. Instead of one explanatory
mechanism you would have to invoke several alternative explanatory
mechanisms in order to explain away all the results.

Some of the alternative explanations simply do not seem to make much

sense. The selection bias that has occurred in the 2001 research (more
females, more highly educated participating in RIS) seems not to favour RIS,
but to work against it. The assumption that fore-knowledge about RIS-
trainees can bias examiners to lean in their judgement in favour of RIS-
applicants seems farfetched. The large difference in pass rates suggests that
this bias takes up the form of active falsifying of results. But why would
examiners be motivated to do an extreme thing like that? The alternative
explanations for the results are simply not very credible. This is not to deny
that some kind of bias may be present in the findings and that the findings
may very well present a too rosy picture.

These considerations have led Dutch experts to view the results of both
evaluation studies as positive and to describe the new approach as
promising. Currently a new evaluation study is being carried out to establish
more conclusively the behavioural effects of RIS.
 80

11.6 The effect on accident risk of a change in driver education in

Denmark. Summary written by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

From RFT-report 2/1996, RFT-report 1/1997 and Accident Analysis and

Prevention 34 (2002) 111-121, all by Gitte Carstensen.

11.6.1 Introduction

In October 1986 new rules for driver training were introduced in Denmark.
According to the new rules, the training should follow a specific and very
detailed education plan, which described in great detail the individual
manoeuvres and other car driving skills that were to be learned. Changes
were made in form as well as content of the training. One main change was to
introduce defensive driving and hazard perception, which was also made a
theme at the driving test. The Danish system does not permit lay-instructed
training. The trainee must attend at least 26 lectures of theory and 20
sessions of practice.

Aim
Two sub-studies have been carried out with the aim to evaluate the change.
The first was an analysis of official accident statistics with the aim to
investigate effects on accident involvement. The second was a questionnaire
study with the aim to provide additional information on the effects of the
change.

Methods
For the accident statistics study, development in police-reported injury
accidents were analysed 6 years before and 6 years after the change.
Accidents were analysed for 18-19 year olds (new licence holders) and 24-54
year olds (experienced). The results were compared to the general accident
trend and changes in population size, number of licence holders, annual
mileage, weather conditions and drink driving habits.

The second study was based on questionnaires sent to randomly selected

new licence holders two years before (1985-1986) and two years after (1988-
1989) the change. The samples, 1000 drivers in each, received
questionnaires shortly after licensure, after 1.5, 3.5 and 5.5 years. The
questions in the first covered the training process, driving habits and attitudes.
In the other, questions were added about exposure and accident involvement.
The return rate was 54% for all four questionnaires and an additional 18%
returned three, 12% returned two. In all, one or more questionnaires were
received from 93% of the samples.

Since the introduction of the change there have been many complaints about
teachers not following the curriculum. In addition to the effect studies, a
conference was therefore held with 46 trainers in order to clarify existing
conditions for driving schools so that they comply with the new rules.
 81

11.6.2 Results

The accident analyses showed that the accident involvement among the 18-
19 years old drivers decreased after 1986. The reduction was larger than
among the older drivers (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Indexed number of injury accident involvement for the two groups
1977-1994. Index=100 in 1985 with 916 accidents in the young group and
4614 accidents in the older group. (Carstensen, 2002).

The analyses of confounding factors, general accident trend and changes in

population size, number of licence holders, annual mileage, weather
conditions and drink driving habits showed that none of these could explain
the difference in development of accident involvement between the two
groups.

The findings were supported by the results of the questionnaire studies. The
decrease in accident involvement was also found in these results. The
decrease was concentrated in the first year of driving. The decrease was
found among multiple vehicle accidents and manoeuvring accidents, while the
number of single accidents did not change.

The answers from the process-related questions showed that most of the
students, although not all, had carried out the practical parts of the new
curriculum. Starting on a closed driving range was done by 90% of students,
motorway driving was practised by 90% and driving in darkness was
experienced by 80%. It was also found that there were severe difficulties in
co-ordinating the theoretical and practical parts and adjusting practice to an
increased degree of difficulty. There was also a relation found between the
content of the training and the accident reduction showing that trainees who
followed the stipulated curriculum well had a larger reduction than those who
did not meet all requirements.
 82

In the conference discussions with trainers it was found that there were
several problems related to the driver education in Denmark. As the
predominant problems, the participants pointed out the keen competition
among driving schools, cheating to make profits and doubts concerning the
interpretation of the curriculum. This study is, however, not representative for
all trainers and should be regarded as an indicator of existing problems, not
how common they are to all.

11.6.3 Conclusions

As a consequence of the results of the accident analyses, it is reasonable to

believe that the changed content of the training has had an effect on the
accident involvement. The actual size of the effect is estimated to be
somewhere between 21% and 7%, where 21% is the observed difference
between the younger and older groups and 7% is the remaining difference
after fully compensating for the changes in the population size of the two
groups. Annually, this is equivalent to 50-150 saved injury accidents.

Concerning the problems that were detected in the conference with trainers,
the conclusions were that there was a need for increased control of the
driving schools, development of better guidelines and improvement of the
education of driver instructors. The conclusion was also reached that parents
should be more involved and informed about the content and importance of
good instruction. This is important since it would improve their ability to
evaluate offers from different driving schools.
 83

11.7 Phase 2 in the Norwegian driver education. Effect on the accident

risk. Summary written by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

From TÖI-report 0015/1988 by Alf Glad

11.7.1 Introduction

In 1979 a scheme for a driver training in two phases was put into effect in
Norway. (The change was evaluated in 1988 and is no longer in effect.) The
first phase included theoretical and practical training, usually in a driving
school, a short slippery surface driving course and, if the nights were
sufficiently dark, a dark driving course. The first phase of the training ended
with a driving test and if this test was passed, the drivers obtained a
preliminary driving licence, valid for two years.

During the second of these two years, the drivers had to participate in 3
courses:
• A classroom course, focusing on defensive driving
• A slippery surface driving course, where the driver practised various
emergency manoeuvres
• A dark driving course, which was the same as that in phase 1. Drivers
who took the course in phase 1 were left out. The course
demonstrated dangers and problems related to driving in the dark and
showed how to avoid and reduce these problems

There was no test after the second-phase courses. Having finished the
courses, the driver received a permanent licence.

Aim
The aim of the study was to investigate the effects on road accidents of:
• The period with a preliminary licence
• The dark driving and slippery surface driving course in phase 1
• The dark driving and slippery surface driving course in phase 2

Methods
Data on accidents and annual driving distances were obtained by sending
questionnaires to two samples, in total 18,000 drivers. The control sample
consisted of drivers who received their driving licence in the year immediately
prior to the implementation of the new scheme. The phase 2 sample received
their driving licence in 1981, that is after the change. Both samples were
randomly divided into 3 groups. The groups belonging to the control sample
were named as A, B and C, while the phase 2 samples were named X, Y and
Z. The groups A and X reported accident involvement and driving distances
for their first plus second year of driving, the groups B and Y for their third
plus fourth year, and the groups C and Z for the fifth plus sixth year. The
drivers were requested to report all kinds of accidents. Hence, the majority of
the accidents were minor property damage accidents only.
 84

The response rate was about 65%. Each group numbered between 3700 and
4100 drivers. The data was analysed with multiple regression analysis. The
dependent variables were:
• Total number of accidents
• Number of accidents in the dark
• Number of accidents on icy or snow covered roads

The independent variables were:

• Dark driving course in phase 1
• Slippery surface course in phase 1
• Dark driving course in phase 2
• Slippery surface course in phase 2
• Driver training in driving school or not
• Previous driver licence
• Annual driving distance
• Annual driving distance in the dark
• Annual driving distance on icy or snow covered roads
• Age
• Sex
• Quarter of the year when the licence was issued
• Geographical region

The effect of the period with a preliminary licence was investigated by

performing multiple regression analyses of the pooled data from group A and
X. The drivers in these groups had approximately the same driving
experience, but the drivers in group X had a preliminary licence while the
drivers from group A had an ordinary and permanent licence. The drivers in
group X report data from a period that roughly covers the period with the
preliminary licence. In these analyses the independent variable “group A or X”
was added to the other independent variables.

The effects of the courses in phase 1 and phase 2 were studied by

performing multiple regression analyses of pooled data from group A and X,
pooled data from group B and Y, and pooled data from group C and Z. Before
pooling, the data from drivers in group A, B and C with a dark driving and/or a
slippery surface driving course were removed, because the content and
duration of the courses and the way the courses were carried out was
unknown. For the drivers in X, Y and Z the courses were mandatory. The
minority without a dark driving course and a slippery surface course was
estimated to be a biased group and accordingly the data for these drivers
were excluded before pooling.

11.7.2 Results

The analyses of the effects of the period with a preliminary licence, that is the
analyses of the pooled data from group A and X showed no significant
relation between the period with a preliminary licence and any of the
dependent variables. The analyses of the effects of the courses in phase 1
 85

and phase 2 showed no consistent and significant relation between the

courses in phase 1 and any of the dependent variables.

Drivers with a dark driving course in phase 2 showed significantly fewer

accidents in the dark than drivers without this course. This positive effect
appears only for the first couple of years after the course.

The slippery surface course showed a significant and consistent negative

effect. Drivers with this course had more accidents in general, more accidents
on icy or snow covered roads than drivers without this course. This negative
effect appears only for the first couple of years after the course. Both the
positive effect of the dark driving course and the negative effect of the
slippery surface course apply only to male drivers. The size of the effects is
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Percent change of average number of accidents for different courses

in phase 2 and 95% confidence intervals
Course Accident type Change (conf. intervals)
Dark driving phase 2 Darkness -37% (-70/-4)
All +17% (+1/+33)
Slippery surface phase 2 Darkness +44% (+8/+81)
Slippery surface +23% (+4/+42)

11.7.3 Conclusions

The different effects of the dark driving and the slippery surface driving
courses are probably due to the different aims of the courses and ways the
courses were carried out. The dark driving course demonstrates the danger
and problems of night-time driving and shows how to avoid or to reduce these
dangers or problems. The slippery surface driving course on the other hand
focused on improving driving skills so that the drivers can cope with the
problems related to driving on slippery roads. Since most drivers at the end
master the different exercises in the course, it is possible that many drivers
will have unrealistic views of their own driving skills. This may result in more
risky driving and more accidents.

This outcome is more likely for males than for female drivers. Men value
driving skill and fast driving higher and are probably more readily negatively
influenced by the course than women who place a higher value on safety.

Another possible explanation of the different results for male and female
drivers is related to the drivers’ safety margins. Male drivers drive with a
smaller safety margin than female drivers. Any change in the driving
behaviour for the better or the worse will more readily result in changes of the
accident rates for males than for females.

The evaluation has showed that the effects of the phase 2 course in dark
driving had an accident reducing effect. No specific changes were needed
 86

other than possible strengthening of the message with potentially even better
effects.

Concerning the slippery surface driving course, the negative results showed a
need for change, either by removing the course or by changing it. A possible
change would be to avoid the car control skill training in critical situations and
instead focus on showing how to avoid becoming involved in critical
situations, teach about safe speed choice and to assess road surface
conditions. An ideal solution would probably be to provide the drivers with
good skills in combination with respect for low friction and excessive
speeding.
 87

11.8 The Finnish two-phase driver training by Mika Hatakka

In this chapter the development, ideas and evaluation results of Finnish two-
phase system are described.

11.8.1 Characteristics

General description of the system

All drivers have to take the second phase of driver training within 6-24 months
after getting the preliminary license. A permanent license is granted at the
earliest 1 year 6 months after licensing if the course is completed. If the driver
does not complete the course before 24 months after licensing, the license
will be suspended. A new preliminary license can be applied for but getting
the permanent license will be delayed by at least one year and six months.
This, in turn, has effects on the consequences of traffic violations (warning
letter after first violation, easier call for discussion with police officer and
suspension of license with fewer violations than for more experienced
drivers).

The second phase of training can take place only in authorised driving
schools. The course typically starts with a self-evaluation at home, a
computerised self-evaluation of social driving style at driving school, 50
minutes driving feedback session with the instructor in normal traffic at the
driving school home location, and an 8 hour- course day at a driving range.
The course is divided into three main parts: analysis of personal driving skill
and style, track training, and classroom training. The training at the range
includes three hours of practical exercises and five hours of classroom
instruction.

The first phase of training can be done in driving school or by layman

instruction. The driving school curriculum consists of 20 theoretical lessons
and a minimum of 30x25min driving lessons. Both layman instruction and
training in driving schools can start at age 17 ½. Training is followed by a
computerised audio-visual test and a 45 minutes driving test including a
feedback session.

At present, roughly 80% of the candidates for B-category license take

professional training and 20% the layman instruction. It is not possible to
combine professional and layman instruction. The layman instructor is
typically the mother or father of the candidate. A computerised audio-visual
test and a permit are required for the layman instructor. The car should also
be inspected and an extra brake affecting all four wheels is required for the
instructor, in addition to a learner sign.

There have been discussions about combined models and the use of
extended layman instruction starting at age of 16, but so far they have not
been applied partly because of the lack of evidence and research in the area.
Another reason is obviously a kind of satisfaction with the present system.
 88

In an earlier study (Hatakka, 1998) it was shown that the pass rates in driving
test are somewhat lower (71%) for candidates with layman instruction when
compared to professionally trained (82%). There was a similar, but less clear,
trend also in the theoretical test. The populations seem to be somewhat
selected, reflecting a higher socio-economical status for layman instruction.
The driving history after training does not reveal any large differences. In the
evaluation of the feedback driving of the second phase, the layman-instructed
drivers seem to make somewhat more mistakes in, for example, road
positioning. The accident rates are, however, similar.

11.8.2 Pedagogical guidelines in the second phase

At the most general level, three principles are followed. Safety is considered
as the most important goal in driving generally. Factors connected with
maintenance of safety margins (defined broadly) as well as control of
personal behaviour are emphasised. The second principle is ecological use of
a car. Economical and safe driving styles fit well together. Training an
economical driving style is easier in the second phase than in the first phase
of driver training because the drivers have already had some personal
experiences, and their skills are better.

The third major principle is that the training in itself should be closely
connected to reality. This requires the use of drivers’ personal experiences as
widely as possible and encouraging the driver to reflect on their personal
driving habits and motives.

The emphasis of training is on skills for social interaction in traffic,

anticipatory, economical and ecological driving styles and philosophy. This is
to say that the training is no longer concentrating on basic but rather on more
advanced aspects of driving.

It is impossible to fail the course, although extra training can be suggested by

the driving school instructor. Because of the bad experiences of compulsory
skid-training in Norway, Finland selected an approach that was earlier used
by the Central Organisation for Traffic Safety in Finland. The emphasis was
clearly on avoidance of risk situations instead of mastery of technical skills
when already in trouble. However, since the beginning of the system, the
training methods have changed radically.

In the Finnish driving Schools Association’s curriculum for driver training in

the 2nd phase and in the manual for track driving, the training is divided into
three parts. In the latest version of the curriculum for 2nd phase of driver
training, the emphasised aspects of the training are explained in the following
way:

1. The main emphasis of training is on skills for social interaction in traffic,

anticipatory, economical and ecological way of driving and thinking.
2. Active learning methods as well as differentiation and individually-oriented
methods are emphasised.
 89

3. Training is divided into three main parts: analysis, track, classroom.

The size of the group is set at a maximum of 12 students. During track

lessons the group is divided into two groups. The maximum number of
students per instructor on track is 6. This is considered necessary for the
efficiency of training and safety.

11.8.3 Practical methods

Although the duration of second phase of training is rather limited, it is divided

into three sections that all have goals of their own but are tightly
interconnected.

1. Analysis of personal driving skills and style

„ Self-evaluation of personal driving habits and skills with a
questionnaire (used in the feedback session with the instructor)
„ Analysis of a hazardous situation that happened during the
intermediate phase
„ Computerised “test” of social interaction style in traffic
„ Evaluation of personal driving skills and habits in normal traffic
„ Feedback discussion

The goal of this first section is to activate the driver to the training, to analyse
and diagnose his or her personal weaknesses and to encourage the driver to
self-evaluate and provide feedback. Training is individual. (2x25min driving
lessons, 40 min personal discussions/self evaluations and feedback). Fuel
consumption computers are widely in use.

Evaluation of personal driving habits and skills aims to motivate the driver to
further develop and train his/her driving skills and habits. Feedback is
especially emphasised. The analysis section ends with a feedback discussion
that summarises the experiences of both the instructor and the student. A
positive but realistic way of giving feedback is stressed.

2. Track training (3 hours on track)

„ Demonstrations of effects of speed, safety margins, reaction time
etc.
„ Practical experimenting/training (braking, steering etc. in slippery
conditions)
The goal of track training is to create a realistic (and between the lines,
actually a pessimistic) view about the drivers’ possibilities when driving on
slippery road-conditions. The main idea is to maintain large safety margins
(speed, distance etc.) because manoeuvring in hazardous situations is likely
to fail. Emphasis is explicitly on anticipatory skills and only secondarily on
improvement of skills.

The demonstrations and exercises are done according to the instructions that
are available as a manual. The typical strategy in the exercises is that after
some practising when the driver is starting to learn the required manoeuvres,
the instructor asks him or her to increase their speed by 5-10 km/h, thereby
 90

leading to failure. This should be the final message.

Because the training groups are rather small, (6 students per instructor), one
goal is to give differentiated training. Earlier research results suggest that
female drivers adopt the idea of anticipatory and risk-avoiding driving style
easier than males.

It is essential that during the track training in the Finnish model, the drivers’
performance is not evaluated in the sense of testing, i.e. there is no specific
skill level that should be acquired or any tricks that should be mastered. Even
though the training occurs 6-24 months after licensing, the exercises are not
extremely demanding but rather concentrate on basic operations, like
releasing the brake while steering (in non-ABS cars), efficient braking
technique and braking on a bend.

3. Classroom training
„ Two main topics (risks in traffic, and economical and safe driving)
„ Discussions about personal experiences on track
„ Discussions about personal experiences during the intermediate
phase

The classroom topics are dealt with in three stages: finding typical risk
factors, relating these to personal experiences and finding out ways of
compensating for these risks. The active role of students is emphasised.
Risks are dealt with using a “model of sufficient safety margins”. The model is
a kind of tool for organising potential risks in traffic. The driver him or herself
is considered as the main factor that defines the safety margins against risks
connected to vehicle, environment, other road-users and driving task. All
these four potential sources of risks are dealt with as well as the methods for
compensating for them.

11.8.4 Theoretical background

The theoretical background has become clearer since the beginning of the
system in 1990. The curriculum was originally based on Mikkonen and
Keskinen’s theory of internal models in traffic behaviour that is an approach
based on cognitive psychological approaches to control skilled performance
as well as learning. The theoretical approach since then has emphasised
somewhat more the motivational aspects of driver behaviour. Another
theoretically important trend has been the introduction of the ideas of
constructivistic learning into curriculum. For example, the use of self-
evaluations and different feedback methods and use of reflection upon
personal experiences are a result of the psychological and pedagogical
models behind the curriculum.

A trend that can be seen in the development of the course after its
implementation is a change from driving techniques towards the motivational
aspects of driving. This is, however, something that also may cause
differences in training. The variation between instructors may be larger,
because the present curriculum includes areas that have not traditionally
 91

been that much in the focus of basic driver training, even though driver
improvement has such a tradition. Naturally, the change in the goals of
education has effects also on the educational methods. Lecturing and
teacher-centred methods have nowadays a smaller role than earlier.

11.8.5 Evaluation studies

Explicit description of the effects on novice drivers

There were two goals for the implementation of the two-phase system. The
first goal was to make the very beginning of the driver’s career safer, and the
second was to shorten the risky period after licensing.

Study 1

The effects of the Finnish two-phase system were evaluated shortly after
introduction with a before-after design. (Keskinen, Hatakka, Katila and
Laapotti, 1992). Because the whole system, including the first phase, was
renewed, it is not possible to isolate the effects of the second phase of
training only.

The results were, in a nutshell:

1. The number of accidents did not decrease, when the mileage was taken
into account.
2. Mileage increased (not necessarily an effect of the training system)
3. The proportion of accidents on slippery road-conditions increased in young
male and female groups but decreased in driver groups over 21.
4. Educational methods as well as training materials were updated and
radically improved to meet the standards of modern adult education.
5. Further training activity of traffic instructors was initiated.

Study 2

The long-term effects were studied in a later study published in the DAN-
report (Katila et al., 2000). The study showed a decrease in the number of
accidents for those drivers that had the two-phase system. There were also
qualitative changes in the accidents indicating lower numbers of skidding and
night-time accidents. Some positive attitudinal differences were found
between the groups. The results, even though they are positive, should be
carefully interpreted because of the contaminating effects of the general
accident trends. What was not pointed out in the DAN-report was that after
the introduction of two-phase driver training, the novice drivers have by their
third year of driving reached the same accident risk per license (accidents
compensated by insurance) as the whole driver population on average. The
goal of shortening the risky period after licensing seems to have been
reached.
 92

The latest follow-up results of the novice drivers have not yet been published,
but according to Katila´s (2001, unpublished data) results, the risk of an
accident during the first year of driving has continued to decrease even
though the general accident trends show a stable picture at the end of the
nineties (Figure 1). The long-term figures show also that especially the risk of
2-4th year of driving has decreased. The risk for the first year of driving was
increasing until 1990 and decreasing thereafter. The risk for 2-4th year of
driving, however, dropped clearly after 1990 and was rather high before that
moment. The moment of abrupt change in the trend seemed to correspond to
the change in the driver education system.

180
160
accidents / 1000 licenses

140
120
100 1. year
80 2-4. year

60
40
20
0
81

83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99

01 licensing year
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

Figure 1. Insurance paid accidents of novice drivers as a guilty party in

Finland (Accident data of insurance companies).

Study 3

Another study (Katila, Keskinen and Hatakka, 1996) concentrated on the

instructors’ and students’ perceptions of track training in four Nordic countries.
The results showed that in all countries instructors considered anticipatory or
risk avoidance strategies to be more essential in training than technical
manoeuvring. They rather these aspects more highly than students. However,
the students typically did not receive this message. Technical mastery of
driving on slippery road was considered as essential a message in training as
anticipatory and risk-avoiding strategy. The Finnish track training system was
the only exception in this respect. The Finnish students emphasised more
anticipatory skills than technical skills. The data was collected at the
beginning of the nineties, and since then the Finnish model has developed
even more towards self-reflective processes and emphasis of safe strategy.
Also, the training methods in other Nordic countries may have changed after
data collection.

Study 4

A fourth study was concentrating on practical arrangements in the second

phase of driver training. Laapotti, Keskinen, Hatakka and Katila (1998)
 93

showed that it was useful to arrange the classroom section after track
training. In the earlier model of second phase training, classroom section
preceded track training. The classroom section is designed to deal with risks
in traffic generally, and also the topics essential in track training. One of the
problems in the earlier model was that the students were simply waiting for
the “real thing” i.e. track training, and classroom teaching was secondary. The
study design included three measurements in five driving schools, before
changing the system, shortly after the change and two years later.

The first major result was that the experienced value of theoretical training
was improved. The second result was a change towards more emphasis on
anticipatory and risk-avoiding strategies when compared to technical mastery
of driving on slippery road-conditions. This effect did, however, disappear in
the follow-up measurement. Thirdly, the students felt that they would like to
have more active learning methods, like group discussions and learning
tasks. Overall, the results show that practical arrangements are essential to
operation of the training system. Practical exercises and demonstrations
should be followed by reflection; experiencing alone does not have the best
possible effect.

Study 5

Another study on the process was carried out with driving school feedback
forms. The results of the study were presented in the DAN-report (Peräaho,
Keskinen, Hatakka and Katila, 2000). The second phase was evaluated by
the students with a standard evaluation sheet used by quality certified driving
schools, and the evaluations of both first phase and second phase training
were compared. There are roughly 500 driving schools in Finland, of which
about 20% have an ISO quality certificate. The certification is voluntary, but
typically certification is associated with a rather active attitude of the owners
on all kinds of developing work.

The ratings of the second phase students were, overall, at least on the same
level as the ratings of the first phase students. Although compulsory to all,
every driver who attends the second phase of training will get his or her
permanent driving license without any additional test, whatever their
performance or level of interest. Therefore, it might be expected that they
would be less motivated, which would be reflected by poorer ratings. This was
not the case, which indicates that the teaching in the second phase seems to
work satisfactorily in its current form in good quality driving schools (that may
not be a representative sample of all driving schools). The overall high ratings
given by the students nevertheless show that they feel they gain something
from well-organised instruction. They also show that post-licensing training
can be made compulsory without it being viewed negatively.

The second phase seems to differentiate male from female drivers. The
female drivers were generally more satisfied than the males. This indicates
that the content of the second phase covers topics that especially female
novice drivers seem to find useful. Earlier studies (Hatakka, 1998) have
shown that young male drivers not only have higher self-confidence from the
 94

outset, but that this confidence also increases faster than for females. Bearing
in mind that motivational aspects seem to play a more central role in the
accidents of young males, and not factors related to e.g. vehicle handling as
in the case of females, one may ask whether the instruction in the second
phase should be differentiated for males and females.

The results also show that drivers having followed layman instruction in the
first phase have evaluated the compulsory second phase training rather
positively, albeit a little less positively than those who had the first phase
training in a driving school.

Perhaps not surprisingly, the practical track driving part of the second phase
training was rated quite positively. However, so was the driving analysis, i.e.
the cognitive part focusing on the driver him-/herself. Earlier Finnish studies
(see e.g. Keskinen et. al., 1998) on driver training methods in the second
phase have also shown that students find evaluation and feedback of their
personal driving skills and style very useful. One major conclusion might
therefore be that, while young drivers naturally want to learn to handle their
vehicle on a practical level, they are also interested in the more cognitive and
social aspects of their driving. Connecting practical exercises to theory and
self-evaluation of one's own behaviour seems to work.

Study 6

The Finnish Vehicle Administration Centre has recently collected a database

concerning driver training. The idea is to continuously survey the population
of recently-licensed novice drivers about their opinions on driver education.
Unfortunately, the return rate in the survey is only 40%. The results show that,
in practice, there seems to be a rather large variation in the quality of driver
training generally and also in the second phase of training. When compared
to the results of rather positive evaluations of second phase training in quality
certified schools, it can be concluded that it is a rather demanding task for the
driving school to arrange high quality second phase training. Another result
was that negative evaluation or ignorance reflected by a lack of written
evaluations in the survey was associated with higher number of traffic
violations.

11.8.6 Structural demands

The first structural demand in the Finnish model is the training tracks. When
two-phased driver training was implemented 28 training courses were
established. They operate mostly on a private company basis, often
associated with driving schools. Another typical connection is between some
educational institute and the track. The track area typically is not very large
but sizes vary significantly. The demonstrations and exercises are carried out
at a maximum speed of 50 km/hour.

It has also been speculated that the model could be arranged without specific
training courses. This could very well be possible, because most of the
elements in the training do not require a course (self-evaluation, evaluation of
 95

driving in real traffic and feedback, use of personal experiences during the
intermediate phase, ecological driving etc). However, without a training
course, the training would loose a positively evaluated and motivating
element. Furthermore, some of the students are still in need of practical
exercises in the second phase of training.

What are the demands for driving teachers and teaching methods

The demands for the staff in driving schools are high. The evaluation results
show that there can be variation in training, but that it can be arranged well.
When the two-phase system was introduced, driving schools invested heavily
in training for their instructors. Furthermore, the practical development of
methods and equipment has actually taken years. It can be expected that in
any country such a renewal could not be done rapidly, but it should be seen
as a process with multiple steps and continuous developing work.

Control system, connections to driving tests etc.

There has to be a well operating register of driving licenses in order to control

the issuing dates and passed courses. In Finland, the distinction of
permanent/preliminary licenses also has an effect on the sanctions for the
traffic violations, as described above. However, the distinction is connected
with the age of the license, not with completing the 2nd phase of training.

There is no association with driver testing in the second phase of training.

Although it has been suggested that the official driving test (in real traffic)
follow the second phase of training, there has not been much support for this
suggestion. There has been a clear consensus not to include any test-like
elements in the practical exercises in the driving courses.

The introduction of the second phase of training in Finland was parallel to the
renewal of the first phase. The optimal idea would be that the first phase
leads to the second phase. This connection should be built in the system. A
possible source for positive results is lost if a new course is simply added
without co-ordination. The training system should form a continuum.

11.8.7 Cultural aspects

The professional driver training has been dominating the field in Finland. The
situation was not radically changed when the two-phase system was adopted.
It is rather probable that the strong position of professional driver training
helped the acceptance of the system both among the decision-makers and
public.

Implementation of a compulsory two-phased system might encounter

resistance if there is any suspicion concerning the quality or rationale of
professional training.
 96

11.8.8 History

What were the background factors behind the system, where are its origins
and how did it develop? In other words, why was the system implemented in
the first place?

The starting point for the implementation of a two-phase system was the
growing concern over the high accident risk of young drivers. The serious
traffic safety problem in the beginning of the seventies raised the political will
to act. Among a range of safety measures a committee was established for
renewing driver education. The committee finalised its work in 1979 and a
new committee was set up, finalising its work in 1986.

The basic goals of the renewal were to reduce the number of accidents and to
shorten the risky period after licensing. The second phase was
methodologically based on the model of defensive driving courses used quite
widely in voluntary post-licence driver training. This existing model was non-
commercial, and, perhaps exactly for that reason, was well accepted and
familiar to most of the people in the field. It made starting easier. Naturally,
the methods have later developed to better fit the demands of new situations.

Another essential historical aspect is the Scandinavian way of thinking that

traffic safety is everyone’s responsibility and anyone can be a source of risk.
This is why training in Finland is directed first to the whole novice drivers’
population and not to special risk-groups that have already demonstrated
their problems in traffic through violations or accidents.

The Norwegian history with second phase also had a significant effect. First in
terms of motivation and then, after the problematic results, by bringing about
a careful evaluation of how the system should be planned. Finland decided to
proceed despite the worrying results from Norway.

In the end of the eighties the planning process had already taken about 15
years without coming to fruition. Several models were suggested and
rejected. The plan did not succeed until authorities, persons in research and
development personnel and driving school people all began to co-operate in
the planning process. This was a rather unique period of time when the co-
operation was particularly smooth and flexible. Finnish experience would
indicate that joint planning is essential for the model to be accepted.
 97

11.9 Swiss new 2-phase-driver training model (starting January 2005)

by Stefan Siegrist, Jacqueline Bächli-Biétry, Mario Cavegn and Markus
Hubacher

11.9.1 Structure and aims of Swiss 2-phase-driver-training model

In 1996 the Federal department of Justice and Police presented a draft

revision of the road Traffic Act and sent it to stakeholders for consultation.
This draft was generally accepted. It includes the introduction of a second
phase of driver training after the driving test, combined with a three year
probation period. Following a consultation period, the parliament’s decision-
making process ended positively in spring 2002. Subsequently an expert
group has prepared a concept on how to plan the post-test training courses in
detail. The expert group’s proposal was sent to the department of justice and
police at the end of 2002. The new model will come into force in January
2005.

The second phase consists of two major parts: after passing the driving test,
novice drivers will receive a provisional license. A three year probationary
phase follows, during which they are allowed to drive alone. During this period
novice drivers have to attend two one-day courses (table 1).

Table 1. Swiss model of two-phase driver training

1. Phase of driver training
• No change
NEW Ö 2. Phase: Probationary and (continued) training period
• Delivery of a provisional driver licence (valid for 3 years)
• No safety-related traffic offences during probationary period (3
years) *
• Attendance of additional training courses, 16 hours **
End of second phase
• If conditions are fulfilled: Delivery of a non-limited driving
licence
* Conditions and measures: one severe traffic offence incurs a mandatory
‘driver improvement course’ whereas a loss of the provisional license and a
repetition of both training phases follow two or more offences.
** Covering the following subjects: learning from individual experiences while
driving alone, hazard perception training with respect to real-life situations,
driving issues; course leaders are selected and trained according to given
criteria.

The primary aim of the second phase driver training is to contribute to public
health. Reaching the following subgoals should reduce young drivers’ injury
and fatality rates:
 98

1. Drawing the right conclusions from unaccompanied, post-test driving

experiences in the following fields:
a) Improvement and adequate evaluation of cognitive abilities needed for
detection of and coping with dangerous traffic situations (‘traffic sense’);
b) Build up a realistic self-perception (with regard to behavioural
tendencies and behavioural patterns);
c) Strengthening a driving style that is in line with social and environmental
needs by means of training modules (mainly group work).
2. Deter dangerous behaviour by means of pressure (more severe sanctions
in case of offences).

11.9.2 Planning the second phase-courses: aims and methods

One of the problems when planning the post-test training was how to
integrate the young drivers’ wishes and needs. Surveys showed that they
wish to attend action-oriented courses (Bächli-Biétry, 1998), known to have
hardly any positive effects.

As a pre-condition, the expert group decided to exclude all kinds of training

that exclusively stresses the technical aspect of driving, as young drivers’
accident risk is strongly determined by a lack of self-assessment as well as
emotional and social influences. On the other hand, the model should take
into account the target group’s desire not to get bored and it should refer to
real driving experiences and their contextual, social and psychological
determinants. Action-oriented elements should therefore be combined with
more reflective ones, indoor-elements should be combined with outdoor-ones
and, most importantly: each session must contain all these elements.
Otherwise one session will be very attractive (in-car elements), others (e.g.
group discussion) much less.

Keskinen’s model on reasons for young drivers’ accident risk (Keskinen,

1996) seemed to be an appropriate framework and support for the expert
group’s ideas on how to select the goals of driver training and how to
separate the pre- and post-test training goals. The model starts from the
assumption that human behaviour is organised hierarchically. These ideas
were formulated initially by Russian psychologists and led to the action theory
(e.g. v. Cranach, Kalbermatten, Indermühle and Gugler, 1980). Higher levels
have a more dominant influence on behaviour than lower levels. Nevertheless
safe driving is not possible without the necessary skills on lower levels.

The so-called GADGET-matrix or GDE-framework postulates different training

goals on each of the hierarchical levels (Hatakka et. al, 1999; Hatakka et al.,
2002). Vehicle manoeuvring, mastery of traffic situations, journey-related
tasks (driving goals in context) as well as general tasks (goals for life and
skills for living) require three different skills:
• Basic knowledge and skills
• Risk-increasing factors
• Self-evaluation
 99

The resulting framework shows on the lower left part those contents that
should be covered by the pre-test training period. The Keskinen group’s
concern is to complete driver training by integrating the upper part and lower
right part of the matrix in driver training. Safe training then becomes
automatically a matter of social context, mobility patterns, attitudes and the
ability to judge one’s own behaviour and level of skills. The authors of the
Swiss 2-phase-model believe that these contents ideally fit in a second-phase
training when technical aspects of driving no longer pose severe problems
and contextual features become more apparent and risk-increasing. Only
hazard perception is supposed to be one ‘basic skill’ that definitely needs
further training in a post-test period.

11.9.3 Formal elements of the 16 hours further training

The law saying the model will become effective in 2005 does not regulate the
details of the training. The present proposal, supported by a wide range of
stakeholders, describes 3 different sessions, one lasting 8, two of them 4
hours.

The course modules are independent of each other so that they can be
attended in any order. A two person team will present each of the three
modules: A specialist with a psychological and pedagogical training as well as
a specially trained traffic instructor (usually a highly qualified driving
instructor) will work together. Only this way will it be possible to set the
required complex psychological processes in motion. Group size should be
limited to 6 to 12 persons at the most.

Ideally, the premises where the courses are to be held should be designed for
work and discussions in small groups. The practical driving experiences
require a large car park or a route that must be driven for experience and
observation purposes. Participants must provide their own car for the training
course.

The modules are dedicated to the subjects that are connected with the high
danger level faced by the young novice driver. The two modules are called
”driving experience”, ”environment” and “risks/road users”. The structure of
the modules is similar.

A motivational opening and an explanation of the training conditions and

goals are followed by a self-awareness section where the emphasis is on
action. Experiences are then discussed in groups and on an individual basis,
and the participants are urged to practise self-reflection. Two course modules
contain a practical driving section, a cognitive section and a socio-
motivational section. In principle, more emphasis is put on emotional and
motivational subject matter than on cognitive elements. When dealing with the
emotional and motivational subject matter the procedure must always move
from the general – affecting everybody – to the specific – affecting the
individual course participant in order to avoid resistance. To increase
acceptance, at least partial public funding of the cost of these courses should
perhaps be considered.
 100

11.9.4 Methods

Discussion, group work and self-awareness questionnaires are the

communication methods which were chosen for exerting emotional and
motivational influence. As far as possible, frontal instruction is replaced by
instructional discussions. Cognitive themes are supported wherever possible
with personal experience. The practical driving elements are specifically
designed not to enhance the feeling of safety. None of them contains training
and a subjective impression of significantly improved skills. Rather, the
practical driving section serves as the main attraction of the course and
makes it easier to get into the social and motivational subjects.

11.9.5 Quality control

Standards for the selection and training of course leaders have been
developed. Special attention was given to the role of the so called
“pedagogue”. His role is thought to be complementary to that of the driving
instructor. He must be able to adequately use the training methods in order to
initiate and moderate group processes and he must understand young adults’
risk-taking from a professional point of view. The pedagogue therefore should
ensure that post-test training really covers higher-level influences on unsafe
behaviour and does not simply repeat the contents of basic driver training.

Both course leaders have to meet certain standards regarding professional

training and experience. Quality will additionally be guaranteed by regular
supervision and further training for course leaders. An evaluation study will
also be done (process, impact, output).

11.9.6 Detailed content of the three training sessions

The first session is a one-day intervention aimed at experiences and

reflections regarding one’s own and others’ behaviour when driving (Table 2).
The main focus is on the antagonism between physics and one’s own limited
skills.
 101

Table 2. Module ”driving experience”

Subject matter Presenter Duration
Minutes
Welcome P* 10
D**
• How to work together P 30
• Course timing
• Getting to know one another by means of interaction games
• Self-observation sheet (speed and risk) P 15
¾ Introduction to practical training and movement D/ P 125
Break
¾ Driving experience: braking, braking distances
¾ Reflections on own experiences
Lunch 75
¾ Introduction to practical training and movement D/ P 125
Break
¾ Driving experience: braking, braking distances
¾ Reflections on own experiences
• Interaction game P 10
• Brainstorming (reasons for driving too fast) P 20
• Summary of the reasons (entire class)
• Individual evaluation of socio-pedagogical test, drawing profile. D 10
• Working out avoidance strategies ( small groups) P 30
• Summary of strategies (entire class)
• Implementing the knowledge gained, developing own strategies
• Evaluation questionnaire P 15
• Discussion D
(*P= Pedagogue/ ** D=Driving instructor)

The pilot experiment with a module called ”speed/risk” proved to be

successful for both presenters and course participants (Bächli-Biétry, 1998).
Evaluation showed that the objectives used in the proposed course type
made the participants feel they had been taken seriously and that they were
considering a change in their behaviour.
Sessions two and three can be held on the same day. The morning is
dedicated to the subject of ‘environment’ (Table 3). The contents are:
• Driving style, environment-friendly driving and driving in partnership
• Choice of means of transportation

Table 3. Module ”environment”

Subject matter Presenter Duration
Minutes
Welcome D* 10
• How to work together D 20
• Course timing
• Getting to know one another by means of interaction games
¾ Driving experience: low fuel consumption driving style D 105
(either on a simulator or on an instrumented car)
Break
¾ Analysis of the experience using the data D 35
¾ Reflections on link between low-consumption-driving-style and safety
¾ Reflections on own experiences
Presentation of movie ‘ECO-drive 4fair drivers’ D 10
Lunch 75
(*D=Driving instructor)
 102

The second day of post-test training ends with a session covering the
following contents (Table 4):
• Traffic sense: awareness of own skills, improvement of skills, analysing
own driving experiences
• Accident causation: learning about the characteristics of accident
causes, their influence and preventability; analysing own driving
experiences

Table 4: Module ”Risks/Road Users ”

Subject matter Presenter Duration
Minutes
• Hazard perception test P*/D** 60
• Analysing the results regarding own level of skills
• Discussion on own driving experiences
Break 15
¾ Group work: analysis of a real accident using sources like newspaper P/D 120
articles
¾ Comparing and discussing the results
¾ Reflections on own experiences
Course evaluation P/D 15
(*P= Pedagogue/ ** D=Driving instructor)

11.9.7 Evaluation plan

Causal model
The model is going to be evaluated on three levels: process- impact, outcome
and output. The processes to be analysed refer to the description of the
model in the last chapter. The relevant variables needed in order to measure
the impact and the outcome of the model are determined mainly by the logical
link between the main element of the model, the impacts and the expected
output (Figure 1). According to the PRECEED-PROCEED model by Green
and Kreuter (1999), outcomes are intended to be assessed on two levels:
Impact: a) behaviour/lifestyle, and Output: a) health b) quality of life
 103

Inp Second Phase of Driver Training

Input
ut
Probation Period Mandatory Post-Test Training

Knowledgeon accident
Int causation
en
Intended Effects

Threat of
de (Im license Hazard Perception
(Impact)

revocation
d pa
Effct)
Self - Evaluation
ect
s
Driving task–related
knowledge

Ps
yc
Psychological model

Attitudes Subjective norms Perceived

hol behavioural control

ogi
cal
mo
del Intentions

Ou
Individ Outcome

tco
(self reported) Driving Behaviour
me

.Ind (self reported) offences

ivi (self reported) experienced nearand
d real collisions

Ou rate of safety-related offences

Output

tpu
t Accidentrate
Accident rate
Number
Numberand
an rate
rate of
of killedand heavily
heaviliyinjured
injureddrivers
drivers
Figure 1. Causal model of the 2-Phase-model

The second part of the figure shows the intended effect the intervention is
expected to have on an impact level. The aim is an increase in all of these
parameters. The next part shows a psychological model (TPB, Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1977) which will be used to describe and explain the link between
impact and outcome effect (explained in more detail in Hubacher, Caveghn
and Siegrist, 2003). As an outcome a safer behaviour, lower offence liability
and fewer near-collisions or real collisions are expected. The output refers to
 104

what the whole intervention is designed for: reducing health loss in young
adults by means of reducing accident risk and the offence rate.

11.9.8 Aims and methods of evaluation

Hypotheses were verbalised for all impact- outcome- and output-parameters

shown in figure 1.
Example: Output-evaluation:

Goal: Test for the hypothesis that the new model incurs an
improvement in injury and mortality rates in young drivers
(health) without reducing quality of life.

Partial goals: Test for hypothesis that the new model incurs an improvement
in certain accident and injury types (e.g. fewer accidents at
weekends)

Additional hypotheses regarding the process will also be tested:

Aims of Process-Evaluation P1: external conditions

Test the hypothesis that all external conditions that may be affected by the
model remain unchanged, such as:
• Annual number of applicants for a learners permit and share of socio-
economical groups within the group of applicants
• numbers of practical driving lessons taken
• cost of one practical driving lesson

Aims of Process-Evaluation P1: internal conditions

Test the hypothesis that all internal conditions that may be affected by the
model remain unchanged, e.g.:
• size of groups in the courses (second phase)
• characteristics and quality of course-leaders
• terms of the courses offered

Table 5 shows the relevant variables that have to be measured in order to

test the hypotheses.
 105

Table 5. Overview of relevant variables (in capital letters) according to the

three evaluation levels
Process evaluation Impact-Evaluation Outcome-Evaluation
Evaluation P1 (EXTERNAL) e.g. Module 'risks/ human • Injury and mortality
• NUMBER OF characteristics' incidence
APPLICANTS FOR Cognitive and behavioural • Injury and mortality
A LEARNERS abilities related to incidence during
PERMIT • capability (Fahrtüchtigkeit) night and weekends
• NUMBER OF • speed • Incidence of
LESSONS TAKEN • physical environment accidents due to
BEFORE THE • social environment alcohol
TEST
• COSTS OF A Non-legal behaviour
DRIVING LESSON • Offence rate
• Offence characteristics
EVALUATION P2 (INTERNAL)
• SIZE OF GROUPS IN
COURSES
• QUALITY OF
COURSE-LEADERS
• COSTS OF
COURSES
• COMPLETENESS OF
COURSES

Control-variables
• economic • ECONOMIC • change in road
development DEVELOPMENT accident registration
• population • FUEL PRICE procedure
development (size • POLICE ENFORCEMENT
and share of age- ACTIVITIES
groups) • NEW LAWS (E.G. O,5
BAC)

11.9.9 Study design for the outcome evaluation part

The design aims to test the hypothesis stating that:

After introducing the new 2-phase-driver training model in Switzerland,
the incidence of injury and mortality in 18-24 years old drivers displays
a more positive trend compared to a comparison- group of drivers
which is not affected by the intervention, comparing the time series
(injuries and deaths due to car and motorcycle accidents) of the 18-24
year olds to that of the 30-50 year old drivers.

Figure 2 shows the hypothetical development of the time series in different

age groups, assuming that the intervention has a positive effect (outcome).
 106

80

70

60

50

18-24Y Old model

40
18-24Y New model
30-50Y
30

20

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 2Ph 1 2 3 4
Year

Figure 2. Hypothetical development of injuries and deaths due to road

accidents in two age groups

An additional hypothesis with respect to the expected main effect of the

intervention may be tested by comparing cohorts. The assumption is, that the
intervention displays its effect mainly during the first three years (during the
probationary period). Therefore we may expect, that the well-known peak in
accident figures three years after the test will be reduced, while starting from
the fourth year after the intervention, the effect will become weaker without
disappearing completely. Fig 3 shows a hypothetical comparison of different
cohorts of the same age group, assuming that the intervention incurs an
effect that is growing and reducing in time, as described above.

90
80

70

60 Cohort of trainees -4
50 Cohort of trainees -3
40 Cohort of trainees
30 2Ph1
Cohort of trainees
20 2Ph2

10

Years after the driving test

Figure 3. Hypothetical development of injuries and deaths due to road

accidents in two cohorts (new vs. old system)
 107

11.10 Multiphase driver education in Austria by Martin Winkelbauer

11.10.1 Abstract

Based on the findings of the EU-project “DAN”, Austrian experts of the

Kuratorium für Verkehrssicherheit (Road Safety Board), driving school
association, automobile clubs and, in part, experts of the Ministry of Transport
elaborated a proposal for an improved driver education system. In the new
multiphase concept, novice drivers have to participate in two further
feedback-drives in real traffic, a 6 hour safe driving course and a two hour
traffic psychological seminar. The new law took effect in January 2003. Based
on the success of the multiphase system in Finland, a significant accident
reduction can be expected in Austria (about 20%). National economic savings
of about 27,000,000 Euro per year are estimated as a result of this accident
reduction.

11.10.2 The Multiphase Concept

During the first year after the acquisition of the driver licence the novice driver
has to participate in the following new further education modules. This
extended supported learning period shall be helpful for a safe start to the
driver’s career.

MODULES OF THE MULTIPHASE DRIVER EDUCATION

FD= Feedback Drive

SDC= Safe Driving Course
TPS= Traffic Psychological Seminar
 108

The modules of driver education:

Mandatory driving school education (Now: 20 hours praxis, 40 hours

theory. New: 18 hours praxis, 32 hours theory).

Driving test

Licence with a two years probation period and a zero alcohol limit.

New modules:

1. Feedback-drive in real traffic including discussion (2 hours) 2 - 4

months after the acquisition of the licence.

Safe driving course (6 hours) and traffic psychological group seminar

(2 hours) 3 – 9 months after the acquisition of the licence.

2. Feedback-drive in real traffic including discussion (2 hours) 6 – 12

months after the acquisition of the licence.

Still on year of probation period left. In case of serious offences one more year
of probation and participation in a compulsory psychological driver
improvement course.

For different driver training models (L17) and licence class A the model
includes variations of this standard process. In the case of L17 there is no first
feedback drive. The licence class A model does not contain feedback drives
at all. Although these drives would have been useful from a scientific point of
view, they were withdrawn during the political decision making process.
 109

11.10.3 The feedback drives

The feedback drives are not simply additional driving lessons, but should
have the character of further education. Of particular interest are hazard
perception, accident avoiding defensive driving style (e.g. the optimal and
realistic safety distance), social behaviour in traffic and the influence of other
traffic participants who do not respect traffic rules. A feedback drive consists
of a 50 minute drive and 50 minute discussion about the drive, which shall be
held in small groups of three drivers. The first feedback drive shall take place
as early as possible (2-4 months after the licence) because the accident risk
is the highest during the first months. The second shall take place after the
safe driving course and primarily aims to prevent wrong driving habits. The
driving teachers have to be specifically trained.

11.10.4 The safe driving course

The safe driving course cannot take place too early (3-9 months after the
licence). Candidates must be able to automatically manoeuvre the vehicle.
The course is not intended to train skills but rather to demonstrate the
dangers concerning driving dynamics. Especially emergency braking and the
effect of speed on the stopping distance should be emphasised. Individual
weaknesses shall be detected and corrected. Self-overconfidence as a result
of such a course must be strictly avoided. Therefore, the psychological
seminar has to take place the same day. The education of the staff and the
minimum requirements for the track are strictly defined in the law.

11.10.5 The traffic psychological seminar

In groups of six to twelve candidates a two hours group discussion takes

place on the same day as the safe driving course. The focus does not lie on
teaching but on self-reflection. First, typical accident risks of novices shall be
elaborated (notably single vehicle accidents) in the group and then
participants shall discover their individual accident risk. They must be guided
by the psychologist to find out what would be their most typical accident, and
what individual strengths they have as a driver. They should also consider
what specific part of higher responsibility they are individually ready to
assume in traffic. The psychologists must be specifically educated.

11.10.6 Consequences for participants

Participants cannot fail. There are no further tests. If they do not participate in
time they get a reminder letter from the licensing authority and if they have
not attended the multiphase modules after a further 4 months, their licence is
withdrawn until they do.

11.10.7 Economical aspects

First, the aim of the multiphase education is to save human lives. Second,
national economic savings are expected too. If the circa 80,000 novice drivers
per year cause 20% less accidents (only injuries and fatalities) during a two
 110

year observation period, savings are estimated to be 27,000,000 Euro per

year.

For the novice drivers the entire driver education will not become significantly
more expensive, since the number of mandatory hours for the basic
education was lowered at the same time from 40 hours theory to 32 hours
and from 20 hours of practical training to 18 hours. This is the result of a
political compromise. It should also be borne in mind that fewer mandatory
lessons for the basic driver education exist elsewhere in the EU.

Additional costs for the public do not arise. Almost all administrative concerns
are privatised. Investments are not necessary. Sufficient test tracks already
exist all over Austria or are currently being built. The highly educated staff
required is also available. Co-operation between the different professionals
and organisations has already proved successful in the two year voluntary
“Road Expert” campaign for novice drivers. Participants were in favour of
further education on a test track, including a psychological seminar. Public
opinion in Austria is positive too. 70% of all Austrians (63% of young people)
are in favour of the multiphase driver education proposal.
 111

11.11 Skid training in Sweden by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders

Nyberg

11.11.1 Background

Skid training is at present the only compulsory aspect of the Swedish driver
training system. Skid training was once largely directed at ensuring that pupils
learned how to cope with emergency traffic situations, i.e. the pupils needed
to acquire skills. Discussions on ways of improving and developing skid
training have taken place in recent years. Among other things, this has led to
a new curriculum for skid training in which the emphasis is placed on the
importance of the pupil gaining insight, instead of acquiring skills (Swedish
National Road Administration, VVFS 1999:23). This new curriculum is in line
with the discussion that has taken place about the effects of training on
driving behaviour, depending on whether a training course concentrates on
skills or insight.

It is not at all easy to explain the relationship between the concepts of skill
and insight. It is not true to state that an opposing relationship should always
exist between the two concepts. One could say that they often overlap one
another. For example, it can be claimed that a pupil who has gained insight
into the fact that he/she should reduce his/her speed before entering a curve
in slippery road conditions has, at the same time, acquired new skills, such as
backing off on the accelerator in good time. It is possible to state that the
attitude towards the exercises that are used will vary depending on the
approach. Put in very general terms, this means that the aim of purely skill-
based exercises has been to teach the pupil skills to enable him/her to cope
with any emergency traffic situations that may arise. Insight-based exercises,
on the other hand, seek to improve the pupil’s attention and to make him/her
aware of dangers in traffic, thereby providing an increased appreciation of
how to behave in traffic in order to avoid finding oneself in an emergency
situation in the first place. The new curriculum thus concentrates on insight
rather than skills in order to avoid the situation in which the pupil completes
the skid training and subsequently overestimates his/her ability to apply the
acquired skills to handle emergency traffic situations.

11.11.2 The origins of the new curriculum

In 1999 a new curriculum for the mandatory skid training was introduced in
Sweden. The change was a result of a long period of development and
discussions, which started after an evaluation of the Norwegian skid training
in 1988 (Glad 1988). The Swedish national curriculum of the mandatory skid
training has, since it became mandatory in 1975, focused on skills training to
handle skids, to perform evasive manoeuvres, optimal use of the brakes etc.,
and is heavily focused on critical situations. The Norwegian report from 1988
showed that a similar skid training program in Norway increased the accident
involvement among male drivers. In the Swedish debate the report from Glad
was heavily criticised from many different people, since it challenged a
 112

tradition of driver education in which a lot of the instructors were deeply

committed to. Other studies have, however, also showed similar results as
Glad's and during the 1990s more research has pointed in this direction, i.e.
that training that focuses on providing car control skills, especially in critical
situations, may lead to unexpected effects. Training may even increase risk
(see Gregersen, 1997 for a summary). These studies received more attention
in Sweden after Glad had presented his evaluation.

11.11.3 A research program about skid training

Because of the debate in Sweden, NTF took the initiative to launch a

research program regarding skid training. This research program was
performed by VTI. During the realisation of the research program an
investigation was instigated by the Swedish Government that was supposed
to look at the driver education as a whole. Despite this investigation and the
ideas in the research program itself, no evaluation of the skid training was
performed. It was considered better to postpone the evaluation until a new
model for the skid training - with a greater potential for traffic safety - was
developed.

The results of the different sub-studies in the research program were

summarised in the following recommendations (Gregersen and Berg, 1994):

• Development of a curriculum with focus on risk awareness, foresight,

insight of one’s own limitations, the influence of physicals laws etc.
• The regulations should be goal-oriented, where the driving ranges assume
the responsibility to deliver an education that leads to the goals set.
• The driving ranges should be supported in their work to develop new
education content and practical exercises that fit the new goals.
• The skid track instructors should get increased possibilities for education
and to take part in extension courses.
• Increase research about connections between education, risk
compensation, motivation and driving style, etc.
• Development of pedagogical methods that can deal with the influence of
social and psychological factors on driving behaviour, including on low
friction.
• A greater collaboration between the Nordic countries regarding the
common problems with skid training.
• An evaluation of the skid training regarding realisation, goal fulfilment, and
safety effects.

When the research program was finished, the work to develop a new
curriculum for the skid training begun in September 1994 under the
management of the Swedish Road Administration. A proposal was presented
in 1998. After the proposal had been circulated for comments and after a
juridical examination led to some changes, the new curriculum was
introduced in July 1999.
 113

The new curriculum has in most cases followed the recommendations given
in the earlier research program (see above). It emphasises risk awareness,
foresight, insight of one’s own limitations, etc. Also, it was goal-oriented so
that the driving ranges have a greater responsibility to develop an education
that leads to the fulfilment of the goals set. In the old curriculum and in the old
regulations details and specific demands on how the education was to be
performed were stressed. It was also heavily focused on vehicle manoeuvring
in critical situations. A few examples from the old and the new curriculum are
given below.

The old curriculum:

Following the course, the candidate should be able to perform the following:
• starting and acceleration
• braking on high as well as low friction surface
• hard braking from a speed of 60 km/h
• hard braking and evasive manoeuvre
• correct a skid when driving in a curve on low friction
• choose appropriate speed according to the situation
• place the car in the right position on the road according to the situation
• master the special conditions that come with low friction driving
• anticipate and be prepared for suddenly occurring danger, for example
skidding vehicles

The new curriculum:

Driving on low friction is combined with many different types of risks. That is
why the education shall focus on making the driver aware of the large number
of problems that exist and of the related difficulties, as well as knowing,
understanding and avoiding these risks. Key aspects of the education are
thus increased self-awareness (avoiding overestimation), large safety
margins (how to avoid risks, choice of speed) and understanding of vehicle
dynamics (tyres, stability, ABS-brakes). Insight and understanding shall be
given high priority compared to skill training. The aim should be to avoid
overestimation of one’s own skill to master critical situations. The risks related
to overestimation of the effect of the education and the difficulties in driving on
low friction shall continuously be emphasised. Main goal: following the
course, the candidate shall have a better understanding of the necessity to
avoid risks and be given the possibility to realistically assess his/her own
driving skill.

11.11.4 Education and extension courses for skid track instructors

At the same time as the new curriculum was introduced an obligatory

extension course for skidtrack instructors began. It was decided that the
education should be obligatory for all people working at the driving ranges at
this particular time. Also, all people that in the future will become traffic
teachers and want to work as a skidtrack instructor must take this course. The
same course must be taken by traffic inspectors from the National Road
Administration. These inspectors serve as a support for the
personnel/education manager at respective driving ranges.
 114

According to the regulations the course should comprise at least four days
with a period in between with practical training of at least one month. The
elements included in the obligatory course are:
• Vision Zero and the skid training. To find out about Vision Zero and its
implications for skid training.
• The skid training and its development. To understand how today’s skid
training has come about and to understand the role of the skid training in
the overall driver education.
• Regulations. To gain knowledge about the skid training regulations.
• Vehicles. To gain in-depth knowledge about car construction and
functioning, especially when driving in slippery conditions.
• Roads. To gain in-depth knowledge about the connection between road
conditions and traffic safety, how to measure friction and to have
experienced the meaning of different friction values during practical
driving.
• Driver behaviour. To gain knowledge about factors that influence car
drivers driving behaviour, risk taking and accident involvement.
• Pedagogical methods. To gain knowledge about different pedagogical
methods and how to use them in the skid training and to have participated
in the development of concrete education elements.
• Follow-up of the education. To gain knowledge about different methods
to evaluate their own teaching.
• Educational material. To gain knowledge about the use of different
teaching aids.
• Practical exercises. To gain knowledge and experience how to develop
practical elements with a starting-point in the curriculum’s intentions and
sub-goals.
• Period of practise. To use the acquired knowledge under realistic
circumstances and to have learned how to use the technical equipment at
the driving ranges.

All personnel now working with skid training in Sweden have gone through
the obligatory course. New courses are arranged as new personnel are being
employed.

11.11.5 Final remarks

The changes of the skid training are currently being evaluated. Engström
(1996) made a pre-measure of the old skid training in Sweden. The same
measures have been used in the evaluation of the new curriculum and its
impact on the skid training. Preliminary results point in the direction that the
new curriculum has led to the changes hoped for. Below some of the results
from the pre- measure and the current evaluation (not fully complete for point
2) are shown.
 115

Skill Vehicle and road characteristic Skill Vehicle and road characteristic
Insight Do not know Insight Do not know
% P rocent % P ercent
100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

a) Old skid training, pre measure b) The new skid training in

done in 1996 2000/2000

Explanation of the numbers in the figures above:

1. The curriculum’s goals/aims
2. The education plans goals/aims
3. What the skid track instructors say the aim with the different practical exercises is
4. What the pupils think the aim with the different practical exercises is
5. What the skid track instructors convey to the pupils out on the driving range
6. The skid track instructor’s comprehension of what the pupils learn of the different
practical exercises
7. What the pupils say that they have learned about the different practical exercises.
8. The skid track instructors’ understanding of how the course content as a whole is
distributed on the three categories
9. The pupils’ understanding of how the course content as a whole is distributed on
the three categories

As can be seen in the above figures, there has been a change from skills-
based perceptions to more insight and vehicle and road characteristics
perception. This is true all the way from the new curriculum to the driving
ranges education plans to what the skidtrack instructors convey to the pupils
out on the driving range and to what both the skidtrack instructors and the
pupils perceive of the skid training.
 116

11.12 Evaluation of new national curriculum for skid training in

Sweden. Summary written by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

From VTI Report 472 (2001) by Inger Engström, Anders Nyberg and Nils
Petter Gregersen

11.12.1 Introduction

A new national curriculum for skid training was introduced in Sweden on 1.

July 1999. Compared to the old national curriculum, which was heavily
focused on mastering critical situations, the new one focused on risk
assessment, anticipation and insight of one’s own personal limitations when
driving on slippery roads.

Aim
The aim of this study was to evaluate the new national curriculum in terms of
how the training content, message and implementation had been altered
compared to the education performed under the old curriculum.

Methods
The development of the new national curriculum was accompanied by an
evaluation with a before-measurement in 1996 (Engström, 1996) and an
after-measurement over two years, from spring 1999 to spring 2001. To
compare the results between measurements, all analysis consisted of
classification of the different data into three categories; skill, insight and
knowledge of vehicle and road characteristics. The term skill refers to dealing
with a critical situation that had already arisen, insight to prevention so that a
critical situation never arises, and knowledge of vehicle and road
characteristics to understanding how the characteristics of the vehicle and the
road surface influence the driving situation. All classifications have been
performed individually by two different researchers. In a few cases the
classifications did not match which led to these cases being reexamined until
an agreement was found.

In order to find how the aim had been satisfied, a package of three studies
was carried out.

A content analysis
The analysis consisted of a classification of the aims and goals - according to
the three categories mentioned above - in the national curriculum in use in
1996 and 2000, and in each skid track’s local curriculum (all aims and goals
named for the different practical driving exercises) in use in 1996 (n=32) and
2000 (n=37). The proportion of the aims and goals assigned to each category
was then calculated.

An observation study
The same seven skid tracks were visited in 1996 and in 2000. The skid tracks
were selected to incorporate tracks working with the two types of low friction
 117

simulation methods used and also to include large, medium and small tracks.
Two practical training sessions per track were observed. During the practical
training session an observer sat in the car and recorded on tape what the
instructor said to the pupil/pupils. The material was processed by counting the
number of comments made by the instructor to the pupils and classifying
these into the above mentioned categories. The proportion of the comments
assigned to each category was then calculated. A total of 14 sessions were
classified both in 1996 and in year 2000.

An interview study
Interviews were conducted with 14 instructors and 39 pupils in 1996 and 7
instructors and 19 pupils in 2000. All had taken part in the sessions observed
and all were willing to participate in the interviews. The interviews lasted on
average 25-30 minutes and were recorded on tape for later analysis. All
practical exercises were discussed (with pupils and instructors separately) in
relation to the following three aspects:
• the aim of the exercise
• what the pupil had learnt from the specific exercise
• how the exercise will affect the pupil's driving in the future
Also, each instructor and pupil were asked to name how much of the course
content as a whole they thought belonged to the three different categories
skill, insight and knowledge of vehicle and road characteristics. The answers
were classified according to the above mentioned categories and summarised
by frequency and the percentages of instructors and pupils who had given
each answer.

The three different studies made it possible to analyse the education chain all
the way from the national curriculum, to the skid track's local curriculum, to
what the skid track instructors transmit to the pupils during the practical
sessions. The analysis included what both the skid track instructors and the
pupils perceive of the skid training.

11.12.2 Results

Figure 1A shows how the skid training in Sweden looked in year 1996 and
figure 1B shows the corresponding look in year 2000.

It can be seen that by introducing a new national curriculum for the skid
training, the whole education process was changed in accordance with the
aim of introducing a new curriculum, i.e. a greater focus on insight. All
different stages were affected by the curriculum, even though there are
differences regarding how great the change has been at different stages. On
the other hand, it can hardly be expected that the distribution to the different
categories found in the national curriculum would be exactly the same in all
the following stages. However, compared to the old education process there
has been a change from skill-based perceptions to more insight and vehicle
and road characteristic perceptions. This is true regardless of whether you
look at the skid tracks local curriculum, what the instructors convey to the
 118

pupils during the practical exercises or the instructors’ and pupils’ perception
of the new skid training.

Skill Do not know

Explanation to the number in the figures:
Insight
Vehicle and road characteristic
No influence 1.Aims and goals of the national
Percent curriculum
100
2.Aims and goals of the skid tracks’ local
80 curriculum
3.Aim of different practical exercises
60
according to skid track instructors
40 4.Aim of different practical exercises
according to pupils
20
5.Message mediated by skid track
0 instructors to the pupils during practical
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
exercises
6.The skid track instructors’
Figure 1A: Before measurement in year 1996
comprehension of what the pupils learn
from the different practical exercises
7.Pupils learning from the different
practical exercises
Skill Do not know
Insight No influence
8.The skid track instructors’
Vehicle and road characteristic
comprehension of how the pupils driving
Percent
100 will be affected by the different practical
exercises
80
9.The pupils’ comprehension of how their
60 driving will be affected by the different
practical exercises
40
10.The skid track instructors’
20 comprehension regarding how the course
content as a whole is distributed on the
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 three categories
11. The pupils’ comprehension regarding
Figure 1B After measurement in year 2000 how the course content as a whole is
distributed on the three categories

11.12.3 Conclusions

The results of the before-measurement (Engström, 1996) showed that a

predominant proportion of the content of skid training focused on skills (60–
80%). The remainder of the content was divided over the other two
categories, insight and vehicle and road characteristics, with a somewhat
greater concentration on the former. When this result was compared with that
of the after-measurement, it was found that a change had occurred. Today,
by far the greatest proportion of the content of the Swedish skid training is
concerned with insight, and the distribution over the three categories is more
even than during the before-measurement. It has, however, been found that
in spite of the approach being the right one, i.e. the one that had been
intended, there is great variation in how the categories are distributed in the
different stages. To sum up, the Swedish skid training has changed, from
 119

mainly concentrating on driving skill to be mainly concerned with insight, just

as had been intended. The change-over has not yet been completed, but it is
a process that will take time, and the evaluation shows that new features and
changes are still being introduced at the skid tracks in Sweden.
 120

11.13 Evaluation of the 16-year age limit for driver training in Sweden.
Summary written by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

From manuscript to VTI report by Nils Petter Gregersen, Hans-Yngve Berg,

Sven Dahlstedt, Inger Engström, Sixten Nolén, Anders Nyberg, Birger
Nygaard and Per-Arne Rimmö

11.13.1 Introduction

Through a reform implemented in September 1993, the age limit for practising
car driving was lowered from 17½ to 16 years while the licensing age
remained 18. The purpose of lowering the age limit was to give the learner
drivers an opportunity to acquire more experience as drivers before being
allowed to drive on their own.

Aim
The aim of the study as expressed in the commission from the Swedish
National Road Administration was to perform "an evaluation and follow-up of
lowering the age limit for driving practice to 16 years of age". The evaluation
design and methods were developed by the VTI in consultation with a
reference group linked to the project. The evaluation concentrated on
performance and utilisation of the system, i.e. a process analysis, and on
evaluation of effects on attitudes, self-assessment, exposure, driving
behaviour, knowledge and accident involvement/accident risk.

The evaluation includes the following studies:

• An interest survey among prospective learner drivers and their parents
• A process analysis concerning participation, driving practice, etc.
• An analysis of driving practice accidents
• Studies of effects with regard to accident involvement
• Studies of effects with regard to self-reported behaviour, attitudes and
self-assessment of ability
• A trend survey of self-reported behaviour, attitudes and self-assessment
of ability
• Studies of effects with regard to driving style and safety margins
• Studies of effects with regard to mental workload
• Studies of effects with regard to eye movements
• Studies of effects with regard to knowledge
• Trials with a special three-day training course at a driver training centre

Methods
In the evaluation, several different measuring methods and samples of test
subjects were used in the different sub-studies. In the questionnaires, limited
random samples from the national driving licence register have been used. In
the accident analyses, the whole of the national population of young drivers
from the accident register of Statistics Sweden and the Swedish National
Road Administration’s driving licence register have been used. In the various
 121

behavioural experiments, smaller groups of drivers who did, and respectively

did not, make use of the 16-year age limit have been studied during actual
driving. Driving behaviour has been registered using special equipment, e.g.
the VTI’s specially instrumented car or an eye tracking device.

The evaluation was based on a main design where comparisons were made
between those youngsters making use of the 16-year age limit and two
control groups, one from before the change in 1993 and one which, after the
change, nevertheless waited until the age of 17½ before starting to practise
driving. A two-way comparison of this type increases certainty when drawing
conclusions about the effects. To gain control over the social trends that may
influence young people’s behaviour as car drivers, trend analyses of
accidents and attitudes, etc. have been carried out.

11.13.2 Results

When interpreting the results, it should be remembered that it has not been
possible to carry out the evaluation with experimental control in every sub-
study. This has had certain consequences when interpreting the results, since
the differences between the compared groups may depend to some extent on
factors over which the studies have no control. Those who have made use of
the 16-year age limit may be safer car drivers because they have practised
more, but the reason may also be better preconditions such as time and
money resources, stronger motivation or greater encouragement by parents.
The calculations take into account the consequences of a number of
background differences of this type. There are, however, still such aspects
that have not been controlled for.

The initial interest survey among those approaching 16 years of age and their
parents before the age limit was lowered showed a widespread interest in
making use of the new opportunity. As many as 70 - 87% of the parents and
80 - 93% of the young people indicated a wish to take part, depending on how
the training system was to be designed.

In the process analysis it was shown that nearly half the young people in the
population made use of the possibility to start driving practice before the age
of 17½. Certain social differences were found between the groups, which
indicate that 5 - 10% more among those making use of the 16-year age limit
had advantages such as a higher level of education in the family. The driving
practice organised by driving schools was relatively unchanged in duration,
but was carried out at the end of the training period, unlike the situation
before the reform, when it was relatively evenly distributed over time. Private
driving practice has increased greatly, which meant that those who made use
of the 16-year age limit practice driving approximately 2.5 - 3 times more than
those who did not make use of it.

In the analysis of driving practice accidents it was found that the accident risk
among those aged 16 - 17½ was not higher than among those aged 17½ -
18, either with regard to police-reported accidents with personal injuries or
self-reported accidents. The evaluation of the analysis of driving practice
 122

accidents comprises only those occurring among 16-18 year olds. Information
on all police-reported driving practice accidents with personal injuries, i.e.
involving learner drivers of all ages, has also been presented. The figures
comprise all driving practice accidents with personal injuries that occurred
during the period 1. September 1993 – 31. December 1999. A total of 437
accidents, i.e. approximately 73 accidents per year, have been recorded in
Sweden during the six-year period. Of these, 21 persons were killed and 139
seriously injured, which corresponds to an average of approximately 3.5 and
23 per year respectively. Nine persons, i.e. an average of 1.5 per year, were
killed in accidents where the learner driver was below the age of 18. In order
to gain an idea of the relative order of size of the accident problem, it should
be noted that 18-19 year olds with a driving licence were involved in
approximately 4500 police-reported accidents with personal injuries during
the same period. The average was approximately 900 such accidents per
year.

The analysis of police-reported accidents during the two first years after
gaining a driving licence, showed that the reform as such, i.e. in a comparison
before and after the lowering of the age limit, led to a reduction of
approximately 15% in the accident risk among new 18 – 19-year-old drivers. It
was also found that those who in fact made use of the 16-year age limit had
an approximately 46% lower risk/km than those who learned to drive before
the age limit was changed. Compared with the other control group, i.e. those
who, after the change, chose to wait until the age of 17½, the corresponding
figure was also approximately 46%. After controlling for the effect of the
general accident trend, differences in social background and the fact that the
16-year age group obtains a driving licence earlier, there remained a
difference of approximately 40% in the accident risk between the situation
before lowering the age limit and those who practice driving from 16 years of
age, while it decreased to approximately 24% between those who made use
and did not make use respectively of the new opportunity after it was
introduced (Table 1). The differences in the type of accidents in which the
drivers were involved show that those who made use of the lower age limit
were involved in fewer accidents in complicated environments, such as
junctions and urban traffic.

Table 1. Differences in health risk and accident risk between trial group and
control groups with and without controlling for confounding factors
Compared groups: Differences according to Differences after controlling
16=trial national register data for confounders
17½b=control before Accidents per Accidents Accidents per Accidents
17½a=control after 1000 drivers per 10 mkm 1000 drivers per 10 mkm
16 – 17½b -48.2% -45.9% -42.3% -39.8%
16 – 17½a -45.5% -45.8% -27.1% -23.9%
16+17½a – 17½b -20.8% -17.2% -18.7% -15.1%

The results from the questionnaires one and two years after obtaining a
driving licence showed no great differences between the groups either in
attitudes or in self-assessment of driving ability.
 123

The young persons who attended the special 3-day course at the driver
training centre evaluated the training positively. The course was considered
very useful, efficient, enjoyable and interesting. However, owing to problems
with the sampling procedure, the intended number of persons did not take
part, and thus no reliable evaluation of its effect on accident involvement was
possible.

The behavioural measurements with the VTI’s instrumented car showed that
the persons in the 16-year age group drove at a somewhat lower speed
except on arterial roads. They drove with somewhat lower longitudinal forces
on motorways and arterial roads, and they experienced a lower mental
workload when driving.

11.13.3 Conclusions

When combining the various sub-study results, it was concluded that the
lowering of the age limit to 16 has led to improved road safety for young new
drivers. However, it is not possible to be completely certain about the exact
size of the reduction since other uncontrolled background factors may
influence the results. A number of background factors of this type have been
examined and attention has been paid to these in the calculations.

There may, however, be other aspects that have not been controlled for,
which may influence the difference between the groups such as interest in car
driving and how large the need for car driving is. The relevance of these
aspects is underlined by the fact that the number of young licence holders in
Sweden has decreased dramatically during the last 10 years. During the
evaluation period there is a risk of selection and gradual concentration of
especially interested among the youngsters that become licence holders. This
may influence the comparability between the before and after groups. The
quality of this influence is unclear since the interest of gaining a licence may
be a result of different preferences, needs and motives. It may be a result of
larger interest in learning about car driving and becoming a safe driver or it
may be a generally larger interest for cars and for car driving as such. If the
first reason were dominating one would expect that the reduction in accident
risk is partly a result of this selection. The effect of the reform is thus
overestimated. If, on the other hand the group is dominated by the second
group it is probable that the effect is underestimated. Earlier studies have
shown that young drivers with a large interest in cars and car driving are more
often found among high-risk drivers.

Since several of the sub-study results follow a reasonable pattern in good

agreement with the formulated hypotheses, the conclusion is nevertheless
that the greater amount of driving practice reported by 16-year olds leads to
safer car driving. It is also clear that the reform led to a reduction in accidents
nationally. However, it should be observed that despite a reduction in the
number of accidents among young people after the introduction of the 16-year
age limit, the level is continuing to increase, but from a lower starting point
after the reform. Regardless of the very positive results of the reform, it
therefore has to be acknowledged that much remains to be done in improving
 124

the safety of young drivers. Since there are still a number of young people
who have not made use of the new opportunity, this indicates a potential for
encouraging more persons to gain early driving experience. Accidents among
young drivers also occur as a result of factors other than lack of experience.
Training should be seen in a general perspective where experience, in the
sense of time behind the driving wheel, is one part, and professional driving
school tuition another. With an increasing number of persons obtaining a
licence, the absolute number of accidents among young drivers will also
increase. By developing driver training to encourage private driving practice
and systematically including other factors linked with the safety of young new
drivers, it should be possible to advance much further. Among these factors
are drivers’ overestimation of their own ability, social effects and group
pressure, low risk evaluation, “unsafe” attitudes in traffic, drivers’ views on
their own personal tendencies, etc. By taking the correct measures to make
lay instructed driving practice safer, it should also be possible to reduce the
number of accidents during practice.

The Swedish evaluation has awoken a great deal of interest also outside
Sweden, both because of the extensive design and the positive results. When
interpreting the results it must be emphasised that they cannot directly be
generalised to other countries. Sweden is one of the safest countries in the
world with a high awareness in the population about road safety matters.
Sweden also has a very long tradition of free choice between lay instruction
and driving school tuition and how to combine them. There is a well-
established tradition to practice with a lay instructor, which may be an
important precondition for attaining the dramatic increase of driving practice
shown in this study. In a country without this history - or with a poorly
developed licensing system - the effects may be much smaller.
 125

11.14 Novice drivers´ crash risk before and after the age limit for driver
training in Norway was lowered from 17 to 16 years. Summary written by
Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

From TÖI-report 498/2000 by Fridulv Sagberg

11.14.1 Introduction

In October 1994, the age limit in Norway for on-the-road training was lowered
from 17 to 16 years (while the licensing age was maintained at 18), as one
element in a more comprehensive change in the regulations for driver training
and licensing. At the same time all geographical restrictions on lay instructed
driver training were removed. One aim of this reform was to allow the learner
drivers more opportunity to gain driving experience before starting to drive on
their own.

Aim
The aim of the study was to compare crash risk among novice drivers
obtaining a licence before and after the reform was introduced, and to
interpret to what extent such differences may be due to the reform.

Methods
A questionnaire about accidents, exposure, driver training, and background
factors was mailed to a sample of 20,700 drivers aged 18-20 years, who had
passed the driving test in the period from April 1998 through March 1999 and
had held their licence for between 1 and 17 months. About 10,000 drivers
returned the questionnaire. The data for this group were compared to
previously collected data from two additional groups of drivers who had got
their licences respectively in 1994 (before the reform) and 1995 (immediately
after the reform). The age span was the same for all three groups. In addition
to self-reported data, analyses were carried out on police reported personal
injury accidents among novice drivers.

The three groups were termed “Before group” (1994), 17-year group (1995)
and 16-year group (1998-99). The only difference between the two latter
groups was the opportunity of driver training from the age 16 in the 16-year
group, whereas the drivers in the 17-year group were 17 years or older when
the reform was introduced, and thus could not benefit from the change. The
“before group” differed from the two other groups in several respects, the
main difference being that they had more mandatory training in a driving
school, a shorter licensing test and were subjected to certain geographical
restrictions regarding lay instructed training.

Comparisons of the 16-year group to the 17-year group show effects of the
reduced age limit alone whereas comparison to the “before group” shows
effects of the total reform.
 126

11.14.2 Results

More than half (54.5%) of the novice drivers in the 16-year group had begun
their driver training before their 17th birthday. Slightly more than 90% had
some lay instruction in addition to the mandatory training in a driving school –
this is a small increase compared to the other groups. The proportion of
driving more than 50 trips with a lay instructor had increased from 23% in the
17-year group to 30% in the 16-year group. The average number of trips with
the lay instructor was tentatively estimated to be 54 for the 16-year group
compared to 46 in the 17-year group. The total distance of driving with a
private instructor was estimated at 1153 km per driver on average for the 16-
year group, 1027 km for the 17-year group and 914 km for the “before group”.
Considering that the available time for driver training before the licensing age
was doubled – from one year to two years – and that the geographical
restrictions were removed, the increased amount of lay instructed driving was
surprisingly modest. Such a small increase gives little reason to expect any
substantial effects on the post-licensing crash risk.

Significantly more drivers in the 16-year group than in the 17-year group had
been involved in a crash during lay instructed training. This is, however,
explained by the increased driving distance and there is thus no significant
difference in crash risk.

Significantly more drivers in the 16-year group than in the 17-year group were
involved in a crash during the first few months after licensing. At the same
time there has been a considerable increase in the average distance driven,
so that the risk was not significantly different. The month-by-month risk
development after licensing was very similar for all three groups (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Month-by-month crash risk after licensing for all three groups
(Sagberg, 2000).
 127

A comparison of the post licensing risk was made between drivers with
different amounts of lay instruction. In this comparison, data from all three
groups was pooled. An inverted U-relationship was found between post-
licence crash risk and driver training (Figure 2), implying that drivers with an
intermediate amount of driver training had a higher crash risk than both
drivers with little or no lay instruction and those who had most training. The
same relationship with risk appears for the total amount of driver training, i.e.,
the sum of lay instruction and driving school lessons.

It was hypothesised that the low risk among those with little training is due to
insecurity resulting in careful driving, whereas those with the highest amount
of training have a similar low risk due to better traffic skills. The intermediate
group is supposed to have got sufficient experience to reduce their insecurity,
resulting in less careful driving, but not sufficient experience to master difficult
situations. This interpretation is supported by the finding that the inverted U-
curve is prominent only for the first months (months 1-6) after licensing and
disappears more or less during the following months (months 7-17).

Figure 2 Novice drivers crash risk after licensing by amount of driver training
(Sagberg, 2000).

In the analysis of involvement in police reported accidents during the first year
after licensing, three cohorts of licence holders 18 years of age from 1994,
1995 and 1998 were compared. Data from the questionnaire on driving
distance was used for calculation of risk.

No significant differences in crash risk were found between the cohorts.

 128

11.14.3 Conclusions

• Lowering of the age limit for driver training from 17 to 16 years has
resulted in a rather small increase of the amount of lay instructed
training.
• Both the questionnaire data and the official accident statistics show
that an increasing proportion of novice drivers are included in crashes
during their first months of driving. At the same time the exposure has
increased, so that there has been no significant change in crash risk.
• Neither the reduced age limit nor other changes in driver training have
yielded demonstrable effects on novice drivers´ crash risk after
licensing.
• The decrease in licensing as well as changes in the car ownership and
use among young people during the recent years may have resulted in
temporal and spatial exposure changes, making it difficult to
disentangle possible effects of driver training from the effects of other
factors.
• The relation between post-licensing crash risk and amount of training
may suggest that the training must exceed a certain minimum before a
favourable effect on the risk can be observed. Similar conclusions
were drawn in the evaluation of the Swedish 16 year age limit for
training.
• The marked fall in risk during the first months after licensing suggests
that more driving before licensing may reduce the initial post-licence
risk. The observed increase in training due to the reduced age limit is,
however, too small to be effective. The authorities should therefore
take efforts to secure that young drivers receive considerably more
training before getting a licence.
 129

11.15 Lay instruction during driver training – A study on how it is

carried out and its impact on road safety by Nils Petter Gregersen and
Anders Nyberg

From VTI Report 481 (2002) by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

11.15.1 Introduction

Lay instructed training has existed in Sweden since the introduction of a

licensing system in 1906. Over the years, several investigations have
suggested the introduction of a structure and rules for the way in which
training is carried out. However, few changes have taken place and those that
have been introduced are small. The most important change was the reform
in 1993, where the age limit for practising was lowered from 17½ to 16 years.
The present study was considered important for possible future suggestions
regarding the question of structuring lay instructed training. It has been
established that detailed knowledge was lacking when it comes to lay
instruction, the way in which this is carried out, and the costs and benefits of
lay instruction in terms of accident involvement during practice and after
obtaining a licence.

Aims
The study had the following three aims:
– to describe how lay instructed training is carried out today concerning
quantity and quality
– to analyse police reported injury accidents during practice through register
studies and in depth analysis in order to increase knowledge about safety
in practice driving
– to develop suggestions for changes in lay instructed training

Methods
The study consists of two main parts; a process analysis of how, when and
where lay instructed training takes place, and an analysis of training
accidents.

The process analysis describes the content and structure of the training and
was carried out with interviews (n=10), questionnaires (n=546) and diaries
(n=723) filled out by the learner drivers and their lay instructors. The analysis
of training accidents during the years 1994-2000 was performed with register
analyses and in depth studies of 15 of 16 fatal accidents. The situation
concerning training accidents has also been compared to the situation during
the two first years after obtaining a licence.

11.15.2 Main results from the process study

The average practising time is 112 hours under lay instruction and 14 hours
under professional instruction. These figures are approximately the same as
in the earlier published evaluation of the 16-year age limit for practising. The
 130

amount of practising thus appears to be approximately the same in 2000 as

during 1994–1996 when the 16-years evaluation was carried out.

Results from questionnaires and diaries suggest that it is relatively unusual to

start driver training in a driving school. Driving school training is something
that is postponed until the end of the training period. There is a gender
difference in that women appear to attend driving schools more than men. For
lay instruction, the situation is the opposite. The total amount of training is
greater among men than among women. The results also show that the
amount of practice increases towards the end of training.

Furthermore, it is clear that most lay instructed training is carried out in

connection with other errands. Driving practice is seldom planned in advance.
Initially, however, it is fairly common to drive with the sole aim of practising.

Lay instructed training takes place on all weekdays, but at weekends the
amount increases and is also more evenly distributed over the day. The main
reason for not practising in certain weeks is a lack of time. Practising is most
common under favourable conditions such as low traffic, dry roads, daylight
and good weather. However, the results also show that there is a significant
amount of training in unfavourable conditions such as darkness, rain and wet
roads. Little training takes place on roads with low friction caused by ice and
snow. More training takes place in dense traffic towards the end of training.

It is rare to actively make plans for what should be practised during a drive or
to make any reference to the theory book. However, the theory connection is
sometimes taken up while driving. The national curriculum is used by only
8%. Also, theory is referred to increasingly towards the end of the training
period.

Most learners have two supervisors: mother and father. The supervisor is on
average 48 years old and drives approximately 20,000 km per year. However,
there is a large variation in the age of the supervisor. Very few report co-
operation with driving schools, which may be explained by the fact that the
first visit to a driving school is postponed until very late in training.

Approximately 40% report that they have “intervened“ in the learner’s driving.
In most cases, this has only consisted of shouting a warning to avoid an
obstacle, but in a significant number of cases it has involved using the
handbrake or grabbing the steering wheel. Almost 3% have also reported
involvement in accidents, mostly with very slight injuries or minor damage to
the car. Opinion on introducing a mandatory dual braking system for private
cars used in training is fairly evenly distributed between positive and negative.
Over 80% of the lay instructors consider that it has been easy to act as
supervisor, but a significant proportion (54%) would like additional information
or education in order to improve the situation further.
 131

11.15.3 Main results from the analysis of accidents during practice

The aim of the study has been to investigate the problem more closely and to
form a basis for a cost-benefit estimation of lay instructed practice. The first
part of this aim includes calculations of the size of the public health problem
resulting from these accidents. This was considered important since 444
injury accidents were reported during the 7-year period 1994–2000. In these
accidents, 827 persons were injured and 22 killed. This means that each
year, on average 63 persons were injured and 3 were killed. In comparison,
13,657 injury accidents were reported among novice drivers during their first
two years with a licence over the same time period. In these accidents,
21,669 persons were injured and 382 were killed, which is an average of
1,951 injured and 55 killed per year. The problem with accidents during
practice may thus be regarded as relatively small in a country the size of
Sweden with a population of 9 million. It is also small in comparison with the
situation among novice drivers with a licence. Expressed as a health risk
(accidents per 1000 drivers), it is 33 times higher among novice drivers than
among learner drivers.

Men face a higher risk than novice drivers, but among learner drivers there is
no difference between men and women. The well known overrepresentation
of men in young drivers’ accidents is thus absent during practice. The reason
for this is not clear, but may lie in limitations for practising men to make their
own decisions about where, when and how they should drive since they are
accompanied by their supervisors

Another purpose of the study was to describe the types of accidents that
occurred during practice and to compare them with the situation among
novice drivers. Among novice drivers, single vehicle accidents and accidents
with vehicles on an intersecting course are over-represented. Among learner
drivers, head-on accidents, rear end collisions, overtaking accidents and
accidents when turning onto another road are overrepresented.

Sixty-four of the 444 accidents among learner drivers during 1994–2000

occurred in driving school cars and 380 in private cars. This means that 85%
of all accidents during practice are related to lay instructed practice. All of the
fatal accidents and over 90% of the severe injury accidents occurred during
lay instruction.

The 15 fatal accidents during practice that were analysed in depth were
divided into two main groups; one where primarily something happened with
the learner’s car and another where other people primarily have acted in a
way that caused the accident to happen. Eight of the accidents were of the
first type, of which five occurred on a high speed road with low friction
surface, where the car was skidding into the opposite lane. The other three
seemed to be related to a lack of attention by the learner and/or the
supervisor. The other seven accidents were of the type in which the other
party acted unexpectedly, so that the learner for various reasons was unable
to avoid an accident. In four of the cases, an oncoming car has suddenly
changed lane into the learner’s lane, with a head-on collision as
 132

consequence. In the remaining three accidents, unprotected road users have

suddenly and unexpectedly entered the road.

11.15.4 Cost-benefit estimation

However, in the perspective of the Swedish “Vision Zero”, approved by the

Swedish Government, which aims at zero killed or seriously injured in road
traffic, even the minor problem of driving practice accidents is unacceptable.
The results of this study are thus being used as input in the development of
the Swedish driver training system and a new national curriculum. The size of
the problem must also be seen in the perspective of the gains in terms of
reduced accident involvement after obtaining a licence. This was part of the
third aim of the study - to evaluate the solution of the “experience paradox”,
i.e. to gain experience through supervised practice by comparing the costs in
terms of driving practice accidents to the benefits of this experience in terms
of reduced accident involvement after obtaining a licence.

In order to perform this comparison, the results from the previously published
evaluation of the reduced age limit for driving practice to 16 years of age
(Gregersen et al., 2000) have been used. The analysis shows that the
benefits in terms of accident reduction per 1000 novice licensed drivers are
34 times higher than the costs in terms of accidents per 1000 learner drivers
during practice.

11.15.5 Conclusions and suggestions

In addition to the description and analysis of the current situation of lay

instructed training, the study has aimed at making suggestions for measures
that are based on the results. The study has shown that there are a number
of problems that ought to be reduced. In spite of generally positive average
values in the results with many hours of practice, good cover of the different
topics in the curriculum etc., there is a large variation with some doing very
well and others very badly.

The ambition in a new driver education and training system should be to

create safe, skilled and sensible drivers. Based on the GADGET/GDE model,
the results of this study and the Swedish suggestion for a staged driver
education system, it was concluded that the following basic preconditions
should be fulfilled:
– There should be a clear harmony between the goals in the curriculum, the
competence of the instructors, the preconditions of the learner, the
education process and the design of the tests.
– The education should encourage continuous and extensive practice.
– The education should be structured in a sequence based on the goals in
the curriculum.
– The different actors in the process (instructors, supervisors, testing
personnel, etc.) should have a competence that covers all the cells in the
GADGET/GDE model
– These educators should have the educational competence that is needed
for their specific role in the process.
 133

– Lay instructed practice should be retained and strengthened.

– The role of the driving schools and skid tracks should be strengthened.
– Lay instructors should have a mandatory initial education from
professional driving instructors.
– Mandatory components should be chosen with care in order to gain both
maximum output from driver education and high acceptance from the
public.
– Mandatory parts should support lay instruction in order to improve the
structure and to increase experience also in difficult traffic environments
and situations.
– Mandatory education should cover parts that are difficult to handle in lay
training, such as darkness, dense traffic, overtaking, ecological driving and
the deeper psychological and social aspects of driving.
– Some form of incentive system for the learner to use correct working
methods in education should be developed.
– Some type of diagnosis for following the development of the learner during
the education process should be developed.

The basis for the introduction of measures should be that the driver education
system is in need of far-reaching change, where the historical tendency to
regard driving as a task of vehicle manoeuvring and traffic rule knowledge
must be abandoned. It has earlier been the view that voluntary co-operation
between learner, driving school and lay supervisor could produce the
competencies that are specified in the curriculum. With a new curriculum and
a corresponding educational content with a stronger focus on psychological
and social processes and with the knowledge of the problems in the current
system, it becomes obvious that professional education and support are
necessary. Fulfilment of goals in these respects demands teachers
competent both in educational methods and actual content, which the lay
supervisor cannot be expected to have.

However, to make it possible to develop the educational system satisfactorily,

it remains necessary to answer and discuss a number of questions, such as
the role of the secondary school, the incentive system, the diagnostic system,
the selection of components to be made obligatory and how a more
demanding education system could be made acceptable for the public.
 134

11.16 Development of demands on lay instruction and practising in

driver training in Sweden by Nils Petter Gregersen and Anders Nyberg

11.16.1 Introduction

The current structure of the Swedish driver education is a program, which can
begin at the age of 16 and provide a full licence at 18. An application for a
learner’s permit and for a supervisor’s permit must be sent to the authorities.
A supervisor must have had a driving license continuously for the past 5
years without it having been recalled by the authorities, and must be at least
24 years old. Skid training is mandatory and the learner is otherwise free to
choose between learning to drive with a lay instructor or a professional
teacher. The secondary school has to some extent included road user
education or driver instruction in its curriculum, but it is up to each school to
decide if this should be offered or not.

The goals of the Swedish education are specified in a national curriculum,

which is mandatory to everyone irrespective of whether they are using a
driving school or parents. The reality, however, is that the curriculum is used
only by the driving schools. There are no built-in control systems for lay
instruction other than the written and driving tests for the licence. The tests
are, however, related to the aims, which also influences the content of the
education. The available theory books are also developed in accordance with
the curriculum.

Even if the evaluation of the lowered age limit to 16 years for practising
showed positive results there is still more to be done to reduce crash risk
among novice drivers and during their practising. It is very important to find
out how to increase experience in a safe way. Therefore, the purpose of the
study is to develop lay instruction and practising. Four sub-studies are
performed in this project.

1. Part 1 is an analysis of the current situation of lay instruction. Knowledge

is gained by interviews, diaries to 1000 lay instructors and questionnaires
to 1100 driving pupils.
2. Part 2 is an analysis of accidents occurring during training.
3. Part 3 puts forward suggestions to improve lay instruction.
4. Part 4 makes suggestions for further evaluation studies.

11.16.2 Recent trends in developing driver education in Sweden

Even if the evaluation of the current system in Sweden has shown positive
results, the Swedish driver education and licensing system is continuously
under change. This new development work has been commissioned directly
by the government or been initiated by the Swedish National Road
Administration and has emerged from several information sources and
decisions. The most important reasons for continued development are:
- The good results of the lowered age limit for practising as described above
 135

- Many years of research which emphasises the need to increase

experience and to change the focus in driver education from providing
merely technical control skills and knowledge of traffic rules towards risk
awareness, insight of own limitations, understanding of motivational
aspects, social influence and group pressure, etc.
- Published evaluations of graduated licensing systems in different
countries showing significant accident reductions
- Long term development of strategies within the Swedish National Road
Administration (SNRA) on how to apply current knowledge about young
novice drivers, driving behaviour, driver education, etc. in the Swedish
driver education
- A decision by the Swedish Parliament of a ”Vision Zero” which means that
we shall not accept that people get killed or seriously injured in traffic

The vision zero is a vision, not a quantified goal that should be fulfilled within
a certain time period. It is a declaration from the Swedish Parliament that we
no longer accept that road traffic causes fatalities and life-long injuries.
Accidents in road traffic can never be extinguished even if this is urged for,
but when accidents occur, the outcome should be acceptable. The
declaration has been very important for road safety work in Sweden and
points out several priorities of what to do. One focus has been put on injury
prevention, for example by rebuilding roadsides and removing dangerous
obstacles such as stones and large trees. Better adjustment of speed limits to
the road environment and to human resistance of force is also carried out
together with other measures that will forgive the mistakes that road users
make.

A parliamentary commissioned development of a new driver education was a

direct consequence of the vision zero. The reduction that was reached
through the lowered age limit was not regarded as sufficient. There were still
too many young drivers killed or seriously injured during the first years of their
driving career and something more had to be done.

A new graduated driver education system (not graduated licensing system)

was thus developed in Sweden. The idea of this system was to combine the
positive aspects of graduated licensing systems (GLS) with a structured and
staged system of education where the benefits of professional education and
lay instruction were optimised. A final proposal was delivered to the
government in late 1999, but was not approved. The main reason was that
the media initiated a debate where the focus was on increased costs for the
individual and that this could lead to an increased inequality concerning the
possibilities to obtain a licence.

There was, however, awareness that a revision of driver training was needed.
In 2001, the development of a new national curriculum was started. The idea
for this new curriculum emerged from two sources. One was the fact that the
old curriculum was old-fashioned and did not provide the necessary support
to instructors and supervisors. The other was the work done by Hatakka et al.
(2002) in developing the GDE-framework. The framework clearly pointed out
that the necessary competencies for becoming a safe driver covers much
 136

more than was covered in the traditional curriculum. From being a detailed
description of more than 400 tasks of driving, the new curriculum will be goal-
oriented and more general in its approach. The base of the four levels of the
GDE-matrix is represented as 4 paragraphs in the curriculum. The overall
purpose of the training for each of the levels is described as follows:

1. The aim of the part “Manoeuvring, vehicle maintenance and

environment” is that the candidate shall learn how to manoeuvre the
vehicle in a safe and environmentally friendly way. The candidate shall
also develop a realistic assessment of his own ability to do this. This
involves learning how the vehicle functions, the different protection
systems in the car and the correlation between driving style and
pollution. In addition, the candidate shall develop the ability to reflect
on situations that occur during training.
2. The aim of the part “Driving in different traffic environments” is to
develop the candidate’s ability to drive the car in a safe and
environmentally friendly way in co-operation with other road users, in
different traffic situations and under different circumstances. This part
also aims at development of the candidate’s ability to anticipate, detect
hazards and to drive with such safety margins that are needed to avoid
becoming involved in critical situations. To exercise these abilities is
thus of central importance. In addition, knowledge and understanding
should be provided about why traffic rules exist and how they shall be
followed.
3. The aim of the part “Journey-related goals and context” is to give the
candidate knowledge about the importance of planning the travelling
with regard to where, when, how, under which circumstances and why
a trip should be carried out. This knowledge shall be used to make
trips as environmentally friendly as possible and to avoid travelling
under dangerous circumstances such as dense traffic, low friction, bad
weather, driving under the influence of alcohol or tiredness, etc.
4. The aim of part 4 “Personal characteristics and lifestyle” is to provide
understanding to the candidate how different personal and social
preconditions influence the role as a driver. The candidate shall realise
how driving behaviour and accident risk is correlated with factors such
as age, gender, personality, lifestyle, socio-economy, education and
peer groups. By understanding these relations the candidate is
expected to obtain better precondition to adjust the driving in a way
that own preconditions are taken into account.

The new curriculum has been commented upon by all interest groups and is
currently waiting for approval at the SNRA. No approval from the government
is needed for this change. It is expected to be introduced in 2004.
 137

11.17 Accompanied driving in France, overview of evaluations.

Summary written by Mika Hatakka

From Yves Page: Observatoire National Interministériel de Sécurité Routière

(2000)"Young drivers, and road accidents" and
Francoise Chatenet: INRETS (1998) A qualitative assessment of a training
method "l'Apprentissage Anticipé de la conduite (AAC) Summary and
perspectives.

11.17.1 Introduction

The French AAC (conduite accompagnée) model has been a topic of

discussion for some time already. There have been several rumours about its
effects and there have been opinions for and against it. The main trend in the
discussion is that in the beginning the results seemed to be very promising,
but in the long run enthusiasm has declined.

The French model aims at combining professional training and lay-instruction.

The starting age is 16. Professional instruction is supposed to give basic skills
to start practising and lay-instruction is to gain experience. Accompanied
driving can be started after completion of 20 hours of training in a driving
school and a theory test. A minimum of 3000 km of accompanied driving is
required. The minimum age of the accompanying person is 28 years. The
process also includes two pedagogical meetings in which the candidate,
accompanying person and driving instructor are all present.

The following evaluation is based on the two most recent and comprehensive
reports on "Apprentissage anticipé de la conduite" (AAC) model used in
France. The reports are made by Yves Page: Observatoire National
Interministériel de Sécurité Routière (2000) "Young drivers, and road
accidents." and Francoise Chatenet: INRETS (1998) “A qualitative
assessment of a training method l'Apprentissage Anticipé de la conduite
(AAC) Summary and perspectives”.

Yves Page's report summarises the results of major quantitative studies and
Chatenet's report is a qualitative analysis of the AAC model.

11.17.2 Quantitative studies

The study on experimentation of the AAC

Aim
The experimental study on AAC concerned two administrative departments in
France and was done in 1984 and involved 400 teenagers. The idea was to
survey the functioning of the system, who are choosing it and why.

Results
 138

The motives for AAC training were as follows. The system was designed for
safety reasons and the candidates stated safety also as a reason for
choosing the system. During training driving for training purposes was typical.
It was typical to drive in town areas, but this changed later. The motive in
avoiding town areas is the high potential risk for minor collisions. Accidents
while practising were rare. However, there was no data on accidents after
licensing.

The demographic factors showed that two thirds of the learners in AAC
system were male and 75% had completed their secondary education. The
experimental system had caused some administrative problems for
applicants.

The first evaluation study: GREMAQ-study (1990)

Aim
The first real evaluation study was launched by authorities and finished in
1990. The major question was asked: "Are the effects of AAC a result of the
training itself or of selection".

Method
The material consisted of surveys on 2800 youngsters that had chosen AAC
model. 1759 responses were returned. There was no control group, but a
probability and econometric model was used for this purpose.

Results
The majority of the learners with the AAC model lived in small or medium
sized towns. 75% of them were students, in 32% of the cases the father was
a senior executive or an engineer and in 24% a middle ranking executive or
technician.

Instead of the minimum 3000 kilometres respondents reported 5430 km of

accompanied driving and 70% passed the driver's tests on the first attempt.
Passing rates decreased during the evaluated time period (82% in 1985 and
70% in 1988). This can be considered a rather good pass rate when
compared to overall pass rates in France (Neumann-Opitz and Heinrich,
1995).

Accident rates of the AAC drivers in the research period showed that 7% of
them were involved in an accident for which they were responsible. The
researchers had concluded that this figure corresponds to the average rate of
a 30-year-old driver. The accident involvement of AAC drivers during the first
5 years after licensing was 33% lower than for the general population with all
training types mixed.

Conclusions
The result from the study can not be applied to the whole population but to a
relatively well-to-do minority with a greater propensity to educate their
children. Also, it cannot be predicted what the result of AAC would be if used
all over the country.
 139

Page tentatively concludes that accident figures show some evidence of a

positive effect on minor accidents but no evidence with regard to serious
accidents.

The second evaluation study: The Sylab study

Aim and method

The idea in this study was to make a comparison between traditionally trained
and AAC drivers. The material consisted of 1028 drivers with traditional
training (TT) and 1035 drivers with AAC. The sample covered the whole
country after AAC was put into general use in 1987.

Results
The demographic factors repeat the findings of earlier studies. 75% of AAC
candidates were studying in a university or secondary school (57% in TT).
AAC candidates came from the higher ranks of society and lived less often in
the region of a big city.

Also, in this study pass rates for the practical test were higher for AAC
candidates (76%) when compared to TT candidates (62%).

The reported mileage driven during the first years after licensing was higher
for AAC drivers than for TT drivers; the difference being 2500 to 3000
km/year. AAC drivers drove during the first year on average 12700 km and
15800 during the third year.

There were also some attitudinal questions in the survey. The only significant
differences between the groups were that 50% AAC-group exceeded speed
limits frequently or rather often (40% in TT) but that AAC drivers were more
likely to wear a seat belt.

Accident figures showed somewhat higher involvement in accidents for AAC

(all accidents including material damage) but it was associated with higher
mileage. The accident files were later reanalysed by another group in
Observatoire National Interministériel de Sécurité Routière. The new analysis
showed a new trend. There seemed to be a smaller accident risk for AAC
during the first two years of driving but a higher one from the third year on.

The conclusion was that AAC seems to be associated with higher mileage
and also slightly higher accident involvement when all accidents including
minor ones are included. Several questions were raised: Does AAC lead to
increased car use and thus lead to an increase in accident involvement?
Would those drivers who select AAC drive more than TT drivers anyway?

One interpretation of the results was that AAC drivers may have suffered from
over-confidence when compared to TT drivers. The result showing better
results for AAC during the first two years after licensing and worse from the
third on was interpreted to be a result of higher starting point for AAC drivers,
 140

whereas the TT group starts from a higher level of accidents but decreases
faster.

The third study (The A.G.F. study 1994 i.e. insurance companies)

Aim
In the beginning of the AAC there was an insurance premium given to AAC
drivers. There have been some studies done by insurance companies, but the
results are contradictory and a lot of those were based on hearsay. Some
companies had retained the premium and some of them had abolished it.

Method
AGF results were based on 1645 novice drivers in the year of 1993 but the
research method was not mentioned in the summary of results provided to
Page.

The first result was that AAC was more typical in rural and semi-rural areas
than in big cities. Another result was that the overall frequency of accident
involvement was 36,9% for AAC drivers and 30,6% for other young male
drivers. In the AAC group 33,6% of accidents involved property damage only
and 3.3% involved personal injuries. The number for other young male drivers
were 28,8% and 1,8%. These differences are significant with 90%
significance. The figures for females showed a similar trend but were
significant for property damage accidents only. It was concluded that AAC
does not represent a significant improvement with regard to safety.

Further studies

Evaluation of speed offences

La Direction de la Sécurité et de la Circulation Routières made a further study
on speed violations of AAC drivers compared to non-AAC drivers. The
analyses were well done and results showed no clear differences between
the groups. Violations were reported for 6,8% of AAC drivers and 7,3% of
non-AAC drivers. The only slight but significant difference was found in the
group having the licence for less than one year. Non-AAC drivers had more
violations.

Insurance companies made a study on accident involvement of AAC drivers

in co-operation based on their existing databases on 1992 and 1993. In this
study, however, those novice drivers who did not have a car registered in
their own name are missing. Furthermore, only accidents causing damage or
personal injuries to others were included.

The first analyses showed lower accident involvement for AAC drivers than
for others. However, in order to verify that the training method was affecting
the difference, a logistic regression was carried out. Statistical models
showed that the accident rate depended essentially on the amount of
exposure: students have less accidents than drivers that are already in
 141

working life, a high-powered car was associated with an elevated accident

rate and there were fewer (reported) accidents with owners of an old car. The
initial training (AAC-non-AAC) did not affect accident probability.

11.17.3 General conclusions from quantitative studies:

None of the studies were able to show decreased accident risk (all accidents
including property damage only) for AAC drivers. The first evaluation study is
an exception, but its results seem to be unreliable or at least cannot be
generalised to the whole population. What seems to be clear is that there was
a strong effect of self-selection.

The AAC system is hypothesised to have positive elements like acquiring

experience, better manoeuvring skills, awareness of traffic safety and phases
of accompanied driving but also negative aspects such as induced over-
confidence and over-exposure. The balance between these aspects should
be measured. At the time of the study it was not possible to know if AAC was
a positive measure for accident prevention. Page also laments that until the
time of the study, belief in the effectiveness of AAC did not allow for the true
effects to be shown.

In Page's paper several recommendations are made:

• To make two further studies. The first would be to take a more reliable look
at AAC with a large sample on AAC drivers' accidents and qualitative
properties of the accidents in comparison to non-AAC drivers. Another topic
of a study would be a qualitative or psychosocial analysis on the functioning
of the AAC. This should be done, because quantitative accident and violation
studies do not tell us the reasons behind the differences or lack of
differences.
• To immediately improve the control of AAC so that the system is applied in
the way it is supposed to be. This would also make it possible find out
whether the present application follows the guidelines of the system.
• To communicate information of AAC more as a safety measure and
information on the contents of training and not on access to driving before the
legal age. With a clearer message the system would be more geared towards
safe driving rather than driving per se.
• To implement a probationary licensing system after the age of 18. Page
refers to earlier research results (US, Canadian and New Zealand) including
the positive results from the German system "Führerschein auf Probe".
• To make general improvements to the driver education system including
AAC as a sub-system, according to Lynam and Twisk´s (1995) ideas.

11.17.4 Qualitative study (Chatenet, 1999)

Aim and method

Chatenet conducted a qualitative study on AAC. The method was semi-
directive discussions on three locations with different actors; 30 trainees in
AAC and 30 in traditional training, 30 accompanying adults and 15 parents
 142

with their child in traditional training and 30 instructors practising AAC. In

addition 9 driving examiners, 9 insurers, 6 education officers, 3 officials, 6
correspondents on road safety and 3 head teachers were interviewed. 15
theoretical pedagogical meetings were observed.

Since the beginning of the system several points have been raised. Firstly,
AAC concerns only a limited number of youngsters (20% of trainees yearly).
Secondly, there might be a discrepancy between the application and the
curriculum of AAC. Thirdly, what is the balance between the AAC and
traditional training in the minds of the actors involved?

Results
The overall results of all actors in the model show the following permanent
features:

-The AAC system has remained as an option to young persons of age 16-17
and older novice drivers do not choose the model.
-Social demand for driving has decreased; access to driving at 16 is not
systematically attractive.
-The image of AAC is good because it offers a possibility to gain experience
before licensing.

The interviews also showed that the pedagogical practices have been
unevenly developed and that the system has been opening up to more social
classes than initially thought. In the beginning of the system the motive for
applying AAC was safety; later, financial interests have started to dominate.

As a conclusion Chatenet presents an insurer's opinion: "The idea is

excellent, the method inadequately explained and the essential not applied".

One of the problems in the application of the systems seems to be a lack of

information. The system is promoted by financial institutions (insurance
companies), the institutional actors seem to be in doubt of the results, no
group of actors considers itself to be in charge of the distribution of
information. Also driving schools are passive. The major source of information
is the personal network amongst youngsters.

An analysis of pedagogy in the AAC system also revealed some problems.

The teaching methods have remained unchanged despite the introduction of
new pedagogical elements. Instructors seem to be more demanding when
they are instructing candidates with the traditional system than with AAC
candidates. The responsibility for instruction does not seem to be clear, and is
placed on the accompanying person. The main educational difference
between traditional and AAC training seems to be the required 3000 km of
accompanied driving. The role of professional teacher may remain obscure.

The pedagogical meetings between the candidate, teacher and

accompanying persons allows for self-reflection and change of opinions.
However, absenteeism, variation in length and the amount of sessions and
methods are typical problems. The contents of the meetings vary from non-
 143

co-ordinated discussions to lectures on traffic code. Because of difficulties in

co-ordination the theoretical parts on road safety are sometimes omitted.
Basic and continuing training of teachers seem to be a major problem in AAC.

The accompanying person will vary considerably. Three major variations were
identified: a didactic type, a commanding type and a passive type. Again, the
major problems seem to be the variation in pedagogical contents. At best,
AAC leads to retraining of the accompanying adult and at worst AAC leads to
the trainee picking up bad habits.

Even when 3000 km creates a great opportunity to gain skills and experience,
experience is typically gained by routine-like restricted journeys. Only few
families aim at diversifying driving in for didactic purposes.

One negative consequence of AAC may be that it may encourage a transfer

from multimodal transportation to more reliance on the car. This hypothesis
has no quantitative verification but seems to be relevant. This kind of process
should, of course, be avoided.

11.17.5 Conclusions from the qualitative study

The overall conclusion based on the qualitative analysis of AAC can be put as
follows. AAC cannot itself be blamed for poor results. The process analysis
has showed that its application has not met expectations. There seems to be
large variation in application from a low profile to a high profile of application
of the system. Chatenet concludes that positive results from the earliest
quantitative study may correspond to the high-profile application of the
system. Training of teachers also seems to constitute a problem. At the time
of the study, the teaching methods and content varied a lot.

From the perspective of the BASIC-project the AAC training in France

provides some ideas. First of all, creating and introducing a system is not
enough to assure good implementation. A lot of resources are needed to
control the quality of application. Another lesson is that a driver training
system may fail to produce positive results, but to properly analyse the
functioning of the system requires a lot of information on the process.

11.18 “L 17” Combined professional and layman driver training model

in Austria by Martin Winkelbauer

Since 1st March 1999, candidates for a category B driving licence in Austria
can start their driver training in an accompanied training model at the age of
16. Within this model the education starts in a driving school with theoretical
and practical basics. Afterwards it continues with a parallel professional and
layman practical training period to end up with perfection training in the
driving school again.
 144

11.18.1 Requirements for applicants

There are some specific requirements that the candidates, the accompanying
persons, the vehicles and the professional driving instructors have to meet.

Applicant:
• age of 16,
• reliability as a driver,
• health aptitude (suitability), physical and mental maturity,
• declaration of the parents’ or legal guardians’ consent,
• one or two accompanying persons.

Accompanying person(s):
• a close personal relationship to the applicant,
• is (are) not allowed to receive payment for activities as lay instructor,
• has (have) to have been a holder of a category B driving licence for at
least seven years,
• driving experience with a vehicle fitting the definitions of licence class B
during the last three years,
• must not have committed a severe violation of traffic regulations within this
period.

Vehicle:
• the handbrake (supplementary braking system) has to be easily reachable
for the accompanying person and has to have at least the effect of an
additional braking system (deceleration of al least 2,5 m/s²),
• the ignition lock has to be at the right side of the steering-wheel,
• a blue sign (160 x 160 mm) with the white inscription “L17” and a white
sign with the black inscription “Ausbildungsfahrt” (comparable to English
language "learner driver") has to be placed in a clearly recognisable place
at the front and in the back of the training car.

11.18.2 Training

The conditions for training content and scope were slightly different from the
current ones when the system was started in 1999. Most of the changes were
made to adapt the duration of parts of the driver training and the curriculum in
order to fit the new multiphase driver training. In the following section the
current legislation will be explained.
 145

Figure 1. The L17 training system

11.18.3 Stages of training

Stage 1: Basic Training in a Driving School

After the application, basic training starts in a driving school with 26
theory lessons (50 minutes each). Duration and contents are
equivalent to the basic curriculum valid for licence applicants of all
classes of licences.

12 practical lessons (50 minutes each) have to be taken, whose

contents follow a curriculum which is laid down in law.

After this compulsory preparation a voluntary introductory discussion

with the candidate, professional instructor and lay instructor(s) has
become commonplace. The time spent on this will be taken into
account in the total training duration; discussions in the intermediate
stages and perfection training may be shortened by the same extent.
Topics in this discussion are a summary of the training already taken
and practical aspects of the lay training to be started at this stage.

The candidate receives a confirmation by the driving school on a

specific form allowing him to start his lay training.

Stage 2: lay instruction 1

In this period the candidate has to drive at least 1000 km under the
supervision of at least one of his lay trainers. A log-book has to be
 146

kept. There is an alcohol limit for both candidate and lay instructor(s)
during training: 0,05 mg/l breath alcohol concentration.

Stage 3: 1st intermediate stage

After at least 1000 km of practice the candidate and one or both of his
lay trainers return to the driving school. During one practical lesson
one of the lay instructors is seated aside the candidate. In a theoretical
discussion afterwards at least the topics "choice of speed" and
"techniques for keeping full overview" have to be treated. They have to
talk about personal experience, analyse hazardous situations during
the first lay instruction stage, discuss consequences, find conclusions
and set goals for the next lay instruction stage. The normal duration of
the discussion is 2 lessons and may be shortened to 1 lesson if the
results of the practical lesson before were satisfactory.

The driving school has to confirm completion of the stage in the form
mentioned above.

Stage 4: lay instruction 2

Another 1000 km minimum of practical layman training.

Stage 5: 2nd intermediate stage

Like 1st intermediate stage, but different topics for theoretical
discussion: partnership in traffic, techniques for locating specific
hazards and risks in traffic. Confirmation in the form.

Stage 6: lay instruction 3

Another 1000 km minimum of practical layman training.

Stage 7: perfection training

The practical perfection training lasts at least 3 lessons and has to
include a full simulation of the practical driving test (at least 25
minutes) and driving on highways.

An individual theoretical discussion between candidate and

professional trainer on conclusions from the lay training also has to
treat the topic "impaired driving". The duration is normally 2 lessons,
but may be shortened to one lesson if the results of the practical
perfection training are satisfactory. The participation of the lay
instructor in the practical perfection training is voluntary.

After the perfection training the driver is free to apply for the driving
test. The training form with all confirmations and the log-book - signed
both by candidate and lay trainer(s) - has to be attached to the
application. At most 14 days before the 17th birthday the candidate
may go for the driving test. The driving licence is handed out on the
17th birthday at earliest.
 147

11.18.4 Post licensing measures

The young driving licence holder must fully respect all regulations of the
"driving licence on probation". The probation period ends as if the licence
would have been granted on 18th birthday. Currently there are no additional
restrictive measures for L17 drivers. When the L17 model started in 1999
there was a speed limit for L17 drivers valid until they reach the age of 18 (80
km/h on rural roads and 100 km/h on highways). Following the DAN Report
recommendations, this has been withdrawn.

11.18.5 Professional trainers

To be allowed to train "L17" candidates professional driving teachers also

have to meet certain requirements.
1. Qualification as a trainer for the practical training within a driver
improvement course or
2. at least one year of experience as a practical and theoretical driving
instructor in a driving school and a specific seminar or
3. at least 3 years of experience as a practical driving training in a driving
school and a specific seminar.

The specific seminar has to contain:

1. 3 hours of instruction in moderation of group discussions:
The primary goal is to set preconditions for handling disagreement with lay
instructors.
2. 3 hours of instruction about the differences to traditional driver training:
The primary goal: judgement of own and lay instructors' driving style,
evaluation of lay instructors' driving style for possible dangers to road
safety and adequate procedures for handling of disagreement.
3. 6 hours of instruction how to judge the driving skills of licence applicants.

Requirements for the trainers conducting this seminar:

Psychologist for Part 1
Part 2 and 3: persons with authorisation to train driving instructors.

11.18.6 Motives of the L17

The average driving experience of a normal driving test applicant is about 300
km. Besides a large share of candidates pass their driver training within a
period of less than 3 weeks. A longer time period (at least 6 weeks) of training
was considered necessary to influence candidates' habits and behaviour in
traffic in an appropriate way.

When the L17 model was set up the minimum of practical training lessons
was 20, now it is 18 lessons. The number of lessons candidates took on
average was not much above the minimum. This amount of training means
young drivers continue to train without guidance after the driving test. The
number of driving lessons is very limited due to cost reasons and increasing
the number of minimum lessons in driving school was not possible.
 148

Between the age of 16 and 18 - under certain circumstances already from

age of 15 - young people's individual mobility is mostly focused on the moped.
Mopeds show an accident risk about 10 times higher than cars. One objective
was to reduce the use of two-wheelers.

Layman training has a long tradition in Austria. For more than 30 years
private driver training models co-exist with professional driver training. In
1991 a model was introduced in which driver training started with a full
professional education at the age of 17 and a layman training period until 18.
However, very few candidates took this opportunity because motivation was
poor. There was no additional benefit in this model. Nevertheless it was a first
step towards introducing a combined layman and professional driver training
model, which tackles all the problems mentioned above and shows sufficient
benefits to make it widely used.

On the one hand, the lowered minimum age for independent driving was a
potential risk as a lower level of maturity could lead to increased traffic risk.
On the other hand, it was a unique benefit to make the model more popular.
Furthermore it made it possible to lower the number of young moped drivers.
The introduction of "Mopedautos" (vehicles class L2, 4 wheel light vehicles)
as an alternative to the powered two-wheelers (PTW) did not change mobility
habits, mostly due to the high price of these vehicles.

Last but not least, L17 gives certain input to layman trainers. They receive a
information on traffic regulations which they quite commonly disseminate
among their family, friends and colleagues. In a mutual process with the
applicant the habits of the layman trainer(s) may also be influenced.

In summary, the L17 model should raise beginner drivers to a higher level
within the model of hierarchical levels of driver behaviour (adapted from
Keskinen, 1996, within the DAN-Report, 2000), i.e. mostly from acting within
level one to level two and partly to level three. At the same time, it should
reduce young drivers traffic participation with PTWs – away from mopeds at
the age of 16 towards cars at the age of 17.
 149

12 Evaluation studies made especially for BASIC project

12.1 "L17" Analysis of Austrian Central Licence File Data by Martin

Winkelbauer

12.1.1 Introduction

In Austria, data for the administration of driving licences is summarised in the

"central licence file" ("Zentrales Führerscheinregister"). Data of a relevant age
group was provided to evaluate the effectiveness of the combined layman
and professional instruction model "Vorgezogene Lenkberechtigung für die
Klasse B" ("L17") vs. traditional driver education only in a driving school ("SE"
= standard education – in the following these abbreviations will be used for
the education models and those who have followed them as well).

This data allows for the first time a precise analysis of the share of young
drivers choosing the new layman instruction model. Furthermore the central
licence file (CLF) contains a lot of data on traffic offences and consecutive
measures by the authorities, which allow a broad comparison between the
different education models.

In Austria it is very common to punish less severe offences by anonymous

tickets ("Anonymverfügung", immediate cash paid tickets). Mostly after
speeding offences detected by stationary radar devices which take pictures of
the relevant vehicle from behind, the ticket is sent to the vehicle registration
holder. Only if the anonymous ticket has not paid within a prescribed period
will measures to detect the driver be taken. It may be supposed that this
applies to L17 and SE to the same extent and the results are not biased by
this event.

Until Oct 1st 2002 the vehicles of L17-drivers had to be marked by a specific
"L17"-sign up until their 18th birthday including a special speed limit of 80
km/h on rural roads and 100 km/h on highways. The sign could be detected
by police forces in the case of a roadside check or on a photo by a stationary
radar device. Perhaps this may result in L17-drivers being more frequently
checked by police or speeding offences being more frequently attributed to
L17-drivers. This circumstance may only change L17-results for the worse.
Since the effect cannot be quantified the authors refrained from taking this
into account in further calculations.

The probationary driving licence in Austria provides support for this study,
since traffic safety relevant offences more frequently enter the licence file. For
a certain set of offences committed within the probationary period (2 years,
which may be extended by 1 year up to three times if certain offences are
committed) the authorities have to order the young license holder to attend a
driver improvement course. This fact has to be entered into the licence file
database.
 150

Data from the CLF was provided to the Austrian Road Safety Board, strictly
following rules set by the Federal Ministry for Transportation, Innovation and
Technology to guarantee data protection and anonymity at the highest level,
in order to:
• limit the evaluation to young drivers,
• have a complete number of years between the limits for age and licensing
date and
• exclude the initial period after introducing L17 with very low numbers of
participants in the education model.

Only persons with a licensing date on or after July 1st 1999 and a birthday on
or after July 1st 1979 were included. The fixed day for the data inquiry was on
March 1st 2003.

The evaluation contains the data of about 310.000 licence holders. Data is of
different origin:
• After introduction of the CLF, electronic data from local licence files was
transferred to the CLF.
• Data stored only in written files was entered into the CLF.
• New licences were administered mostly directly in the CLF.
This leads to inconsistency of data, which had to be harmonised as far as
possible in a first step of the analysis.

Furthermore, offences and other data is partly entered into the CLF by use of
codes, but partly also by use of prose text. Almost 4000 different descriptions
of offences and other circumstances had to be encoded manually. Afterwards
the data on offences was categorised and summarised. Data containing
implausible information was withdrawn from the evaluation (in total far less
than 1% of the cases).

It has to be pointed out that all these hindrances do not mean that the CLF
was not useful. It fits the demands for administration of driving licences case
by case. Nevertheless it takes considerable efforts to make statistical in-depth
analysis of more than 300.000 possible offenders, and the licence file is not
designed for this purpose.

In some of the evaluations the number of cases will vary significantly since a
single case can only be used for comparison if it contains all relevant
information.

12.1.2 Description of sample

In total L17 has a share of about 8 % since middle of 1999. Males selected
L17 slightly more frequently (59% of L17 are male).
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Table 1. Selection of education model by sex

Education
model - sex Female Male Unknown Total
n % n % n % n %
L17 9991 6,8 14808 9,5 455 8,1 25254 8,2
SE 114326 78,1 121862 78,0 4554 81,0 240742 78,1
Other 21571 14,7 19167 12,3 592 10,5 41330 13,4
Total 145888 99,7 155837 99,7 5601 99,7 307326 99,7
Unknown 425 0,2 503 0,3 19 0,3 947 0,3
Total 146313 100,0 156340 100,0 5620 100,0 308273 100,0

Table 2. New licences and share of L17 by year

Date of licensing from 2000 2001 2002 until Total
1.7.1999 1.3.2003
Total number 43678 79292 81556 84177 13000 301703
Share of L17, female 2,4% 4,5% 7,4% 9,8% 13,6% 6,8%
Share of L17, male 4,3% 6,7% 10,1% 13,3% 15,8% 9,5%
Share of total 3,3% 5,7% 8,8% 11,6% 14,8% 8,2%

Like for other cases of legal changes it took quite some time until L17 got
known and spread among young driving licence candidates. The numbers
within the first two months of 2003 show that the current share is about 15%
of all new licences. No sign of change in the upward trend of L17 can be
detected. It is likely that his trend will continue for some years.

12.1.3 Licensing age

Evidently the licensing age of all L17 candidates is below 18. All cases
detected as L17 cases on first glance but with a licensing age above 18 were
excluded from the whole study. Those may be mainly cases where the
candidates first applied for L17 but afterwards gained their licence after the
age of 18. Those cases are typical neither for L17 nor SE and therefore had
to be excluded from all calculations.

Table 3. Licensing age (SE only)

Licensing age (SE only) (N=240.730) 18 19 20 > 20
Share 83,4% 10,0% 4,1% 2,5%

Most of the standard educated drivers acquire their driving licence between
18 and 19. The age restriction of the sample has to be taken into account
(date of birth on or after July 1st 1979).
 152

12.1.4 Layman instructors

Due to the different origin of data (explained above) only about 50% of the lay
instructors are directly linked to the candidates they conducted. One L17
candidate may have 1 or two lay instructors; data of about 25.000 lay
instructors was available. A sample of 50% should provide very good
information on the whole population.

In the evaluation of the instructors all of them were taken equally into account
regardless of whether they are the first, second or third instructor. Up to three
instructors per candidate were nominated in the licence file (only a few
cases), although only two instructors should be possible. From available
information it becomes obvious that these cases are mostly caused by the
death of one of the lay instructors.

It has to be pointed out that the table of instructors only shows sex of
nominated lay instructors and sex of their candidates. It provides no
information on which of the instructors took the main load of instruction.

Table 4. Sex of candidates and lay instructors

L17 (N=22.331) Sex of lay instructor
Sex of candidate Female Male Total
Female 19,7% 21,4% 41,2%
Male 25,4% 33,5% 58,8%
Total 45,1% 54,9% 100,0%

Among 22.331 known pairs of candidates and instructors about 55% of the
instructors are male. A combination of male candidate and male instructor is
the most frequent one.

Among 24.226 lay instructors data on their academic qualifications could be

analysed. Exactly 1.200 persons with university degree were found, which
represents a share of 4,95 % of all lay instructors. A representative survey in
2001 ("Microzensus") found a share of 7% of such academics in the whole
Austrian population. From that the hypotheses of L17 as an education model
mostly chosen by members of a higher educated class cannot be verified.
Data on the academic qualifications of parents or legal representatives of
traditionally educated drivers is not available in the CLF. Thus, a real
comparison between L17 candidates' and other candidates' social
background could not be made.

The analysis of the offence type "technical condition of vehicle" may also
provide information on social bias or self-selection of sample. If the police
stops a driver and the vehicle in use is detected to be in a dangerous
technical condition this may lead to a notification to the CLF. Supposing that
higher educated people take more care of the safety relevant condition of the
vehicles they and their children drive, and more frequently have the finances
to maintain their cars, offences of this type would be expected less frequently
among L17 drivers. However, there are no significant differences between
L17 and SE for this type of offence.
 153

12.1.5 Comparison by CLF offence record

The personal record of a single person within the CLF contain up to 15

"items" (registrations) under the title of "offences". Due to different use of the
licence file and qualification of multiple offences these items do not only
contain offences, but also measures taken in context with the driving licence,
e.g. withdrawals, orders for driver improvement, and so on.

A maximum of 15 registration items was recorded in the licence file for one
single person. But this does not necessarily mean that this person had
committed 15 offences. A single offence may cause several registration
items. An example: after drink driving, first of all the driving licence sheet is
withdrawn by police directly after the offence, afterwards the driving licence is
repealed for a period, then the offender is ordered to attend a driver
improvement course, the probation period is extended. Each of these
activities may cause a registration item within the CLF. On the other hand, if
offences were described as prose text, frequently more than one type of
offence was referred to.

It was decided to determine and evaluate how many persons have committed
one single type of offence at least once. By doing so, repeated offences of the
same type by one single person would be counted only once. Nevertheless
this procedure would provide better results than counting offences.

Table 5. N by sex and education model

N Female Male
L17 9991 14808
SE 114326 121862
Total 124317 136670

Table 5 shows the total numbers of persons represented in each group.

These represent the total population for following analysis of offences and
measures.

12.1.6 Comparison L17/SE by offences

For all these types of offences and measures, the application of statistical test
procedures among female licence holders is not useful (or even not possible)
due to the low numbers of cases.

Male L17s are significantly less often caught for hit-and-run accidents.

"Offences against other traffic regulations" are mostly offences on

intersections, e.g. disregarding light signals or police commands, disregarding
pedestrian or bicyclists' priority. For this and all other types of offences in
table 6 there is no significant difference (or trend) between L17 and SE.
 154

Table 6. CLF registrations by sex and education model, miscellaneous

(N=260987) Female (258) Male (3125)
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
Caught for hit-and-run accident
L17 2 2 8,1 12
SE 3,5 40 16 195
Offences against other traffic regulations
L17 3 3 8,8 13
SE 1,5 17 13,7 167
Speeding
L17 4 4 105 155
SE 9,5 109 104 1262
Driving without licence (including moped, but not driving without licence sheet aboard)
L17 7 7 79 117
SE 5,6 64 87 1064
Disregard priority rules
L17 0 0 0 0
SE 0,6 7 0,6 7
Technical condition of vehicle
L17 0 0 11,5 17
SE 0,4 5 9,5 116

The Chi square test for cross tabs was used for evaluation. Differences were
considered significant if p<0,05. A trend is based on p<0,1.

Differences between male and female offenders (L17 and SE together) show
a trend, but no significance.

12.1.7 Comparison by use of alcohol and drugs

By far, offences related to drink driving are the most frequent type of offence
in the license register. They are more frequent than all other types of offences
and measures together. Also the number of offences related to drug impaired
driving is surprisingly high and ranks third place in the table of the most
frequent offences, behind drink driving and speeding.

Table 7. CLF registrations by sex and education model, alcohol and drugs
(N=260987) Female Male
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
Offence type: drink driving
L17 13 13 230 340
SE 32,8 375 415 5061
Offence related to use of drugs
L17 15 15 55,4 82
SE 16,8 192 90,2 1099

NB: Speeding tickets – often generated after stationary automatic radar-

based measuring is commonly sent anonymous (see comments in the
introduction to this chapter). Therefore this ranking does not represent ALL
offences, but only those, which are entered into the licence file.
 155

The majority of drink-driving offenders are males. Male L17s show 50% fewer
offences than SE drivers do – for drink-driving and drug impaired driving as
well. A difference in practical access to alcohol cannot be supposed, nor to
drugs (all kinds of drugs are illegal in Austria except alcohol and tobacco).

It may be concluded that L17 drivers have to take use of alcohol into
consideration much more frequently during their education period. As long as
there was no alcohol limit for lay instructors (until October 2002) L17
candidates were sometimes used as shuttle pilots after celebrations.
Decisions on destinations and choice of transport mode during education
have a much higher practical aspect among L17-drivers and correspond to
those decisions having to be made after the driving test. During the training in
a driving school the reason for driving is always the training itself. It may be
concluded that it is more likely the driver-training model than a self-selection
process which influences habits of alcohol use when driving.

12.1.8 Comparison by registration of accidents

Female drivers have significantly fewer registrations related to accidents in

the CLF. Differences between L17 and SE are not significant.

Table 8. CLF registrations by sex and education model, accidents

(N=260987) Female Male
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
Offence type: personal damage
L17 30 3 101 15
SE 25 29 87 106
Offence type: material damage
L17 50 5 236 35
SE 68 78 309 376

From the numbers it may be assumed that SE have more accidents than L17
but L17 have more severe accidents (i.e. those with personal injury).
Referring to that, please take note: normally, information on accidents is only
entered into the licence file if the police takes note of an accident and
concludes that a serious offence against traffic rules was the dominating
reason for the accident (i.e. if gross negligence occurs). Referring to the
questionnaire survey in Austria (see next chapter), within 1849 questionnaires
sent back to us, more accidents are reported than there are accidents
registered within the CLF for the whole population of about 300.000 drivers
included in this sample. It may be supposed that the selection of accidents for
licence file input is equal for L17 and SE, but the total numbers are very low.
Even direct statistical testing of L17 vs. SE shows no significant difference –
either for accidents or for personal injury. Therefore the different numbers in
table 8 occur strictly by chance – there is no trend to be assumed.

Due to the rules for entering information on accidents, an analysis of licence

file data is not appropriate for detecting different accident rates of L17 vs. SE.
Anyway, this does not censure the licence file, its data or practical aspects of
 156

data input. Data needed for driving licence administration is available - but not
suitable for statistical analysis of accident rates.

12.1.9 Comparison by official measures

Many registrations in the CLF indicate that official measures have been taken
to review the preconditions for granting a driving licence. These are:
1. Order to obtain a statement on medical state,
2. prohibit use of mopeds or 4 wheel light vehicles (class L2),
3. review traffic related liability
4. order to attend a driver improvement course
5. detect somebody not fulfilling preconditions for holding a licence (liability,
medical reasons, etc.)
6. and finally withdrawal of licence.
Table 9. CLF registrations by sex and education model, licence related
measures
Preconditions for driving licence questionable
(N=260987) Female Male
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
L17 50 5 59,4 88
SE 159 182 120 1465

Points 1 to 5 in the list above table 9 show very low total numbers and are
therefore put together into a category "preconditions for driving licence
questionable". For this combined criteria there is a highly significant difference
(p<0,01) between L17 and SE, for male and female drivers as well. Licence
withdrawal was evaluated separately.

Table 10. CLF registrations by sex and education model, driver improvement
frequency
Order to attend a driver improvement course (detail)
(N=260987) Female Male
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
L17 0 0 22,3 33
SE 5,1 58 45,1 550

Looking into details of the combined criteria, statistical testing is only possible
for male licence holders. Among them we find a significant difference
between L17 and SE for official orders to attend a driver improvement course.
Drink driving offences play a dominating role as reason for these orders,
since speeding and other offences are frequently punished anonymous while
drink driving offences are always personalised. For drivers within the
probationary period drink driving offences always end up with an order to
attend a driver improvement course. If we look at the numbers for drink
driving offences in comparison to orders for attending a driver improvement
course, it may be assumed that other safety relevant offences are more
frequently the reason for such an order among traditionally educated drivers.
 157

Table 11. CLF registrations by sex and education model, licence withdrawals
Licence withdrawal
(N=260987) Female Male
Per 10 000 N Per 10 000 N
L17 20 2 29,7 44
SE 8,9 102 63,8 777

For licence withdrawals, the share of withdrawals is similar to most of the

other categories of offences and measures. We find a significant difference
between male L17 and SE. Regarding the numbers of offences it may be
assumed that drink driving is the dominant reason for licence withdrawal. It
should be highlighted that for licence withdrawals the difference in shares is
much bigger than for drink driving offences. Low alcohol impairment (breath
alcohol concentration higher than 0,05mg/l, up to 0,25 mg/l) does not
necessarily entail a licence withdrawal, while higher breath alcohol
concentrations always lead to licence withdrawal. From these numbers it may
be assumed that traditionally educated male drivers are more frequently
caught with higher alcohol concentrations than L17-drivers.

12.1.10 Comparison by multiple offences

Up to this point all evaluations were based on number of offenders. The

results shall be verified by a general analysis of the number of offences.

Table 12. Numbers of registrations within the CLF by sex and education
model (N=260987)
Number of offences 0 1 2 3 4+
Female L17 99,46% 0,52% 0,01% 0,00% 0,01%
SE 99,13% 0,75% 0,10% 0,02% 0,00%
Male L17 94,79% 4,30% 0,68% 0,16% 0,07%
SE 92,22% 6,01% 1,26% 0,35% 0,16%

Table 12 shows the shares of licences holders with no, one or more
registrations (offences or consecutive measures) in the CLF. Once again,
male drivers have significantly more registrations than female. Among male
drivers, for L17 drivers there are (significantly) about 50% less offences and
measures registered in the CLF than for traditionally educated drivers. For
multiple registrations the numbers differ even more.

12.1.11 Summary of analysis of central licence file data

1. The legal behaviour of young female drivers is significantly better than

young male drivers' behaviour. Males show about 10 times more
registrations (offences or consecutive measures) within the Austrian
Central Licence File than females.
 158

2. The legal behaviour of L17 drivers is significantly better than traditionally

educated drivers' behaviour. Drink driving is the dominating offence in this
analysis.

3. Young female licence holders show significantly fewer registrations

concerning road accidents in the Austrian Central Licence File than male
drivers.

4. A significant difference of accident rates between L17 drivers and

traditionally educated drivers cannot be found in the Austrian Central
Licence File.

5. The hypotheses of self-selection by social bias between lay instruction

and traditional driving school education cannot be proved by data from the
Austrian Central Licence File.

12.2 "L17" Analysis of questionnaire survey

12.2.1 Description of sample, statistical methods

From the data used for the analysis of the central licence file, a sample of
5000 persons was selected, L17 and SE 50% each. A five-page
questionnaire was delivered to these persons together with an accompanying
letter and a postage-free return-envelope. The importance and contents of the
study were explained in the accompanying letter. About one week later a
reminder letter was sent. Before the beginning of computation 1849
questionnaires were sent back (37% of those delivered). The persons were
selected randomly taking care of representative selection by sex and place of
living. The returned questionnaires also fit these criteria.
Table 1. Returned questionnaires by model of education and sex
Female Male Unknown Total
L17 450 569 4 1023
SE 407 355 4 766
Unknown 35 25 0 60
Total 892 949 8 1849

As shown in table 1, in 68 cases sex or model of education could not be

determined; these were excluded from analysis.

If nothing else is indicated, chi square test for cross tabs was used. Results
are indicated highly significant if p<0,01, significant if p<0,05 trends are
indicated if p<0,1.
 159

12.2.2 Licensing age

Distribution of licensing age shows no significant difference between male

and female drivers. In comparison with results from the CLF there are only
very small differences. Most of the standard educated drivers acquire their
driving licence between 18 and 19. Obviously there is a share of 1,6% among
L17 drivers primarily applying for an L17 licence, but later finishing their
driving education after their 18th birthday.

Table 2. Licensing age by model of education and sex

Sex (N=1661) < 18 18 19 20 > 20 total
Male L17 share 97,9% 2,1% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 100,0%
N 518 11 0 0 0 529
SE share 0,0% 86,0% 12,2% 0,9% 0,9% 100,0%
N 0 283 40 3 3 329
Female L17 share 99,1% 0,9% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 100,0%
N 425 4 0 0 0 429
SE share 0,0% 87,4% 8,8% 1,6% 2,1% 100,0%
N 0 327 33 6 8 374
Total L17 share 98,4% 1,6% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 100,0%
N 943 15 0 0 0 958
SE share 0,0% 86,8% 10,4% 1,3% 1,6% 100,0%
N 0 610 73 9 11 703

12.2.3 Duration of licence holding

L17 drivers had held their driving licence significantly shorter than SE. The
reason may be found in selection of the persons for the questionnaire survey.
This selection was limited to persons with a date of gaining an L17 licence.
This input to the licence file was mostly done in cases that were directly
entered in the licence file. The online input of new licence data in the CLF
started about in the middle of 2000 and was common use by the end of 2000.
Therefore cases with this feature are mostly younger cases. More L17 cases
within the licence file were detected by looking at the date of the regular
licence (before 18th birthday) and existence of data on lay instructor(s).
Questionable cases were excluded.
 160

Table 3. Duration of holding a licence class B by model of education and sex

(N=1683) duration of holding a licence class B
Sex education 1. year 2. year 3. year 4. year 5. year or total
more
Male L17 share 54,0% 23,2% 14,8% 7,4% 0,6% 100,0%
N 284 122 78 39 3 526
SE share 30,3% 23,9% 24,2% 20,1% 1,5% 100,0%
N 104 82 83 69 5 343
total share 44,6% 23,5% 18,5% 12,4% 0,9% 100,0%
N 388 204 161 108 8 869
Female L17 share 61,8% 22,0% 12,5% 3,7% 0,0% 100,0%
N 267 95 54 16 0 432
SE share 27,0% 25,4% 27,0% 19,9% 0,8% 100,0%
N 103 97 103 76 3 382
total share 45,5% 23,6% 19,3% 11,3% 0,4% 100,0%
N 370 192 157 92 3 814

Therefore, in all cases where exposure is relevant, it will be related to the

period of holding a licence and/or mileage. Following this procedure an
influence of different duration of holding a licence is avoided.

12.2.4 Selection of transport mode

Male licence holders held significantly more often a licence for a moped too
(powered two wheeler, 50 cm³ capacity, 45 km/h speed limit, according to
community regulations). Differences between L17 and SE are small and not
significant. On this result alone it cannot be affirmed that L17 reduces use of
mopeds.

Table 4. Persons holding a moped licence by model of education and sex

(N=1781) Female Male
share N share N
All
L17 100,0% 450 100,0% 569
SE 100,0% 407 100,0% 355
Moped licence
L17 35,6% 160 55,9% 318
SE 36,1% 147 58,3% 207

Table 5. Frequency of moped use by model of education and sex

If you hold a moped licence, how frequently did you drive a moped? (N=832)
Sex education never/rarely frequently/permanently N total
Male L17 19,5% 80,5% 318
SE 15,9% 84,1% 207
Female L17 33,8% 66,3% 160
SE 27,2% 72,8% 147
 161

L17 drivers indicate more frequently never or rarely having used a moped.
Among males this difference is significant, among females there is only a
trend. This result supports the hypotheses of L17 as a preventive measure
against moped accidents.

Table 6, Most frequently used vehicle after acquisition of driving licence - by

model of education and sex
type of most frequently used vehicle (N=1746)
Sex education moped motorcycle passenger car other N total
Male L17 0,5% 0,2% 99,1% 0,2% 562
SE 0,6% 0,0% 98,5% 0,9% 343
Female L17 0,5% 0,2% 98,9% 0,5% 441
SE 0,8% 0,0% 95,3% 4,0% 400

Despite almost 50% of the driving licence holders also holding a moped
licence, the share of mopeds being used most frequently at this time (i.e. at
the time the questionnaire was filled out) is very small. Significant results for
selection of transport means are only found for "other". SE women obviously
more often use public transport and bicycle after acquisition of licence.

It was found that people quit using powered two-wheelers (PTW) as soon as
they get their driving licence for cars. This clearly supports the hypothesis that
the introduction of L17 succeeded in concentrating the mobility of – at least
17 year old – drivers to cars. On the other hand, the change of mobility habits
for persons under 17 who are later being educated by lay instruction is
considerably lower than expected. Obviously, also L17 drivers use the moped
until acquiring driving licence. This result has to be taken into consideration in
discussions about a further reduction of the minimum age for category B
licence in order to reduce the use of mopeds.

Further questions about the most frequently used vehicle were asked only for
cars. When asked about the motives for selecting the vehicle they use most
frequently, interviewees give 1,28 out of 5 possible answers on an average.
The number of answers was weighted by the number of interviewees in the
related group and by the number of answers within their group. A significance
test was not run.

Table 7. Motives for choice of vehicle by model of education and sex

If it is a car, why did you choose this vehicle?
Sex education no other I like it rear wheel fits my needs goes fast
available drive
Male L17 28,7% 33,2% 1,4% 33,0% 3,7%
SE 29,2% 30,6% 0,9% 37,5% 1,8%
Female L17 37,7% 27,3% 0,5% 32,4% 2,1%
SE 35,1% 25,6% 0,4% 38,6% 0,4%

In total, most frequent answers were "because I like it" and "because it fits my
needs". If we add up more emotionally oriented answers (like it, rear wheel
drive, goes fast) and those deriving from facts (no other available, fits needs),
 162

we can see that L17-drivers more frequently take emotional motives into
account.

The means for the engine power of the most frequently used vehicle show
little differences between L17 and SE, which are significant among female
drivers. And they show a significant difference between male and female
drivers, for L17 and SE as well. Male drivers use vehicles with more engine
power.

Table 8. Engine power of the most frequently used vehicle by model of

education and sex
Engine power (means) female male
L17 58,4 kW 66,9 kW
SE 54,9 kW 65,8 kW

Table 9. Engine power of the most frequently used vehicle by model of

education and sex
Engine power of the most frequently used vehicle, classified (in kW) (N=1684)
Sex education up to 40 40 – 60 60 - 80 80 - 100 100 - 120 > 120 N total
Male L17 8,6% 34,9% 31,8% 18,8% 3,6% 2,3% 559
SE 8,2% 42,4% 26,5% 16,8% 3,8% 2,4% 340
Female L17 16,9% 47,5% 22,3% 10,0% 2,1% 1,2% 421
SE 21,2% 51,4% 19,5% 6,0% 0,5% 1,4% 364

For males, we can see deviations within the classes from 40 to 100 kW. For
females there are deviations through all classes. Female L17 drivers use
vehicles with more engine power.

It was not asked whether the most frequently used vehicle is one’s own or the
"family car".

12.2.5 Social Bias

To make the samples comparable, persons below 18 years of age were

excluded from the following analysis of social background.

Table 10. "Where do you live" by model of education and sex

(N=1187) parents, other own flat or with other (e.g. student's N total
Sex education relatives partner hostel, shared flat)
Male L17 89,7% 8,2% 2,1% 281
SE 87,6% 9,4% 3,0% 331
Female L17 79,7% 17,1% 3,2% 187
SE 71,1% 22,7% 6,2% 388

By the type of home they live in there is no difference between L17 and SE.
Among males there are no significant differences. Females have significantly
more often already left their parents' home.
 163

Table 11. Available income by model of education and sex

Net wage, or how much money do you have at your own disposal each month? (N=1194)
Sex Education < 400 € 401 € - 800 € 801 € - 1200 € > 1200 € N total
Male L17 45,3% 25,2% 22,3% 7,2% 278
SE 46,6% 18,0% 26,0% 9,4% 339
Female L17 64,1% 23,4% 12,0% 0,5% 184
SE 48,2% 26,3% 20,1% 5,5% 384

The analysis of net income or disposable amount of money draws a quite

non-uniform picture. Even table 12 on predominant educational or
professional business does not provide clear reasons for this. On average,
females have less money at their disposal than males, L17 less than SE. But
it is not possible to indicate a social bias between L17 and SE by this data.

Table 12. Predominant educational or professional activity by model of

education and sex
What is your predominant educational or professional business (N=1233)
still under education professional activity
model of driver education

professionally oriented

professionally oriented

university or similar

independent, free-

unskilled worker

N total
lance, farmer,...
apprenticeship,

skilled worker
clerk, officer

unemployed
high school

high school
school

school
Sex

Male L17 22,0% 12,6% 18,2% 9,4% 2,4% 11,5% 18,9% 1,4% 3,5% 286
SE 13,1% 4,8% 15,8% 16,4% 1,5% 14,3% 26,8% 3,6% 3,9% 336
Female L17 10,9% 15,9% 26,9% 19,4% 0,0% 18,4% 5,0% 2,5% 1,0% 201
SE 9,3% 3,4% 15,6% 28,5% 0,5% 33,2% 2,7% 1,2% 5,6% 410

Among male (L17: 62%, SE: 50%) as well as female (L17: 73%, SE: 57%),
L17 interviewees were more often still in education. Inside the groups "under
education" and "professional activity" there are some highly significant
differences between L17 and SE, especially among those still in education. In
the table 12, significant cell results are highlighted. It was supposed that L17
is a mode of training that is more frequently selected by members of the
higher educated classes. However, the numbers on educational or
professional activities of the young drivers do not support this hypothesis of
self-selection.
 164

Table 13. Education of parents by model of education and sex of candidates

Which is the highest type of education your parents (legal representatives) have finished? (N=1773)
Sex driver legal apprenticeship, high professionally university or N total
education minimum professionally school oriented high similar
model (9 years) oriented school school school
Male L17 7,0% 49,3% 12,1% 16,6% 15,0% 554
SE 8,0% 55,7% 8,3% 15,8% 12,1% 348
Female L17 5,6% 46,5% 8,8% 18,3% 20,8% 443
SE 8,2% 51,0% 7,9% 16,8% 16,1% 392

There are no significant differences L17 vs. SE or male vs. female. Possible
effects of self-selection among the different modes of education cannot be
derived from this data.

12.2.6 Licence test pass rates

Differences of pass rates for theoretical driving test are not significant, but
they are significant for the practical driving test. L17 candidates pass the
practical driving test significantly more often on the first attempt, males and
females as well.

Table 14. Pass rates for theoretical driving test by model of education and sex
Theoretical driving test pass 1x 2x 3x >3
rates (N=1780)
Male L17 87,9% 10,4% 1,4% 0,4%
SE 84,5% 11,5% 3,4% 0,6%
Female L17 87,3% 10,4% 1,8% 0,4%
SE 87,5% 10,1% 1,2% 1,2%

Table 15. Pass rates for practical driving test by model of education and sex
Practical driving test pass 1x 2x 3x >3
rates (N=1779)
Male L17 96,7% 3,2% 0,2% 0,0%
SE 92,4% 6,2% 1,4% 0,0%
Female L17 96,0% 4,0% 0,0% 0,0%
SE 87,2% 11,1% 1,5% 0,2%

12.2.7 Legal behaviour

Interviewees were asked to provide information on how often they were

penalised for different offences.
 165

Table 16. Total numbers of speeding offenders by model of education and

sex
Caught for speeding (N=1781) never once more than once N
Male L17 412 70 30 569
SE 216 65 51 355
Female L17 385 23 14 450
SE 322 44 20 407

For offences in relation to drink driving and drug impaired driving there were
only a few cases, so a singular analysis of total numbers was not useful.
Besides, exposure has to be considered. Therefore numbers of all offence
types were related to 1000 km of mileage and months of holding the driving
licence. This new data was compared by the Mann-Whitney U-test.

L17 group has significantly fewer speeding offences than SE group

(offences/1000km: Z=-4,020, p<0,01 offences/month: Z=-4,075, p<0,01).
Results of an analysis by sex are shown in table 17.

Table 17. Comparison of offences L17 vs. SE by Mann-Whitney Test by sex

Sex male female
N asymptotic significance (2-
sided)
Offences / 1000km: drink driving up to 0,25 mg/l breath AC 1565 0,147 0,919
Offences / month: drink driving up to 0,25 mg/l breath AC 1565 0,162 0,506
Offences / 1000km: drink driving > 0,25 mg/l breath AC 1568 0,070 0,282
Offences / month: drink driving > 0,25 mg/l breath AC 1569 0,079 0,293
Offences / 1000km: drug impairment 1564 0,724 1,000
Offences / month: drug impairment 1564 0,746 1,000
Offences / 1000km: speeding 1592 0,001 0,001
Offences / month: speeding 1590 0,000 0,002
Offences / 1000km: other safety relevant offences 1577 0,668 0,062
Offences / month: other safety relevant offences 1576 0,667 0,050
Offences / 1000km: other (not safety relevant) offences 1563 0,064 0,808
Offences / month: other (not safety relevant) offences 1564 0,131 0,877

In all offence categories, L17 show fewer offences than SE. Highly significant
results appear for speeding. A trend can be detected for "other safety relevant
offences" (females only) and drink driving (males only).

The results were weighted by geographical parameters (place of living by

"Bundesland", i.e. one of the 9 districts Austria is divided into, and region, i.e.
west – middle – east). This analysis confirms the results already found.

These results correspond to the results found in the licence file survey, except
for speeding offences. This fact is due to speeding offences commonly being
punished anonymously and not being registered in the licence file.
 166

Table 18. Total numbers participating in driver improvement courses by

model of education and sex
Have you been officially ordered to take a driver improvement course? (N=1743)
Sex education no once twice N
Male L17 550 10 1 561
SE 337 13 0 350
Female L17 433 0 433
SE 397 2 399

For the numbers participating in driver improvement courses (which has to be

officially ordered after committing an offence listed in the licence code,
including also minor severe offences) within the probationary licence system,
exposure plays a major role as well. Therefore the total numbers have also
been related to 1000 km of mileage and months of holding the driving licence
and then compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test.

L17 drivers show a significantly (Z=-2,039, p<0,05) lower driver improvement

course participation rate per 1000 km than SE; for course participation per
month there is a corresponding trend. As the total numbers show, male
drivers are mostly responsible for this difference (Z=-2,042, p<0,05 for
participation per 1000 km).

These results were successfully confirmed through weighting by geographical

parameters (place of living by "Bundesland" and region).

As a conclusion on the results on offences, the legal behaviour of lay

instructed young drivers was better than traditionally educated drivers'
behaviour. The male driver population was primarily responsible for this fact.

12.2.8 Exposure

Significant statistical differences can be found in "permanent" car use. L17

drivers and males are the "frequent drivers".

Table 19. Frequency of car use by model of education and sex

Since you have held a driving licence, how frequently have you driven a car? (N=1778)
Sex Education never occasionally frequently permanently N total
Male L17 0,2% 2,3% 10,9% 86,6% 568
SE 0,0% 4,5% 14,9% 80,6% 355
Female L17 0,0% 2,9% 15,6% 81,5% 449
SE 0,7% 9,6% 15,5% 74,1% 406

Table 20. Mean of daily mileage (km/d) by model of education and sex
Mileage per day (km/d) female male
(N=1604) mean std.-dev. mean std.-dev.
L17 28,9 25,9 48,0 36,7
SE 24,2 25,3 45,7 39,5
 167

Analysis of mean values shows a slightly higher mileage among L17 drivers
(significant only for females). The mean value for the whole Austrian driver
population is 14.500 km/year, i.e. 39,7 km/day. The mean mileage value of all
interviewees is 37,4 km/day.

40 %

35 % L17 male

30 % SE male

L17 female
25 %
SE female
share

20 %

15 %

10 %

5%

0%
10 - 19 20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60 - 69 70 - 79 80 - 89 90 - 99 >= 100
daily mileage (km)

Figure 1. Daily mileage (mean values) by model of education and sex after
licensing

If we split up daily mileage into classes, statistical tests show significant

results among females only. Evidently, this difference is caused by deviation
within the classes from 20 to 40 km per day.

The Mann-Whitney U-test applied to all driver (regardless of sex) shows a

higher average mileage for L17 vs. SE. On an average, L17 (39,6 km/day)
drive 5 km per day (12%) more than traditionally educated drivers (34,6
km/day).

12.2.9 Motives for vehicle use

Male L17 group uses the car more frequently to drive to work or school, but
less frequently for doing their job. Reasons for that may be the lower mean
age of L17 and the fact that they are more frequently still in education. Little
but partly significant (highlighted) differences appear.
 168

Table 21. Driving motives by model of education and sex

What share of your total mileage did you drive with one of the following reasons?
Sex Educatio to work on errands driving at as professional spare time just for fun
n or school work driver trips
Male L17 36,9% 17,6% 5,0% 1,2% 28,8% 10,4%
SE 32,4% 18,0% 7,5% 2,3% 29,0% 10,7%
Female L17 40,6% 20,2% 2,5% 0,5% 29,9% 6,3%
SE 35,5% 23,4% 3,6% 0,9% 28,1% 8,1%

Differences for "spare time trips" and "just for fun" would have been expected
to be high. Obviously, spare time activities are not an important argument in
education model selection.

It had been expected that males more frequently drive just for fun. This is
confirmed by the analysis. For the same criteria there is no difference
between L17 and SE. It may be assumed that emotional motives are hardly
considered in the selection of education model.

Shares of circumstances do not deviate all through the different groups. This
finding is very important, since the following analysis of accidents does not
have to be recalibrated according to driving circumstances, e.g. accidents in
urban area are less severe, those on highways less frequent.

Table 22. Driving circumstances by model of education and sex

Which share of your total mileage with the car did you drive under one of these circumstances? (in %)
Sex education during in urban on highways on wintry road alone after
darkness area surface midnight
Male L17 28,5% 33,1% 20,7% 24,4% 40,8% 11,2%
SE 28,9% 36,3% 22,6% 22,4% 40,1% 11,8%
Female L17 29,0% 39,7% 19,1% 22,6% 42,2% 12,1%
SE 27,5% 38,9% 17,7% 20,6% 41,1% 12,3%

The option "after midnight" was dedicated to retest answers "for spare time
activities" and "just for fun" in the analysis of driving motives. The results of
both evaluations support each other since there are no differences in either of
them.

12.2.10 Risk attitudes

Factor analysis

From a total of 20 questions concerning behavioural aspects, 3 safety factors

were identified by factor analysis:
1. Factor 1, "care":
Careful, considerate, slow and cautious driving describes this dimension
of attitude, no fun in fast driving and constant driving style even in a hurry.

2. Factor 2, "self-reflection"
Unsafe, anxious, untrained and clumsy self-estimation of driving style
 169

describes this dimension of attitude, which may also stand for self-
reflection of one’s own driving skills being above average.

3. Factor 3, "reasoning":
Regarding safety gaps and choice of speed as important safety figures, as
well as technical condition of the vehicle – summarising – a reasonable
view on legal and physical laws are special features of this dimension of
attitude.

The factor analysis shows almost identical results for male and female
drivers. There is only a small difference within factor 3 "reasoning". Female
interviewees seem to have more favour in using seat belts and more
frequently speak out in favour of strict measures against offenders. Male and
female dimensions of attitude correspond so well that in further analysis they
are not treated separately.

Factor analysis – loads from answers about traffic safety related

statements

Generally speaking about the factor analysis, questions on driving style (e.g.
risky vs. careful) load higher within the polarity profile than opinions about
certain statements on traffic safety related behaviour (e.g. "Driving at high
speed is fun").
"Bad condition of tires does not significantly impair safety" and "When I get
more driving routine I may shorten the safety gap to the vehicle in front of me"
load high to factor 3 "reasoning", i.e. drivers with high level of factor 3 deny
these statements more strictly.

"Speed limits are mostly unnecessary" and "I like to compete in traffic" load
high to factor 3 "reasoning" and also influence factor 1 "care" at a lower level.
"I can take a higher risk when I'm in a hurry" loads high to factor 1 "care".

Analysis of interviewees by risk factors

1. If expression of risk factors among representatives of the different models

of education is compared the only difference can be found for factor 2
"self-reflection". L17 drivers consider themselves less unsafe and anxious,
and more experienced and skilful. The amount of training in a lay
instruction procedure exceeds the usual amount of practical training in
traditional education by a factor of about 10. With this in mind, the
difference in attitudes is plausible.

2. If we compare "accident drivers" (those who report at least one accident in

the questionnaire) by sex, there are differences in factor 1 (male and
female) and factor 3 (males only). Drivers showing less careful attitudes
have more accidents, as well as those drivers opposing physical and
juridical laws.
 170

3. A comparison of L17 vs. SE "accident drivers" draws a similar picture. In

both groups, careful drivers have fewer accidents. Reasoning L17 drivers
are less frequently involved in accidents.

4. From points 2 and 3 above we conclude: The higher level of factor 2 "self-
reflecting" has no influence on accident involvement.

12.2.11 Opinions about models of driver education

General opinions

A huge majority of L17 drivers is convinced of the usefulness of the education

model they followed. Among SE drivers there is also a majority, but the
answers are not as distinct as they are among L17 drivers. This shows a
reason for L17 share of education models still rising. Significant differences
between male and female drivers could not be found. All differences between
L17 and SE are highly significant.

Table 23. General opinions L17 by model of education and sex

I believe L17 is useful. (N=1764)
Sex education I fully agree I agree I disagree I fully disagree
Male L17 92,8% 5,1% 0,7% 1,4%
SE 21,6% 37,9% 23,0% 17,5%
Female L17 93,1% 4,9% 0,4% 1,6%
SE 23,2% 41,1% 23,9% 11,7%

Table 24. Opinions about safety impact of L17 by model of education and sex
I believe, L17 helps to reduce accidents. (N=1760)
Sex education I fully agree I agree I disagree I fully disagree
Male L17 62,3% 29,0% 6,5% 2,1%
SE 10,7% 28,8% 34,9% 25,6%
Female L17 54,6% 37,9% 5,3% 2,2%
SE 8,5% 31,1% 39,1% 21,3%

A similar high majority of L17 drivers is convinced that L17 also contributes to
reducing road accidents. SE drivers think differently; 60% do not believe in an
accident reducing effect of L17.

Table 25. Opinion about own benefits by model of education and sex
L17 (would have) helped me to have less accidents (N=1707)
Sex Education I fully agree I agree I disagree I fully disagree
Male L17 65,8% 22,7% 7,5% 3,9%
SE 1,8% 8,3% 31,9% 58,0%
Female L17 73,0% 19,4% 5,0% 2,7%
SE 1,6% 9,3% 24,1% 65,1%
 171

The opinions of L17 drivers on their own benefits from the education hardly
differ from opinions on general benefits. Answers are even slightly more
distinct.

The case is quite the opposite for SE drivers. Only 11% think that L17 would
have helped them in having fewer accidents.

Opinions and motives of L17-drivers

Only L17-drivers were asked, why they decided for L17. Occasionally also SE
drivers answered these questions, but these answers were excluded from the
analysis.
Table 26. Opinions and motives about L17 by sex (L17 drivers only)
Sex I fully agree I agree I disagree I fully disagree N
Without L17 I would have used a moped until 18.
Male 47,7% 8,9% 6,9% 36,5% 551
Female 29,6% 7,0% 6,1% 57,3% 429
About 57% of male and 35% of female drivers (L17 and SE to the same extent) held a moped licence.
The numbers therefore perfectly correspond with the numbers of moped licences. It may be assumed
that almost all L17 moped users would have continued moped driving until the age of 18 without L17.
I urgently wanted to drive a car at the age of 17.
Male 56,1% 29,2% 10,5% 4,1% 561
Female 44,1% 35,3% 17,2% 3,4% 442
This question does not tackle a single aspect of attitudes. It may be supposed that general emotional
aspects are the reason behind the answers to this question.
Because it is better to drive a car than a moped.
Male 64,4% 22,7% 5,5% 7,3% 559
Female 48,9% 26,4% 11,1% 13,6% 440
Answers show safety-oriented motives for selection of education model. There are more moped drivers
among males L17. They obviously realise that driving a car is safer and more comfortable.
Because I needed a driving licence for my job already at the age of 17.
Male 20,9% 14,5% 15,9% 48,8% 560
Female 19,3% 8,8% 15,9% 56,0% 441
The answers to this question clearly identify the motive of about 20% of L17 drivers. Since the
numbers of those needing the car for the job are significantly lower it may be assumed that a
considerable share of the 20% uses the car for driving to work or school.
I was not allowed to drive a moped at the age of 16, instead I was allowed to drive a car at 17.
Male 12,0% 4,5% 6,6% 76,9% 558
Female 12,1% 5,3% 5,9% 76,7% 438
By selection L17, about 12% of interviewees did not participate in traffic with a moped from 16 to 17.
This question does not cover selection of transport means without L17's existence.
I wanted to change from moped to car as soon as possible.
Male 27,1% 18,6% 12,1% 42,2% 554
Female 12,4% 11,5% 10,6% 65,4% 434
This question does not cover a single aspect of the education model selection. From the answers it may
be assumed that emotional and practical motives such as comfort and improved mobility do not play a
major role in the selection process.
My parents/legal representatives wanted it that way.
Male 8,8% 22,1% 22,0% 47,1% 560
Female 12,3% 24,8% 18,9% 44,0% 439
 172

Among females it seems that parents' wish to protect their children is more important. In about one
third of the cases parents' wishes seem to be an important argument in decision making.
I wanted to be better educated.
Male 33,2% 37,0% 16,1% 13,8% 560
Female 49,5% 31,1% 11,9% 7,4% 444
The answers suppose that even before passing lay training most of the L17 drivers are convinced of
L17 effectiveness.
Because I could convince my parents/legal representative.
Male 21,9% 27,6% 23,1% 27,4% 558
Female 23,6% 25,6% 21,1% 29,7% 437
In 50% of the cases, candidates' wish seems to be an important argument for selecting L17.

Opinions and motives of traditionally educated drivers

Only traditionally educated drivers were asked why they decided against L17.
Occasionally also L17-drivers answered these questions, but these answers
were excluded from the analysis.
Table 27. Opinions and motives about L17 by sex (traditionally educated
drivers only)
Sex I fully agree I agree I disagree I fully disagree N
Because I did not want to drive a car at 17.
Male 12,3% 12,9% 18,4% 56,4% 326
Female 13,7% 14,8% 20,2% 51,2% 371
The wish to drive a car already at the age of 17 was not so distinct that it could change the selection of
education model.
Because I preferred to drive a moped until 18.
Male 8,6% 8,3% 12,8% 70,3% 327
Female 2,7% 5,1% 7,3% 84,9% 370
Powered two-wheelers are hardly preferred.
Because I could not find a lay instructor.
Male 6,7% 9,8% 14,4% 69,1% 327
Female 8,9% 14,9% 13,0% 63,1% 369
Females seem to have more problems in finding a lay instructor. Generally speaking, this is hardly a
difficulty for selecting L17.
My parents/legal representatives wanted it that way.
Male 13,7% 13,4% 11,9% 61,0% 328
Female 11,6% 14,6% 14,1% 59,7% 370
About 27% of parents refuse to teach their children.
Because I did not even think about selecting L17.
Male 22,2% 24,6% 18,5% 34,7% 329
Female 33,8% 24,7% 16,9% 24,7% 373
These answers show a potential for further spreading of L17.
I did not know about the possibility to gain a driving licence at 17.
Male 4,9% 4,6% 8,5% 82,1% 329
Female 6,5% 6,5% 8,6% 78,4% 370
Together with the interviewees not thinking about selecting L17 the total potential for spreading L17
is beyond 50%.
There was no training vehicle available.
Male 6,1% 6,1% 13,4% 74,4% 328
 173

Female 6,8% 9,7% 10,0% 73,5% 370

Females more frequently have problems to find a suitable training car. But in total, this is rarely
hindering L17 selection.
Because L17 was too expensive.
Male 12,5% 15,3% 19,6% 52,6% 327
Female 11,4% 14,1% 16,8% 57,7% 369
In most of the driving schools the total cost for L17 and normal education do not significantly differ.
Obviously, the additional cost of private training trips was taken into consideration by some of the
interviewees.
I would not have had a car available between 17 and 18.
Male 13,2% 15,7% 14,5% 56,6% 325
Female 15,6% 16,7% 14,2% 53,5% 372
In comparison to other handicaps, non-availability of a car frequently hinders L17 selection.
Because I did not have the time.
Male 17,3% 23,4% 14,0% 45,3% 329
Female 24,4% 18,0% 16,2% 41,4% 377
Despite almost one year of time being available for private training trips (3000 km at least) a lack of
time is a frequently named reason for non-selection of L17.
Because I did not need a driving licence at 17.
Male 32,2% 19,5% 13,9% 34,4% 323
Female 34,4% 30,7% 10,4% 24,5% 375
These answers show a combination of several fact-based selection motives.
Because I also wanted to have driving licences of other classes, but I did not want to go to driving
school twice.
Male 34,7% 12,2% 8,5% 44,7% 329
Female 9,2% 7,9% 6,5% 76,4% 369
These numbers correspond to the numbers of interviewees holding also licences of other classes.
Obviously, people with the intention to acquire more than only licence class B wait for the regular
minimum age.

It should be noted that interviewees could select more than one motive in the
above list. It may be supposed that for most of the cases it was not only a
single motive impacting on decision making. From the answers the following
conclusions may be derived:
• In about one fourth of the cases there were hindrances which were hard
to overcome (no vehicle, no lay trainer).
• About half of the interviewed traditionally educated drivers lacked the
motives to select L17.
• Furthermore, in about 50% of the cases there was a lack of information
about L17.

12.2.12 Accident rates

In total 1781 drivers gave plausible information on accidents they had had (or
not). 1301 indicated not having been involved in a road accident so far. 480
have been involved in at least one accident. For this evaluation, only car
accidents were considered.
 174

Table 28. Total number of accidents L17 by model of education and sex
Number of accidents none 1 2 >2 N
Male L17 415 73% 121 21% 26 5% 7 1% 569
SE 233 41% 93 26% 23 7% 6 2% 355
Female L17 350 78% 84 19% 13 3% 3 1% 450
SE 303 74% 84 21% 16 4% 4 1% 407
Total 1301 382 78 20 1781

Since exposure is a very important parameter for accident statistics, all

accident numbers were related to mileage and duration of holding a licence
and then compared by Mann-Whitney U-test. These two parameters are
highly correlating (Pearson k=0,630, 2-sided significance p<0,001).
Nevertheless, in some of the evaluations significance levels differ.

There is no use in calculating and displaying mean values of accident rates

since the numbers have a wide distribution. This is due to a number of cases
with no accidents and several with an accident shortly after licence
acquisition.

1. In a comparison L17 vs. SE (sex not considered) L17 drivers have

significantly less accidents per 1000 km (Z=-2,240 p<0,05). Accident rates
per month are lower for L17 but not significantly.

2. After extending the analysis also to sex: Among female drivers there is no
significant difference L17 vs. SE (neither accidents per mileage nor
accidents monthly). But among male drivers, L17 have significantly less
accidents per mileage (Z=-2,328, p<0,05) and there is a trend (Z=-1,901,
p<0,1) for less accidents per month.

3. Additionally, these results were successfully confirmed through weighting

by geographical parameters (place of living by "Bundesland" and region).

L17 obviously does not have an influence on female drivers' accident rates.
Lower accident rates of lay instructed drivers as a whole are mostly due to
fewer "male accidents".

An analysis of accident rates only by sex is near at hand:

Table 29. Significance test on accident rates by sex

accidents per accidents per "accident drivers"
1000km month
Asymptotic significance level (both sided) ,060 ,009 ,003

Young female drivers have significantly fewer accidents per month than
males. For accidents per mileage there is a trend. The best parameter in this
analysis is the number of drivers already having had at least one accident.
 175

Table 30. Significance test on accident rates by sex, for both models of
education separately
accidents per accidents per "accident drivers"
1000km month
L17 asymptotic significance level (both sided) ,299 ,251 ,076
SE asymptotic significance level (both sided) ,055 ,003 ,008

Among L17, male accident rates do not significantly differ from female rates.
There is only a trend for less "accident drivers" among females. Among
traditionally educated drivers, females show significantly lower accident
involvement.

From these findings it may be concluded that the typical young accident driver
is male and traditionally educated. Obviously, traditional education is not an
appropriate tool against traditional male risky behaviour in road traffic.

The L17 lay instruction model seems to make young males drivers "more like
females". This is also a good explanation why L17 does not significantly
reduce female accident risk. Obviously, female traffic risk is so low that L17 is
not capable of achieving further reductions.

12.2.13 The quality of accidents

For analysis, all accidents reported were summarised within one file
regardless of whether they were the first, second, third or fourth accident of
the person (up to 4 accidents could be described in the questionnaire).
Unfortunately, accidents are frequently reported incomplete, so total numbers
of reported answers may vary.

Table 31. Accidents before vs. after licence acquisition by model of education
and sex
Accident occurred during driving during lay training after licensing N
... school training
Male L17 2 9 162 173
SE 3 0 134 137
Female L17 1 10 104 115
SE 1 0 120 121
Total 7 19 520 546

Most of the accidents occur after licensing. Accidents during lay training are
more frequent. It has to be considered that lay training mileage exceeds
professional training mileage by a factor of about ten. Furthermore it has to be
highlighted that lay training starts after an almost complete professional
training process.
 176

Table 32. Severity of material damage accidents by model of education and

sex
Material damage minor (< 500 €) major N
Male L17 77 106 183
SE 77 78 155
Female L17 79 25 104
SE 76 44 120
Total 309 253 562

There is a remarkable frequency of major material damage accidents

reported by male L17 drivers. But there is no significant difference.

Table 33. Personal injury accident severity by model of education and sex
Personal injury minor major N
male L17 28 4 32
SE 25 1 26
female L17 18 3 21
SE 18 1 19
total 89 9 98

Total numbers are too small to be significant, and even too small to apply a
significance test.

Table 34. Person injured by model of education and sex of driver

Who was injured? yourself other person in your car other Total
Male L17 17 1 12 30
SE 7 6 14 27
Female L17 16 5 5 26
SE 16 1 2 19
Total 56 13 33 102

Within this question, multiple answers were possible. Generally speaking, the
distribution fits expectations. Single car accidents play a major role among
severe accidents and young drivers' accidents. Therefore self-injury occurs
frequently. The numbers of persons outside the vehicle injured by male
drivers are remarkably high, but there is no statistical significance found for
that.

By total numbers in the tables 33 and 24, it seems that L17 have more severe
accidents than SE. But exposure data is different and the total numbers are
even too small to apply significance tests. It has to be pointed out that from
these numbers alone, a difference in accident rates can neither be confirmed
nor refuted.
 177

Table 35. Accident causation by model of education and sex of driver

Who is to blame for this accident? I am other is both are N
Male L17 99 52% 71 38% 19 10% 189
SE 83 56% 48 33% 16 11% 147
Female L17 63 56% 38 34% 11 10% 112
SE 82 66% 32 26% 10 8% 124
Total 327 189 56 572

Based on total numbers, females are more likely to be the innocent party, but
there is no significant difference.

There are a few male drivers involved in an accident under influence of

alcohol but the numbers are not worth mentioning. There are no significant
differences.

Table 36. Accident scene by model of education and sex of driver

Where did the accident happen? urban area outside urban area N
Male L17 117 62% 72 38% 189
SE 98 64% 54 36% 152
Female L17 81 69% 36 31% 117
SE 87 69% 39 31% 126
total 383 201 584

The accident scenes did not differ significantly.

Table 37. Accident type by model of education and sex of the driver
How did the accident happen? male female total
L17 SE L17 SE
run-off-the-road (single accident) 41 28 21 23 113
at a junction 41 34 19 19 113
when overtaking 6 3 1 2 12
when parking or reversing 24 26 41 33 124
when meeting an oncoming vehicle 12 8 5 7 32
on a pedestrian crossing or cycle path 3 1 1 1 6
Other 32 29 19 16 96
Total 159 129 107 101 496

Single car accidents and accidents at a junction are the most frequent
accidents types which are also represented in the official Austrian traffic
accident injury data base. Single car crashes are more frequent in the official
injury database compared to their share within this survey. The number of
parking or reversing accidents is very high (those are almost missing in the
official accident database due to lower severity). Distributions are not
significantly different in this analysis.
 178

Table 38. Collision partner by model of education and sex of driver

What did your car hit? male female total
L17 SE L17 SE
Nothing 14 18 9 11 52
other car/truck/bus 121 100 73 74 368
Pedestrian 2 0 1 1 4
Two wheeler 7 3 1 3 14
Animal 9 8 6 5 28
Rigid obstacle 35 25 28 32 120
N 188 154 118 126 586

Table 39. Road condition at the accident site by model of education and sex
of driver
What was the road like at the accident site? Did the surface condition have an impact
on accident occurrence?
dry, gripping slippery total yes no total
well
Male L17 108 82 190 73 118 191
SE 100 55 155 49 102 151
Female L17 85 31 116 28 85 113
SE 82 44 126 44 83 127
Total 375 212 587 194 388 582

The road conditions at the accidents did not differ between the drivers with
L17 and SE.

Table 40. Light condition at the accident by model of education and sex
What was the light conditions at the accident site? Did the light conditions
have impact on accident
occurrence?
daylight dusk/dawn darkness impaired total yes no total
Male L17 95 31 32 27 185 50 141 191
SE 79 16 33 14 142 48 107 155
Female L17 58 17 31 10 116 33 83 116
SE 80 7 17 18 122 30 98 128
Total 312 71 113 69 565 161 429 590

The visibility conditions did not differ statistically between the groups.
 179

Table 41. Stage of driving experience when accident occurred by model of

education and sex
How many hours was your driving experience when the accident happened? (mean values) (N=501)
Male L17 1184
SE 759
Female L17 616
SE 992
How many km was your driving experience when the accident happened?
Male L17 21818
SE 19712
Female L17 8997
SE 13489

There is no significant difference in driving hours or kilometres driven

between the drivers with L17 and SE.

12.2.14 Time between licensing and accident

Interviewees reported a total of 26 accidents during training (22 L17 and 4

SE). In this graph, 42 accidents before licensing were calculated. In the
questionnaire it was only asked for the month and year of accident, in the
most extreme case there may be a 30 days difference in calculation. Some
accidents in the very first month after licensing may be shown as "before
licensing" in this picture.

The figure 2 shows an almost equal accident risk of L17 vs. SE within the first
6 months of driving career. Afterwards, L17 accident rates decrease
significantly (p<0,05) faster.
 180

120

L17
100
accidents per 1000 interviewees

SE
80

60

40

20

0
-(1-0,5) -(0,5-0) +(0-0,5) +(0,5-1) +(1-1,5) +(1,5-2) +(2-2,5) +(2,5-3)
time of accident before/after licencing (years)

Figure 2. Accident rates before and after licensing, L17 vs. SE (n=501)

It is known that female accident risk is lower than male. Although a significant
difference cannot be found, there is a trend that females have fewer accidents
all through the period included in this analysis (figure 3).

120

100
accidents per 1000 interviewees

male

80
female

60

40

20

0
-(1-0,5) -(0,5-0) +(0-0,5) +(0,5-1) +(1-1,5) +(1,5-2) +(2-2,5) +(2,5-3)
time of accident before/after licencing (years)

Figure 3. Accident rates before and after licensing, male vs. female (n=501)
 181

12.2.15 Summary of Austrian instruction model evaluation

A comparison of traditionally educated young drivers ("SE" i.e. standard

education) versus young driver being educated within the Austrian combined
professional and lay instruction model "L17", by data from the Austrian
Central Licence File and by a questionnaire survey with a representative
sample of 1781 appropriately answered questionnaires, show:

1. L17 mainly impacts on male drivers.

2. L17 reduces the numbers of accidents, especially within the second and
third year of the driving career.

3. Circumstances of accidents reported by L17 drivers do not significantly

differ from SE drivers' accident circumstances.

4. Attitudes concerning own driving style and traffic safety relevant topics
differ significantly between L17 and traditionally educated drivers. It was
proved that drivers reporting a higher willingness to take risk in traffic have
higher accident rates.

5. L17 drivers show better legal behaviour. They commit less drink driving
offences, less speeding offences and are less often officially ordered to
attend driver improvement courses. Their licences are less frequently
withdrawn.

6. L17 candidates significantly more often pass the licence test on first
attempt.

7. Almost all driving licence candidates change to using a car shortly after
licensing instead of using a moped. A considerable share of young drivers
refrain from driving a moped at the age of 16 with the prospect of being
allowed to drive a car at 17.

8. L17 drivers' mileage is slightly higher than traditionally educated drivers'

mileage. However, the groups do not differ in terms of driving motives or
driving circumstances.

9. L17 drivers are highly convinced that the education they passed was
useful, especially in reducing their accident risk. Traditionally educated
drivers also believe in an accident reducing effect of L17 in general, but
they do not suppose an effect on themselves.

10. The L17 share of all driving licence candidates increased recently up to
15%. From reported opinions and objections reported, a total L17 potential
of about 50% may be derived.
 182

12.3 Accidents while learning to drive: Results of a survey in the UK by

Martti Peräaho, Chris Baughan, Trevor Wedge and Mika Hatakka

12.3.1 Introduction

Aim and method

A questionnaire survey was carried out in the UK by the Transport Research
Laboratory (TRL) and the Driving Standards Agency (DSA) in order to find out
to what extent learner drivers had been involved in traffic accidents while
driving during their learner period. The survey was initially carried out in
spring 2002, but repeated later in summer due to an insufficient number of
responses the first time. The collected information was analysed at the
University of Turku.

The survey was anonymous and it consisted of two independent

questionnaires. The first of these ("Main questionnaire"), was completed by
examiners at test centres around the UK for each learner taking a test during
one week. To begin with, the sex and age of each learner was recorded as
well as the outcome of the test in terms of passed or failed. Nothing else was
recorded if a learner had failed, but those who passed were asked to report
how many hours of driving they had done with a professional instructor and/or
with a friend or relative. They were also asked how many accidents they had
had when driving, including minor bumps and scrapes. A second question
sheet ("Accident questionnaire"), was then given to those who reported
accidents, in which they were to describe up to three accidents in more detail.
This second questionnaire was completed by the learners themselves, and it
was possible to return it at a later date by mail.

Information was gathered at more than 300 test centres. Sex and age data
were not available for over 5000 of the respondents, as the information had
not been sought in the first version of the questionnaire. This group was
reported separately in the analyses. A decision was made to compare male
and female learners as previous studies on driver training have shown clear
sex differences.

12.3.2 Results of main questionnaire

At least some basic information was available on 24 425 learners (Table 1), of
whom 10 534 (43.1%) had passed their test. The age of the learners varied
from 17 to 88, although over 54% (4 355) were between 17-19 years of age.
The females were in the mean slightly older in both groups. The passing rate
was significantly higher for the males (χ2 = 80; <.001). The learners who
failed the test were in the mean significantly older than the learners who
passed (t-test).
 183

Table 1. Age and sex distribution

Passed test Failed test Signf. testing of
age difference
within sex
Males (n=9 114) 4 237 (46.5%) 4 877 (53.5%)
mean age: 21.8 mean age: 22.7 t=6.04; <.001
(SD=7.0, range 17-73) (SD=7.9, 17-88)

Females (n=10 112) 4 054 (40.1%) 6 058 (59.9%)

mean age: 22.8 mean age: 24.8 t=11.3; <.001
(SD=7.9, range17-80) (SD=9.4, range 17-88)
Sex not known 2 243 (43.1%) 2 956 (56.9%)
(n=5 199) age not known age not known
total (n=24 425): 10 534 (43.1%) 13 891 (56.9%)

12.3.3 Amount of driving

The questions on amount of practising were presented only to those who had
passed the test. In the case of 121 of the 10 534 learners, information was
either missing or otherwise unreliable (e.g. coding errors). The latter became
evident in the question on amount of driving, and 700 hours was therefore set
as a limit for inclusion in the analysis. Even that figure is on the high side:
given that a learner drives 2 hours every day of the week, then 700 hours
equals to 350 days, or almost one year. The minimum reported total training
time was 1 hour.

Only about half a percent of the remaining 10 413 learners had relied solely
upon friends or relatives as instructors, whereas a combination of
professional and layman instruction was chosen by over half of all learners.
Slightly fewer had driven with a professional instructor only (Table 2).

Table 2. Dispersion between professional and layman instruction

n With both With professional With friend or
professional instr. instructor only relative only
and friend/relative
Males 4 187 2 107 (50.3%) 2 052 (49.0%) 28 (0.7%)
Females 4 023 2 251 (56.0%) 1 749 (43.5%) 23 (0.5%)
Sex not known 2 203 1 091 (49.5%) 1 103 (50.1%) 9 (0.4%)

total 10 413 5 449 (52.3%) 4 904 (47.1%) 60 (0.6%)

The variation in the reported amount of driving, as well as the difference

between male and female learners becomes evident if the time is divided into
five brackets (Table 3). Bearing in mind the uncertainty posed by the learners,
for whom sex was not recorded, we see that the male learners accumulate at
the lower end of the distribution, whereas the female learners accumulate
more towards the middle. A statistical testing of this distribution showed a
difference, not only in total terms (χ2 = 479; <.001), but also if we consider
only the driving with a professional instructor (χ2 = 556; <.001) or with a
layman instructor (χ2 = 14; <.05). The tables also show that the vast majority
 184

of both male and female learners drove 50 hours at the most, and that less
than 7% of all the learners had exceeded 100 hours.

Table 3. Amount of driving expressed in hours

Amount of driving: 0 - 25 hrs 26 - 50 hrs 51 - 75 hrs 76 - 100 hrs over 101 hrs Mean:
Total amount
Males (n=4 187) 1 090 (26.0%) 2 070 (49.4%) 611 (14.5%) 202 (4.8%) 214 (5.1%) 44.7
Females (n=4 023) 392 (9.7%) 1 989 (49.5%) 896 (22.3%) 412 (10.2%) 334 (8.3%) 57.5
Sex not known (n=2 203) 449 (20.4%) 1 104 (50.1%) 370 (16.8%) 147 (6.7%) 133 (6.0%) 49.2
all (n=10 413): 1 931 (18.5%) 5 163 (49.7%) 1 877 (18.0%) 761 (7.3%) 681 (6.5%) 50.6
With a professional
instructor
Males (n=4 187) 1 943 (46.4%) 1 909 (45.6%) 213 (5.1%) 95 (2.3%) 27 (0.6%) 30.6
Females (n=4 023) 943 (23.5%) 2 320 (57.7%) 412 (10.2%) 258 (6.4%) 90 (2.2%) 42.6
Sex not known (n=2 203) 817 (37.1%) 1 111 (50.4%) 151 (6.9%) 88 (4.0%) 36 (1.6%) 35.7
all (n=10 413): 3 703 (35.5%) 5 340 (51.3%) 776 (7.5%) 441 (4.2%) 153 (1.5%) 36.3
With a friend or relative
Males (n=4 187) 3 531 (84.3%) 424 (10.1%) 62 (1.5%) 111 (2.7%) 59 (1.4%) 14.6
Females (n=4 023) 3 287 (81.7%) 498 (12.4%) 78 (1.9%) 108 (2.7%) 52 (1.3%) 15.5
Sex not known (n=2 203) 1 858 (84.3%) 237 (10.8%) 30 (1.4%) 55 (2.5%) 23 (1.0%) 13.8
all (n=10 413): 8 676 (83.3%) 1 159 (11.2%) 170 (1.6%) 274 (2.6%) 134 (1.3%) 14.8

A statistical testing of the mean training hours show that the female learners
drove in the mean 12 hours more with a professional instructor (t=20.7;
<.001) but only about 1 hour more with a friend or relative (t=1.33; NS). The
mean total difference was almost 13 hours (t=14.9; <.001).

As might be expected, the number of hours of driving increased with age. The
correlation (Pearson) was noticeable for the female learners but clearly more
modest for the male learners (Table 4).

Table 4. Correlation between age and amount of driving

Total amount of driving Driving with prof. Driving with friend or
instructor relative
Males .040 p <.05 -.018 NS .173 p<.001
Females .159 p<.001 .144 p<.001 .114 p<.001

12.3.4 Accidents

The questions on accident involvement were presented only to the 10 534

learners who had passed the test. However, information was missing in the
case of 184 of these. Only 328 (3.2%) of the remaining 10 350 learners
reported having had an accident when learning to drive (Table 5). This
percentage was slightly higher for the females (χ2 = 4.25; <.05). A total of 50
learners had not stated how many accidents they had had, and one accident
was typical for the rest.
 185

Table 5. Accident involvement

No accidents Accidents
one two or more number not
Total: accident: accidents: specified:

Males 4 056 (97.3%) 114 (2.7%) 87 7 20

(n=4 170)
Females 3 856 (96.5%) 141 (3.5%) 117 6 18
(n=3 997)
Sex not known 2 110 (96.7%) 73 (3.3%) 53 8 12
(n=2 183)
total 10 022 (96.8%) 328 (3.2%) 257 21 50
(n=10 350):

The mean total amount of driving hours of the learners who reported
accidents was 58.1 hours for the males, 66.5 for the females, and 81.6 for the
learners in the "sex unknown" group. These figures are higher than for the
learners on the whole (cf. Table 3 above) - which presumably reflects the fact
that people with a higher exposure to risk tend to have more accidents.

12.3.5 Results of accident questionnaire

Only 177 learners returned the questionnaire on accidents that was given to
those who in the main questionnaire reported having had an accident when
learning to drive. It was not possible to link these sheets to the individual
learners, as they were not identified in any way and they could be returned
anonymously in a pre-paid envelope. Altogether 187 accidents were reported.
Four of the male and five of the female learners had been involved in two
accidents and one male learner in three.

The total mean amount of driving during the learning period for the 177
respondents was 82.3 hours for the males and 68.6 hours for the females
(t=1.0; NS). These figures are much higher than the mean amounts reported
in the main questionnaire of both the learners with accidents and the learners
on the whole (cf. Table 3 and note after Table 5 above).

The learners were also asked to report how many hours they had driven prior
to the accident. The male learners reported in the mean 35.8 hours
(SD=67.9), and the female learners 38.8 hours (SD=35.2). Statistically, this
difference was not significant (t=0.7; NS). The point during their training at
which the learners had their first accident is presented graphically in figure 1.
This point is not the reported number of hours as such but a percentage of
the total, which therefore is 100. For the sake of simplicity, the total number of
hours was divided into ten brackets, each representing 1/10th of the total, and
the individual percentages were put into their respective bracket. The number
of hours prior to the accident could not be computed for 10 learners due to
missing information.
 186

25

Males
20 Females

15

10
% of drivers

0
0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100
Time (in %) from beginning of learner period to test

Figure 1. Time (%) from beginning of training to first accident (males n=64,
females n=103).

As becomes evident in the figure 1, the accidents were equally distributed

along the training period, with no clear accumulation apart from the fact that
22% of the female learners had an accident just before coming to the test.
The male candidates' accidents occurred in the mean just before the halfway
point (49.2/100) and the accidents of the female learners in the mean about
one tenth of the total time later (59.7/100).

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
% of drivers

Males
10
Females
5
0
1st third 2nd third 3rd third
Time from beginning of learner period to test
Figure 2. Occurrence in time of first accident (males n=64, females n=103).
 187

If things are narrowed down and the training period is divided into three
brackets (Figure 2), the trend discernible in figure 1 becomes clearer,
although statistically non-significant: downward for the male learners (44% /
25% / 31%) and upward for the female learners (29% / 28% / 43%).

12.3.6 Accident characteristics

All the reported accidents are summarised in table 6, where the answers to
the nine different questions are ordered according to frequency. The first
column may therefore be regarded as a "profile" of the most typical accident:

Accident with another car,

in a junction,
in bright lighting conditions,
while driving with a friend or relative,
inside a built-up area,
under normal road conditions,
with no injuries,
learner not at-fault, and
with slight damage (less than £300).

Note that blameworthiness, and whether driving with a professional instructor

of friend/relative, have been omitted from this profile because the figures were
too similar to allow one alternative to be regarded as "typical".

The accidents that happened during the beginning of training did not differ
markedly from the ones occurring later (Table 7). It may be noted that the
injury accidents of the female learners took place during the latter half of their
training, and vice versa for the male learners.

There were no clear differences between those who had been driving with a
professional instructor at the time of the accident and those who had been
driving with a friend or relative (Table 8). However, clearly more than half of
the learners who had been driving with a friend or relative saw themselves at
fault in the accident. The figure was the other way around for the learners
who had been driving with a professional instructor.

The question remains whether this reflects a real difference in accident

characteristics or if the difference comes from legal or moral interpretations
regarding formal responsibility during driver training. Altogether 9 learners
had been driving by themselves when the accident happened, and apparently
not off-road. Information was missing on 3 learners.
 188

Table 6. Profile of male and female learners' accidents while learning to drive
(males, n=73, females n=114).

Accident with: another car obstacle nothing animal pedestr. two-wheeler dns
males: 25 (34.2%) 27 (37.0%) 18 (24.7%) -- -- 1 (1.4%) 2 (2.7%)
females: 52 (45.6%) 29 (25.4%) 24 (21.1%) 2 (1.8%) 2 (1.8%) -- 5 (4.4%)
77 (41.2%) 56 (29.9%) 42 (22.5%) 2 (1.1%) 2 (1.1%) 1 (0.5%) 7 (3.7%)

Situation: junction other parking / meeting overtaking ped.cross / dns

reversing cycle path
males: 21 (28.8%) 21 (28.8%) 19 (26.0%) 9 (12.3%) 2 (2.7 %) -- 1 (1.4%)
females: 54 (47.4%) 24 (21.1%) 22 (19.3%) 11 (9.6%) 2 (1.8%) -- 1 (0.9%)
75 (40.1%) 45 (24.1%) 41 (21.9%) 20 (10.7%) 4 (2.1%) 2 (1.1%)

Lighting: bright dull dark dns

males: 34 (46.6%) 18 (24.7%) 15 (20.5%) 6 (8.2%)
females: 74 (64.9%) 22 (19.3%) 9 (7.9%) 9 (7.9%)
108 (57.8%) 40 (21.4%) 24 (12.8%) 15 (8.0%)

Training with: layman instr prof. instr alone dns

males: 37 (50.7%) 31 (42.5%) 5 (6.8%) --
females: 53 (46.5%) 52 (45.6%) 6 (5.3%) 3 (2.6%)
90 (48.1%) 83 (44.4%) 11 (5.9%) 3 (1.6%)

Where (area): built-up non built-up dns

males: 50 (68.5%) 21 (28.8%) 2 (2.7%)
females: 79 (69.3%) 35 (30.7%) --
129 (69.0%) 56 (29.9%) 2 (1.1%)

Road surface: normal slippery dns

males: 56 (76.7%) 13 (17.8%) 4 (5.5%)
females: 103 (90.4%) 7 (6.1%) 4 (3.5%)
159 (85.0%) 20 (10.7%) 8 (4.3%)

Any injured: no yes dns

males: 63 (86.3%) 7 (9.6%) 3 (4.1%)
females: 105 (92.1%) 7 (6.1%) 2 (1.8%)
168 (89.8%) 14 (7.5%) 5 (2.7%)

Blame: no yes dns

males: 32 (43.8%) 35 (47.9%) 6 (8.2%)
females: 61 (53.6%) 50 (43.9%) 3 (2.6%)
93 (49.7%) 85 (45.5%) 9 (4.8%)

Damage: under £300 over £300 dns

males: 54 (74.0%) 18 (24.7%) 1 (1.4%)
females: 82 (71.9%) 26 (22.8%) 6 (5.3%)
136 (72.7%) 44 (23.5%) 7 (3.7%)
dns = did not specify

Note:Table 6 includes all accidents, including the second and third accidents of 9 learners
(187 accidents). A high number of learners had chosen the alternative "other" in the question
regarding the specific traffic situation in which the accident took place. Unfortunately, this was
not specified in any way, although an off road accident or similar single-vehicle accident
might be a reasonable guess.
 189

Table 7. Characteristics of first accident in relation to training period (males,

n=64 , females, n=103)
First half of training Second half of training
Males (n=34) Females (n=48) Males (n=30) Females (n=55)

Accident with: another car 14 (21.9) 22 (21.4) 7 (10.9) 25 (24.3)

obstacle 12 (18.75) 13 (12.6) 14 (21.9) 14 (13.6)
nothing 8 (12.5) 10 (9.7) 7 (10.9) 11 (10.7)
animal -- 1 (1.0) -- --
pedestrian -- -- -- 2 (1.9)
two-wheeler -- -- -- --
(dns) -- 2 (1.9) 2 (3.1) 3 (2.9)

Situation: junction 9 (14.1) 22 (21.4) 9 (14.1) 28 (27.2)

other 9 (14.1) 10 (9.7) 9 (14.1) 9 (8.7)
parking / reversing 11 (17.2) 10 (9.7) 8 (12.5) 11 (10.7)
meeting 4 (6.25) 5 (4.9) 3 (4.7) 6 (5.8)
overtaking -- 1 (1.0) 1 (1.6) 1 (1.0)
Pedestrian. crossing / cycle path -- -- -- --
(dns) 1 (1.6) -- -- --

Training with: layman instructor 17 (26.6) 30 (29.1) 16 (25.0) 19 (18.4)

professional instructor 14 (21.9) 17 (16.5) 13 (20.3) 33 (32.0)
no-one 3 (4.7) -- 1 (1.6) 2 (1.9)
(dns) -- 1 (1.0) -- 1 (1.0)

Lighting: bright 20 (31.25) 28 (27.2) 10 (15.6) 41 (39.8)

dull 8 (12.5) 11 (10.7) 9 (14.1) 8 (7.8)
dark 6 (9.4) 5 (4.9) 8 (12.5) 2 (1.9)
(dns) -- 4 (3.9) 3 (4.7) 4 (3.9)

Where (area): built-up 23 (35.9) 37 (35.9) 20 (31.25) 37 (35.9)

non built-up 10 (15.6) 11 (10.7) 10 (15.6) 18 (17.5)
(dns) 1 (1.6) -- -- --

Road surface: normal 27 (42.2) 45 (43.7) 22 (34.4) 52 (50.5)

slippery 5 (7.8) 2 (1.9) 6 (9.4) 1 (1.0)
(dns) 2 (3.1) 1 (1.0) 2 (3.1) 2 (1.9)

Any injured: no 30 (46.9) 47 (45.6) 29 (45.3) 47 (45.6)

yes 3 (4.7) -- 1 (1.6) 7 (6.8)
(dns) 1 (1.6) 1 (1.0) -- 1 (1.0)

Blame: no 17 (26.6) 23 (22.3) 11 (17.2) 32 (31.1)

yes 15 (23.4) 25 (24.3) 18 (28.1) 21 (20.4)
(dns) 2 (3.1) -- 1 (1.6) 2 (1.9)

Amount of damage: < £300 25 (39.1) 37 (35.9) 25 (39.1) 39 (37.9)

> £300 8 (12.5) 9 (8.7) 5 (7.8) 14 (13.6)
(dns) 1(1.6) 2 (1.9) -- 2 (1.9)
(dns) = did not specify
 190

Table 8. Characteristics of first accident in relation to with whom they were

training at the time (n=174)
Instructor: Professional Friend / relative No-one (driving alone)
Learner: Male Female Male Female Male Female
(n=29) (n=51) (n=35) (n=50) (n=4) (n=5)

Accident with: another car 10 (34.5%) 21 (41.2%) 10 (28.6%) 25 (50.0%) 3 4

obstacle 5 (17.2%) 7 (13.7%) 20 (57.1%) 19 (38.0%) 1 1
nothing 12 (41.4%) 18 (35.3%) 4 (11.4%) 3 (6.0%) -- --
animal -- -- -- 1 (2.0%) -- --
pedestrian -- 2 (3.9%) -- -- -- --
two-wheeler -- -- 1 (2.9%) -- -- --
(dns) 2 (6.9%) 3 (5.9%) -- 2 (4.0%) -- --

Situation: junction 14 (48.3%) 31 (60.8%) 4 (11.4%) 19 (38.0%) 1 2

other 7 (24.1%) 9 (17.6%) 12 (34.3%) 10 (20.0%) 2 2
parking / reversing 3 (10.3%) 4 (7.8%) 16 (45.7%) 15 (30.0%) -- 1
meeting 4 (13.8%) 6 (11.8%) 3 (8.6%) 5 (10.0%) -- --
overtaking -- 1 (2.0%) -- 1 (2.0%) 1 --
pedest. crossing / cycle path -- -- -- -- -- --
(dns) 1 (3.4%) -- -- -- -- --

Lighting: bright 17 (58.6%) 39 (76.5%) 14 (40.0%) 30 (60.0%) 1 1

dull 4 (13.8%) 10 (19.6%) 11 (31.4%) 8 (16.0%) 3 2
dark 4 (13.8%) -- 10 (28.6%) 7 (14.0%) -- 1
(dns) 4 (13.8%) 2 (3.9%) -- 5 (10.0%) -- 1

Where (area): built-up 23 (79.3%) 41 (80.4%) 19 (54.3%) 33 (66.0%) 3 2

non built-up 6 (20.7%) 10 (19.6%) 14 (40.0%) 17 (34.0%) 1 3
(dns) -- -- 2 (5.7%) -- -- --

Road surface: normal 25 (86.2%) 48 (94.1%) 24 (68.6%) 48 (96.0%) 2 2

slippery 3 (10.3%) 2 (3.9%) 8 (22.9%) 1 (2.0%) 2 2
(dns) 1 (3.4%) 1 (2.0%) 3 (8.6%) 1 (2.0%) -- 1

Any injured: no 26 (89.7%) 46 (90.2%) 32 (91.4%) 46 (92.0%) 4 5

yes 3 (10.3%) 4 (7.8%) 2 (5.7%) 3 (6.0%) -- --
(dns) -- 1 (2.0%) 1 (2.9%) 1 (2.0%) -- --

Blame: no 17 (58.7%) 37 (72.5%) 11 (31.4%) 18 (36.0%) 2 1

yes 9 (31.0%) 12 (23.5%) 23 (65.7%) 32 (64.0%) 2 4
(dns) 3 (10.3%) 2 (3.9%) 1 (2.9%) -- -- --

Amount of damage: < £300 21 (72.4%) 37 (72.5%) 29 (82.9%) 37 (74.0%) 2 4

> £300 8 (27.6%) 11 (21.6%) 5 (14.3%) 12 (24.0%) 2 1
(dns) -- 3 (5.9%) 1 (2.9%) 1 (2.0%) -- --
(dns) = did not specify
 191

12.4 Accidents while learning to drive in Finland by Mika Hatakka and

Inkeri Salo

12.4.1 Introduction

Aim and Method

A questionnaire study was carried out in Finland during spring 2002 as a part
of the BASIC project. The aim was to study accident involvement while
practising to drive. A specific question was to compare accident involvement
between professionally trained and lay-instructed learners. Furthermore, the
material was expected to provide information on the learning processes.

The study was carried out in driver testing locations. After passing the test all
lay-instructed candidates and a sample of professionally trained candidates
were given a questionnaire to be returned to the test location. In total, 643
questionnaires were returned. It is not possible to evaluate the exact rate of
return.

Of the respondents 54% were male and 46% female. 65% were
professionally trained and 35% layman instructed. The idea was to get an
overrepresentation of lay-instructed candidates to make meaningful
comparisons between the groups. Normal distribution is roughly 80-85%
professionally trained and 15-20% lay instructed.

12.4.2 Results

The results show clearly lower passing rates for lay-instructed candidates.
This result is in concordance with the results from the vehicle administration
centre's statistics showing roughly 20% units lower pass rates for the practical
test and 15% units lower pass rates for the theoretical test for lay-instructed
candidates.

Table 1. Passing the practical test on 1st, 2nd and 3rd attempt

I II III
Layman 66% 29% 5%
Professional 81% 16% 3%

Kilometres driven:
The kilometres driven differ radically between professionally and lay-
instructed candidates. The mean kilometrage during training for professionally
instructed candidates was 513 km and roughly double at 1022 km for lay
instructed candidates.

Driving lessons:
In the Finnish driving school curriculum the minimum number of practical
training lessons is 30. The length of one lesson is 25 minutes. Lay-instructors
are expected to obey the same number of lessons (both practical and
theoretical) as in professional instruction. Both professional and lay-
 192

instruction are controlled by logbook. The average number of driving lessons

was 33 in professional instruction and 47 in lay instruction.

Accidents while learning:

Both lay-instructed and professionally instructed candidates reported a rather
low number of accidents during practising. 5,2% of lay instructed candidates
reported to have had an accident and 2,3% of professionally trained
candidates. The difference was, however, not significant in 5% risk level
(p=0.059). None of the accidents involved personal injuries.

12.4.3 Conclusions

It can be concluded that the training period in Finland is rather safe. The
accident frequency seems to be similar to the Swedish and GB results.
Accidents are typically minor bumps and scratches. Lay-instruction is more
dangerous than professional training per trainee.

The amount of practising is greater in lay-instruction, but pass rates in test are
lower. This indicates that the quality of professional instruction is less
variable, more effective and prepares the candidates for the driving test better
than lay-instruction.
 193

12.5 Questionnaire study on novice driver's accidents in the beginning

of driving career in Finland by Sirkku Laapotti, Esko Keskinen, Mika
Hatakka, Martti Peräaho, Inkeri Salo and Ari Katila

12.5.1 The aim of the study

The aim of the study was to describe in detail the beginning of a driver's
career with respect to accident risk. The Finnish training system includes a
compulsory second phase of training. One aim was to evaluate the
accumulation of accidents in relation to the timing of the second phase and to
evaluate also the possible effects on qualitative aspects of the accidents.
Quantitative and qualitative aspects of accidents were also compared
between lay-instructed and professionally instructed drivers.

12.5.2 Description of the data

The sample of novice drivers consisted of 19 231 drivers. The criteria for the
novice drivers was that on 1st April 2002 the age of their first driving licence
(category B) was 6 months to 54 months old. Questionnaires were sent out
during summer 2002. The return rate was 48.4 % (9 305 questionnaires were
returned) (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1. Distribution of questionnaires returned according to age of driving

license
_____________________________________________________________
Age of driving Males Females
license (months) f % f %
_____________________________________________________________
6.1-12 275 7.7 439 8.5
12.1-18 837 23.4 1 243 24.2
18.1-24 821 23.0 1 220 23.8
24.1-30 665 18.6 937 18.3
30.1-36 208 5.8 298 5.8
36.1-42 195 5.5 276 5.4
42.1-48 234 6.6 303 5.9
48.1-54 206 5.8 252 4.9
54.1-60 128 3.6 167 3.2
_____________________________________________________________
total 3 569 100.0 5 135 100.0
missing cases 293 308

The mean age of the driving license was 26.5 months for males and 25.5
months for females. The proportion of drivers under 21 years was 62% (for
males 63.5 % and for females 61.2%)

Table 2. Age of drivers according to age of driver's license

___________________________________________________________________________
Age (n) Age of driving license (months)
___________________________________________________________________________
 194

0.5-12 12.1-24 24.1-36 36.1-48 48.1-60

f % f % f % f % f %
___________________________________________________________________________
18-19 (2 927) 443 15.1 2 481 84.8 1 0.03 1 0.03 1 0.03
20-21 (3 919) 66 1.7 1 290 32.9 1 911 48.8 645 16.5 7 0.18
22-23 (1 365) 26 1.9 151 11.1 85 6.2 330 24.2 773 56.6
24-30 (529) 45 8.5 203 38.4 99 18.7 93 17.6 89 16.8
31-50 (446) 40 9.0 186 41.7 80 17.9 75 16.8 65 14.6
51+ (115) 6 5.2 49 42.6 22 19.1 23 20.0 15 13.0
____________________________________________________________________
In all (9 301) 626 4 360 2198 1 167 950

Table 3. Distribution of drivers' age and sex according to driver instruction

Driver instruction 18-20 years 21 years and older In all
f %
Professional
Males 1 965 63.5 1 128 36.5 3 093

Females 2 850 60.9 1 834 39.1 4 684

Layman
Males 394 66.2 201 33.8 595

Females 417 64.1 234 35.9 651

The proportion of males was higher in layman instruction (47,8%) than in

professional instruction (39,8%) (df=1, χ²=28.31, p<.001)
The mean age in professional instruction was 21.5 years for males and 22.3
years for females. Drivers in layman instruction were younger. The mean age
in layman instruction was 20.4 years for males and 21.1 for females.

Males had completed the second phase training more often than females (64
% vs. 62 %) (df=1, χ²=4.53, p<.05). Males also completed the second phase
earlier than females (Table 4, Figure 1). On the other hand, females had done
the "driving in the dark" -course more often than males (86 % vs. 84 %) (df=1,
χ²=6.49, p=0.01). However, there was no difference between the sexes in the
timing of the course (Table 4). About 45 % of drivers had already done the
"driving in the dark" -course during the first phase of driver training.

Table 4. Timing of the second phase and the dark driving course
____________________________________________________________________
Time from licensing to 2nd phase: males 15.7 months
females 17.6 months (T=-12.16, p<.001)
Time from licensing to "dark driving
course" males 4.3 months (T-test ns.)
females 4.6 months
____________________________________________________________________
 195

%
20

18

16
Time from licencing to 2nd phase
14

12

10 male
female
8

>24
<6

10

11

12
13

14

15

16

17
18

19

20

21

22
23

24
6

7
8

Months after licencing

Figure 1. Male and female drivers' time from licensing to completing second
phase. Note: < 6 months is an invalid value

12.5.3 Comparison between drivers of professional and layman

instruction

Because there was a statistical difference in age between drivers of

professional and layman instruction, the following comparisons are made
between professional and layman instruction in the group of 18-20 year old
drivers. In that group there was no statistical difference in age between the
different driving instructions. Male drivers in professional instruction tended to
take the second phase a little bit earlier than drivers in layman instruction
(Table 5)

Table 5. Comparison between 18-20 year old drivers of professional and

layman instruction.
______________________________________________________________
Means Professional instruction Layman instruction
Males Females Males Females
________________________________________________________________
Age (years) 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.5
Length of driving
career (months) 20.8 20.5 20.6 19.7
Time from licensing
to 2nd phase (months) 14.5 16.7 15.4 16.3
____________________________________________________________________

T-test for significance between the means of professional and layman instruction
males: age: ns.; length of driving career: ns.; time from licensing to 2nd phase, p<.05;
females: age: ns.; length of driving career: ns.; time from licensing to 2nd phase: ns.
 196

Layman instructed drivers were higher educated than professionally

instructed drivers. The category B driving license was more typical among
layman instructed than among professionally instructed drivers (Table 6 ).

Table 6. Education, license class B and 2nd phase completion of 18-20 year
old professional and layman instructed drivers.
____________________________________________________________________
Percentage Professional instruction Layman instruction
Males Females Males Females
____________________________________________________________________
Education: secondary
school or higher 55.0% 71.4% 68.4% 81.7%
License class: B 61.1% 90.4% 90.1% 95.7%
2nd phase completed 59.1% 55.7% 52.9% 51.0%
____________________________________________________________________

Chi-square for significance between the percentages of professional and layman instruction,
males: education, p<.001; licence class, p<.001; 2nd phase completed, p<.05
females: education, p<.001; licence class, p<.05; 2nd phase completed, NS

There were no statistically significant differences in attitudes between layman

and professionally instructed drivers. Layman instructed drivers drove less
than professionally instructed drivers. In addition, the purpose of driving
differed between the two groups. Layman instructed drivers tend to drive
proportionally more on errands and leisure-time trips than professionally
trained drivers do. Professionally trained drivers tend to drive more "just for
fun" driving and driving due to their work. Driving conditions did not differ
between the two instruction groups among males. However, layman
instructed females tend to drive proportionally more inside built-up areas and
alone compared to professionally instructed females. There were no
statistically significant differences in the number of violations between the two
groups. Professionally instructed females had more accidents than layman
instructed. Males and females differed in nearly all comparisons (Tables 7
and 8).
 197

Table 7. Comparison between 18-20 year old drivers of professional and

layman instruction. T-test analysis for statistical significance of differences
(p<.05=*; p<.01=**; p<.001=***)
_________________________________________________________________________________
Driver training Driver’s sex
Professional vs. layman Males vs. females
Means Males Females
(n=1 815, n=342) (n=3 063, n=404) (n=2 259; n=3 537)
__________________________________________________________________________
Attitudinal questions (scale 1-4;1= total agreement with statement=unsafe-oriented;
4= total disagreement with statement=safe-oriented).
I can take risks in traffic
when in a hurry 3.0 - 2.9 3.3 - 3.3 3.0 – 3.3***
Speed limits are
mostly unnecessary 3.2 - 3.2 3.5 - 3.5 3.2 – 3.5***
I like to compete in
highway traffic 3.3 - 3.4 3.7 - 3.7 3.4 – 3.7***

Amount of kilometres driven

in the intermediate phase 19 231 - 16 720 11 020 - 10 752 19 222 - 10 971***
after the second phase 13 233 - 8 169** 5 950 - 4 150* 12 651 - 5 737***
total 28 165 - 21 893** 14 738 - 13 368 27 691 - 14 561***

Purpose of driving in the intermediate phase (percentages, sum about 100)

to work, school 22.8 - 24.4 25.0 - 24.5 23.0 – 24.9**
on errands 18.7 - 20.2 24.6 - 27.2** 18.7 – 24.9***
as occupation 1.4 - 0.5* 0.1 - 0.3* 1.5 - 0.1***
at work 4.9 - 4.3 2.5 - 1.8 4.9 – 2.4***
leisure-time trips 30.9 - 31.3 32.6 - 36.1** 31.0 – 33.0***
just for fun 23.2 - 19.4** 16.8 - 11.6*** 22.5 – 16.2***

Purpose of driving after the second phase (percentages, sum about 100)
to work, school 20.6 - 22.2 22.6 - 17.6** 20.5 – 22.1
on errands 20.5 - 24.1* 27.8 - 29.3 20.9 – 27.9***
as occupation 2.6 - 1.1* 0.2 - 0.3 2.6 - 0.2***
at work 5.5 - 3.8 2.6 - 3.4 5.6 - 2.7***
leisure-time trips 30.6 - 33.9 33.5 - 39.8** 31.1 – 34.2***
just for fun 21.1 - 16.8** 13.5 - 9.6** 20.4 – 13.2***
__________________________________________________________________________
 198

Table 8. Comparison between 18-20 year old drivers of professional and layman
instruction. T-test analysis for statistical significance of differences (p<.05=*;
p<.01=**; p<.001=***)
____________________________________________________________________
Driver training Driver’s sex
Means Professional vs. layman Males vs. females
Males Females
___________________________________________________________________________
Driving environment during the intermediate phase (percentages of driving)

in the dark 26.3 - 24.9 27.4 - 26.9 26.0 - 27.3**

inside built-up area 46.7 - 45.6 47.5 - 50.2* 46.3 - 47.7*
in slippery conditions 27.5 - 28.5 23.5 - 24.7 27.7 - 23.7***
alone 41.4 - 39.3 42.0 - 44.9* 40.8 - 42.3*
during evenings/nights 29.1 - 27.2 29.2 - 28.3 28.8 - 29.1

Driving environment after the second phase (percentages of driving)

in the dark 22.8 - 20.5 20.1 - 18.9 22.4 –20.0***
inside built-up area 45.8 - 49.5 47.6 - 49.7 46.1 – 47.8
in slippery conditions 20.7 - 18.4 13.8 - 12.3 20.4 – 13.6***
alone 42.9 - 43.3 46.1 - 46.5 42.8 – 46.1***
during evenings/nights 28.6 - 27.5 27.3 - 26.1 28.4 – 27.2

Violations (times 100) in the intermediate phase

speeding 14.4 - 16.4 3.1 - 1.7 14.8 – 2.9***
other moving violations 10.2 - 11.7 4.2 - 4.1 10.6 – 4.1***
drunk driving 2.2 - 1.6 0.5 - 0 2.2 – 0.5***
other 4.2 - 5.3 0.8 - 0.5 4.5 – 0.7***

Violations (times100) after the second phase

speeding 6.6 - 2.9 1.5 - 0.9 6.1 – 1.4***
other moving violations 3.4 - 1.9 0.8 - 0.5 3.1 – 0.7***
drunk driving 0.1 - 0.5 0- 0 0.2 – 0*
other 1.0 - 0.5 0.4 - 0.9 0.9 – 0.4

Accidents (times100) in the intermediate phase

property damage only 39.8 - 38.2 31.6 - 23.2** 39.0 – 30.5***
bodily injury 1.8 - 1.4 1.4 - 1.0 1.7 – 1.3

after the second phase

property damage only 11.0 - 9.4 7.6 - 8.0 10.7 – 7.6**
bodily injury 0.6 - 0 0.3 - 0 0.5 – 0.2

12.5.4 Number of accidents

Young (22 years and younger) and male drivers were more often involved in
accidents than older (23 years and older) and female drivers (Figure 2).
However, when accidents per kilometres driven were calculated, the
difference between males and females disappeared. Actually, females tended
 199

to have more accidents per kilometre than males, but the difference was not
statistically significant (Table 9). Also, professionally instructed and layman
instructed drivers did not differ according to their accidents per kilometre.

The rate of accidents per kilometre is studied both among the whole group of
drivers (Table 9) as well as separately among those drivers who had low
kilometrage (Table 10) and high kilometrage (Table 11). This separate
analysis was done because the two driver instruction groups - as well as
males and females - differ according to their kilometres driven. The accidents
per kilometre rate is an unfair measure for comparing groups with large
differences in kilometres driven (Elander, West and French, 1993; Janke,
1991; Pelz and Schuman, 1971). This is because accidents do not
accumulate in a linear way according to kilometres driven. Therefore, the
divider (number of kilometres) is the most decisive factor in the accident rate
calculation if the compared groups differ a lot according to their kilometrage.

40
%
35 Males Females
30
<23years
25
>22 years
20

15

10

0
At least 1 2 3 4 At least 1 2 3 4
acc. acc.

Figure 2. Percentage of drivers with at least one accident, two, three and four
accidents according to the age and sex of drivers
 200

Table 9. 19-22 year old drivers' accidents per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Follow-up at least 6 months after the second phase
_________________________________________________________________________
Accidents/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=960) Profess. (n=1 118)
vs. layman (n=207) vs. layman (n=150)
_________________________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.45 - 0.50 1.67 - 0.84
after the second phase 0.19 - 0.19 0.72 - 0.23
_________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
all differences between male and female drivers are non-significant

Table 10. 19-22 year old drivers' accidents per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Drivers with low mileage (less than 1 000 km per month). Follow-
up at least 6 months after the second phase
___________________________________________________________________________
Accidents/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=515) Profess .(n=891)
vs. layman (n=133) vs. layman (n=134)
___________________________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.67 - 0.68 2.06 - 0.92
after the second phase 0.30 - 0.24 0.88 - 0.25
___________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
all differences between male and female drivers are non-significant

Table 11. 19-22 year old drivers' accidents per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Drivers with high mileage (more than 1 000 km per month).
Follow-up at least 6 months after the second phase
___________________________________________________________________________
Accidents/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=445) Profess (n=227)
vs. layman (n=75) vs. layman (n=16)
___________________________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.20 - 0.17 0.16 - 0.09
after the second phase 0.07 - 0.09 0.05 - 0.08
___________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
all differences between male and female drivers are non-significant
 201

12.5.5 Number of violations

Young (22 years and younger) and male drivers reported more violations than
older (23 years and older) and female drivers. Professionally instructed and
layman instructed drivers did not differ in their violations rates.

The violations per kilometres rate is studied both among the whole group of
drivers (Table 12) as well as separately among those drivers who had low
kilometrage (Table 13) and high kilometrage (Table 14). This was done for
the reason explained in chapter 6.5.3.

Table 12. 19-22 year old drivers' violations per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Follow-up period at least 6 months after the second phase.
___________________________________________________________________
Violations/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=1 019) Profess. (n=1 182)
vs. layman (n=220) vs. layman (n=165)
___________________________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.18 - 0.29 0.18 - 0.27
after the second phase 0.12 - 0.15 0.11 - 0.02
___________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
all differences between male and female drivers are non-significant

Table 13. 19-22 year old drivers' violations per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Drivers with low driving kilometrage (less than 1 000 km per
month). Follow-up period at least 6 months after the second phase.
__________________________________________________________________________
Violations/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=549) Profess (n=945)
vs. layman (n=141) vs. layman (n=142)
______________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.20 - 0.40 0.21 - 0.31
after the second phase 0.13 - 0.18 0.12 - 0.02
___________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
all differences between male and female drivers are non-significant

Professionally trained males and females differed statistically in the

intermediate phase but not after the second phase among the drivers who
had driven more than 1000 kilometers per month. Females had fewer
violations than males (Table 14).
 202

Table 14. 19-22 year old drivers' violations per 10 000 kilometres during the
intermediate phase and after the second phase according to driving
instruction. Drivers with high driving kilometrage (more than 1 000 km per
month). Follow-up period at least 6 months after the second phase.
___________________________________________________________________________
Violations/10 000 km Males Females
Professional (n=470) Profess. (n=237)
vs. layman (n=220) vs. layman (n=165)
___________________________________________________________________________
in the intermediate
phase 0.15 - 0.29 0.06 - 0.27
after the second phase 0.10 - 0.15 0.04 - 0.02
___________________________________________________________________________
all differences between professional and layman instruction are non-significant
difference between males and females in the intermediate phase: in professional instruction:
t=3.24, df=705, p<.01; in layman instruction: ns.

12.5.6 Description of accidents

In the next two tables (Tables 15 and 16) comparisons are made between the
accidents of professional and layman-instructed drivers and between the
accidents during the intermediate phase and after the second phase.
Analyses are made separately for males and females.

Most differences emerge in male professionally trained drivers' accidents

when accidents happening in the intermediate phase and after 2nd phase are
compared (Table 15).

Professionally trained male drivers had more collisions with another car,
collisions with two-wheelers and accidents involving animals after the 2nd
phase than in the intermediate phase. Their accidents happened more often
on work/school trips and during occupational driving. They had fewer
accidents with more than 500€ damage. They were less often to blame for the
accident and there were fewer drunken participants or passengers involved in
their accidents. Darkness was less likely to be a factor causing the accident.

Layman-instructed male drivers had fewer accidents with more than 500€
damage and they were less often to blame for their accidents after the 2nd
phase than in accidents during the intermediate phase.

Professionally-instructed female drivers had more collisions with another car,

while driving on errands. They were less often to blame for their accidents
and had more often accidents during bright conditions after the 2nd phase
than in the intermediate phase (Table 16).
 203

Table 15. Comparison of professional and layman instructed male drivers’ accidents
in the intermediate phase and after the 2nd phase
___________________________________________________________________________
ACCIDENTS, males in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs. layman
___________________________________________________________________________
Accident with:
another car 568 (58.3) 110 (55.3) 185 (64.0) 38 (64.4)
obstacle, nothing 364 (37.4) 80 (40.2) 75 (25.9) 17 (28.8)
animal 20 ( 2.0) 4 ( 2.0) 19 ( 6.6) 2 ( 3.4)
two-wheeler 8 ( 0.8) 1 ( 0.5) 7 ( 2.4) 2 ( 3.4)
pedestrian 14 ( 1.4) 4 ( 2.0) 3 ( 1.1) 0 -

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=5, χ²=30.85, p<.001. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Purpose of the trip:
work/school 165 (16.8) 45 (22.7) 59 (20.4) 13 (22.4)
errands 211 (21.5) 44 (22.2) 61 (21.1) 15 (25.9)
occupation 10 ( 1.0) 1 ( 0.5) 19 ( 6.6) 1 ( 1.7)
at work 30 ( 3.1) 9 ( 4.6) 18 ( 6.2) 1 ( 1.7)
leisure-time 306 (31.2) 57 (28.8) 82 (28.4) 20 (34.5)
just for fun 259 (26.4) 42 (21.2) 50 (17.3) 8 (13.8)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=5, χ²=45.94, p<.001. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Situation:
junction 322 (33.1) 72 (36.7) 107 (37.3) 24 (40.7)
parking/reversing 262 (26.9) 33 (16.8) 61 (21.3) 10 (16.9)
meeting 43 ( 4.4) 11 ( 5.6) 16 ( 5.6) 2 ( 3.4)
overtaking 21 ( 2.2) 5 ( 2.6) 6 ( 2.1) 0 -
pedest.crossing/cycle path 11 ( 1.1) 1 ( 0.5) 1 ( 0.3) 1 ( 1.7)
other 313 (32.2) 74 (37.7) 96 (33.4) 22 (37.3)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:df=5, χ²=9.98, p<.10; after the 2nd
phase: ns; Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: ns; layman: ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Injuries:
No 921 (94.8) 181 (91.4) 275 (94.8) 55 (94.8)
Yes 50 ( 5.2) 17 ( 8.6) 15 ( 5.2) 3 ( 5.2)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:df=1, χ²=3.59, p<.10; after the 2nd
phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: ns; layman: ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Amount of damage:
less than 500 ∈ 556 (58.0) 112 (56.3) 166 (58.5) 33 (61.1)
more than 500 ∈ 402 (42.0) 87 (43.7) 118 (41.5) 21 (38.9)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns; after the 2nd phase:ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=2, χ²=31.59, p<.001;layman: df=2,
χ²=10.17, p<.01
Table continues
 204

ACCIDENTS, males
in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs. layman
______________________________________________________________
Blame:
yes 585 (60.1) 111 (56.3) 134 (46.3) 27 (46.5)
partially yes 188 (19.3) 47 (23.9) 49 (17.0) 8 (13.8)
no 201 (20.6) 39 (19.8) 106 (36.7) 23 (39.7)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=2, χ²=31.59, p<.001;
layman: df=2, χ²=10.17, p<.01
___________________________________________________________________________
Number of passengers:
none 464 (47.5) 96 (48.2) 148 (50.9) 23 (39.7)
one pass. 277 (28.4) 59 (29.6) 90 (30.9) 23 (39.7)
two or more pass. 235 (24.1) 44 (22.1) 53 (18.2) 12 (20.6)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Drunken:
none 867 (89.1) 181 (91.9) 274 (94.5) 52 (89.7)
the passenger(s) 68 ( 7.0) 9 ( 4.6) 12 ( 4.1) 3 (5.2)
the driver 21 ( 2.2) 6 ( 3.0) 3 ( 1.0) 2 ( 3.4)
3rd party 17 ( 1.7) 1 ( 0.5) 1 ( 0.3) 1 ( 1.7)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=3, χ²=8.15, p<.05 ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Time of the accident:
morning (7-12 am) 180 (19.3) 46 (25.4) 67 (23.9) 15 (27.8)
afternoon (1-6 pm) 386 (41.5) 84 (46.4) 118 (42.1) 21 (38.9)
evening (7-12 pm) 274 (29.5) 38 (21.0) 76 (27.2) 14 (25.9)
night (1-6 am) 90 ( 9.7) 13 ( 7.2) 19 ( 6.8) 4 ( 7.4)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: df=3, χ²=8.48, p<.05; after the 2nd
phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Road surface:
normal 521 (53.2) 94 (47.2) 169 (58.5) 30 (50.8)
slippery 458 (46.8) 105 (52.8) 120 (41.5) 29 (49.2)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns

Table continues
 205

ACCIDENTS, males
in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs.
layman
__________________________________________________________________________
Had the slippery road any effect on accident causation:
yes 371 (38.4) 87 (43.9) 98 (33.8) 23 (39.7)
no 594 (61.6) 111 (56.1) 192 (66.2) 35 (60.3)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman: ns

___________________________________________________________________________
Lighting:
bright 537 (55.0) 114 (57.6) 177 (61.0) 38 (64.4)
dull 228 (23.4) 37 (18.7) 63 (21.7) 10 (17.0)
dark 211 (21.6) 47 (23.7) 50 (17.3) 11 (18.6)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Had the darkness any effect on accident causation:
yes 160 (16.6) 26 (13.1) 31 (10.6) 12 (20.3)
no 806 (83.4) 173 (86.9) 260 (89.4) 47 (79.7)
Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: df=1,
χ²=4.27, p<.05
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=1, χ²=6.06, p<.05 ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Where the accident took place:
built-up area 688 (70.8) 146 (73.7) 188 (65.7) 40 (67.8)
non built-up area 284 (29.2) 52 (26.3) 98 (34.3) 19 (32.2)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
 206

Table 16. Comparison of professional and layman instructed female drivers’

accidents in the intermediate phase and after the 2nd phase
___________________________________________________________________________
ACCIDENTS, females in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs. layman
___________________________________________________________________________
Accident with:
another car 563 (51.9) 77 (52.0) 159 (61.4) 24 (58.6)
obstacle, nothing 454 (41.8) 65 (43.9) 85 (32.8) 16 (39.0)
animal 39 ( 3.6) 1 ( 0.7) 8 ( 3.1) 0 -
two-wheeler 20 ( 1.8) 4 ( 2.7) 5 ( 1.9) 1 ( 2.4)
pedestrian 9 ( 0.8) 1 ( 0.7) 2 ( 0.8) 0 -

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=5, χ²=14.36, p<.05 ; layman:ns

___________________________________________________________________________
Purpose of the trip:
work/school 189 (17.3) 31 (20.9) 31 (11.9) 10 (25.0)
errands 342 (31.3) 47 (31.8) 94 (36.2) 16 (40.0)
occupation 2 ( 0.2) 0 - 4 ( 1.5) 0 -
at work 19 ( 1.7) 2 ( 1.3) 11 ( 4.2) 1 ( 2.5)
leisure-time 379 (34.7) 55 (37.2) 93 (35.8) 13 (32.5)
just for fun 162 (14.8) 13 ( 8.8) 27 (10.4) 0 -

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: df=5,
χ²=9.61, p<.10
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=5, χ²=22.88, p<.001 ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Situation:
junction 242 (22.2) 34 (23.0) 52 (19.9) 11 (27.5)
parking/reversing 460 (42.2) 75 (50.7) 110 (42.1) 17 (42.5)
meeting 32 ( 2.9) 3 ( 2.0) 8 ( 3.1) 1 ( 2.5)
overtaking 16 ( 1.5) 3 ( 2.0) 7 ( 2.7) 0 -
pedest.crossing/cycle path 14 ( 1.3) 1 ( 0.7) 3 ( 1.2) 0 -
other 325 (29.8) 32 (21.6) 81 (31.0) 11 (27.5)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Injuries:
No 1 022 (94.3) 141 (94.6) 242 (93.1) 38 (95.0)
Yes 62 ( 5.7) 8 ( 5.4) 18 ( 6.9) 2 ( 5.0)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Amount of damage:
less than 500 ∈ 738 (69.7) 104 (71.7)157 (63.8) 26 (65.0)
more than 500 ∈ 321 (30.3) 41 (28.3) 89 (36.2) 14 (35.0)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=1, χ²=3.19, p<.10 ; layman:ns
Table continues
 207

ACCIDENTS, females
in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs. layman
___________________________________________________________________________
Blame:
yes 716 (65.9) 102 (68.9) 151 (58.3) 23 (56.1)
partially yes 183 (16.9) 22 (14.9) 42 (16.2) 6 (14.6)
no 187 (17.2) 24 (16.2) 66 (25.5) 12 (29.3)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=2, χ²=9.53, p<.01 ; layman:ns

___________________________________________________________________________
Number of passengers:
none 521 (47.7) 74 (49.7) 139 (53.3) 23 (57.5)
one pass. 364 (33.3) 41 (27.5) 87 (33.3) 13 (32.5)
two or more pass. 208 (19.0) 34 (22.8) 35 (13.4) 4 (10.0)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=2, χ²=5.06, p<.10 ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Drunken:
none 1009 (92.8) 140 (95.2) 238 (91.9) 41 (100.0)
the passenger(s) 61 ( 5.6) 6 ( 4.1) 15 ( 5.8) 0 -
the driver 8 ( 0.7) 0 - 4 ( 1.5) 0 -
3rd party 9 ( 0.8) 1 ( 0.7) 2 ( 0.8) 0 -

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Time of the accident:
morning (7-12 am) 222 (21.3) 27 (18.5) 60 (24.4) 10 (25.0)
afternoon (1-6 pm) 452 (43.4) 66 (45.2) 100 (40.7) 18 (45.0)
evening (7-12 pm) 298 (28.6) 43 (29.5) 67 (27.2) 10 (25.0)
night (1-6 am) 69 ( 6.6) 10 ( 6.8) 19 ( 7.7) 2 ( 5.0)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase: ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Road surface:
normal 726 (67.2) 98 (65.8) 185 (71.2) 27 (67.5)
slippery 354 (32.8) 51 (34.2) 75 (28.8) 13 (32.5)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________
Had the slippery road any effect on accident causation:
yes 286 (26.4) 40 (27.4) 57 (22.1) 10 (25.0)
no 797 (73.6) 106 (72.6) 201 (77.9) 30 (75.0)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
Table continues
 208

ACCIDENTS, females
in the intermediate phase after second phase
f (%) professional vs. layman professional vs. layman
___________________________________________________________________________

Lighting:
bright 661 (60.5) 84 (56.8) 179 (68.8) 26 (63.4)
dull 237 (21.7) 39 (26.3) 46 (17.7) 7 (17.1)
dark 195 (17.8) 25 (16.9) 35 (13.5) 8 (19.5)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional: df=2, χ²=6.34, p<.05 ; layman:ns

___________________________________________________________________________
Had the darkness any effect on accident causation:
yes 172 (15.8) 28 (19.1) 35 (13.5) 3 ( 7.3)
no 915 (84.2) 119 (80.9) 225 (86.5) 38 (92.7)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman: df=1, χ²=3.20, p<.10
___________________________________________________________________________
Where the accident took place:
built-up area 730 (66.9) 107 (72.3) 181 (70.2) 29 (70.7)
non built-up area 361 (33.1) 41 (27.7) 77 (29.8) 12 (29.3)

Professional vs. layman: in the intermediate phase:ns.; after the 2nd phase: ns
Intermediate phase vs. 2nd phase: professional:ns. ; layman:ns
___________________________________________________________________________

12.5.7 Factors related to violations

Sex, education, attitudes, driving instruction and kilometres driven of drivers

of 18-20 years were put into a model to find the factors related to traffic
violations (logistic regression analysis). Drivers with high kilometrage had
nearly three times as often violations as drivers with low kilometrage. Males
had 2.3 times more often violations than females had. Risk-oriented drivers
had more often violations than safe-oriented drivers. Lower educated drivers
had more often violations than higher educated. Driver instruction bore no
relation to traffic violations (Table 17).
 209

Table 17. Odds ratio estimates for young drivers' (18-20 years) traffic
violations during the intermediate phase and after the second phase.
__________________________________________________________________________
Wald p< Odds ratio 95% confidence
Chi Square intervals
__________________________________________________________________________
Kilometres/month (>mean) 79.16 .001 2.806 2.235 - 3.522
Sex (male) 43.86 .001 2.270 1.781 - 2.893
Attitude (risky)* 18.49 .001 1.630 1.305 - 2.037
Education (<high school) 17.39 .001 1.615 1.289 - 2.024
Driver training 0.00 ns.
__________________________________________________________________________
*summary variable of attitudinal questions. Mean of the scale was the cut point for attitude
(risky and safe orientation)
For model the likelihood ratio Chi²=282.90, df=5, p<.001
R-Square=.0491, Max-rescaled R-Square=.1261
Hosmer&Lemeshow Test, p=.3192
Referent: at least one violation (n=378); no violations (n=5 243).

12.5.8 Factors relating to accident involvement

Sex, education, attitudes, driving instruction and kilometres driven of drivers

of 18-20 years were put into a model to find factors related to accident
involvement (logistic regression analysis). Drivers with high kilometrage had
nearly two times as often accidents as drivers with low kilometrage. Risk-
oriented drivers had more often accidents than safe-oriented drivers. A
surprising finding was that higher educated drivers had more often accidents
than lower educated. Driver instruction bore no relation to accident
involvement (Table 18).

Table 18. Odds ratio estimates for young drivers' (18-20 years) accidents
during the intermediate phase and after the second phase. Referent: at least
one accident (n=796); no accidents (n=4 825).
__________________________________________________________________________
Wald p< Odds ratio 95% confidence
Chi Square intervals
__________________________________________________________________________
Kilometres/month (>mean) 42.07 .001 1.754 1.480 - 2.079
Sex (male) 1.90 ns.
Attitude (risky)* 19.98 .001 1.439 1.227 - 1.687
Education (<high school) 11.05 .001 0.749 0.632 - 0.888
Driver training 2.54 ns.
__________________________________________________________________________
*summary variable of attitudinal questions. Mean of the scale was the cut point for attitude
(risky or safe orientation)
For model the likelihood ratio Chi²=84.43, df=5, p<.001
R-Square=.0149, Max-rescaled R-Square=.0267
Hosmer&Lemeshow Test, p=.8267
 210

12.5.9 Accidents during the follow-up

Accidents during the follow-up of one year

Young professionally and layman-trained male and female drivers (18-21

years) had a high but similar accident risk period just after licensing.
Professionally trained male drivers had driven more than layman-trained
drivers. (Figure 3).

Accidents/drivers*100
10

9
Males 18-21 years Females 18-21 years
8

6 PROFESSIONAL
LAYMAN
5

0
Months
10

12

11
2

9
.

Figure 3. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of driving career at least 12 months. Age of drivers: 18-21 years. Professional
trained males, n=2118, females n=3051; layman trained males, n=449,
females, n=428.

Note: drivers with professional and layman instruction differ according to age, age of
licence and kilometrage as follows (t-tests):

males: professional trained are younger than layman trained, (19,77 y. vs. 19,84 y.),
p<.001. Professionally trained had had their driving licence for a shorter time than
layman instructed (24,2 months vs. 25,0 months) p<.001. Professionally instructed
had higher kilometrage than layman instructed (1323 km/month vs. 1080 km/month),
p<.001
females: age, non significant between the groups (19,78 y. vs. 19,77 y.).
Professionally trained had had their driving licence for a longer time than layman
instructed (24 months vs. 23 months), p<.001
kilometrage, non significant between the groups (705 km/month vs. 667 km/month)

Accidents during the follow-up of two years

The number of accidents was studied in three month periods during the first
two years for those whose driving career was at least two years. The first
three months was the most accident-prone for young (22 year old and
younger) males and females (Figure 4). The number of accidents decreased
 211

sharply after the first three months and after that the decrease was smaller
during the rest of the follow-up period. When studied month-by-month it was
found that the riskiest period was the two first months, especially for young
males (Figure 5). For older drivers (23 years and older), the first three month
period was not as accident-prone as for younger drivers (Figure 6).

16
male
14
female
12

10

8
6

12,1-15

15,1-18

18,1-21

21,1-24
9,1-12
3,1-6

6,1-9
0-3

Figure 4. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of driving career at least 24 months. Age of drivers: 22 years and younger.
Males, n=1665, females n=2058

4,5
4 females
3,5 males
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Figure 5. Accidents per 100 drivers during the first two years of driving career.
Length of driving career > 24 months, age of drivers < 23 years.
Males, n=1665, females n=2058
 212

16
14 male
12 female
10
8
6
4
2
0

12,1-15

15,1-18

18,1-21

21,1-24
9,1-12
3,1-6

6,1-9
0-3

Figure 6. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of driving career at least 24 months. Age of drivers: 23 years and older.
Males, n=248, females n=535

Accidents during the longer follow-up time

During the three years follow-up period, younger drivers' (younger than 23
years) accidents decreased among male and female drivers by 75%
compared to their first six months of driving career. The younger drivers end
up at the same accident risk level as older (22 year and older) drivers
(Figures 7 and 8).

14
male
12
female
10

0
12,1-18

18,1-24

24,1-30

30,1-36
6,1-12
0-6

Figure 7. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of driving career at least 36 months. Age of drivers: younger than 23 years.
Males, n=768, females n=846
 213

Older (23 years and older) male and female drivers start their driving career
with a lower accident risk compared to younger drivers, and the decrease in
their accidents during the three years' period was about 30 % (Figure 8).

16

14

12

10 male
female
8

0
0-6 6,1-12 12,1-18 18,1-24 24,1-30 30,1-36

Figure 8. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of driving career at least 36 months. Age of drivers: 23 years and older.
Males, n=170, females n=373

Four years' follow-up among drivers with no selection according to drivers'

age show that female drivers had a more linear accident decreasing trend
than male drivers (Figure 9).

16
14 male
12 female

10
8
6
4
2
0
12,1-18

18,1-24

24,1-30

30,1-36

36,1-42

42,1-48
6,1-12
0-6

Figure 9. Accidents per 100 drivers according to time from licensure. Length
of the driving career at least 4 years. Males, n=112, females n=207

12.5.10 Accidents immediately before and after the second phase

An analysis of accidents immediately before and after the second phase was
done separately for younger (18-21 years) and older (22 years and older)
drivers. Further, an analysis was done separately for those drivers who had
done the second phase soon after the first phase of driver training (6-12
 214

months after the first phase) and for those who had done it later (18-24
months after the first phase).

The second phase soon after the first phase, 18-21 years old drivers

35
30 males
25 females
20
15
10
5
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 10. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 6-12 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers younger than 22 years, males n=505, females n=444.
Note: Accidents during the month "0" are divided into "before the second phase" and
"after the second phase" accidents and doubled to make them comparable with other
months.

Mean*1000
35
Before After
30
males
25
females
20
15
10
5
0 Months
1

6
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Figure 11. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 6-12 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers younger than 22 years, males n=505, females n=444
 215

The second phase soon after the first phase, 22 years old and older drivers

35
males
30
25 females
20
15
10
5
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 12. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 6-12 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers 22 years and older, males n=121, females n=134.
Note: the rate of accidents/month very low (0-3)

The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase, 18-21 years old
drivers

mean*1000
35
Before After
30
males
25 females
20
15
10
5
Months
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Figure 13. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers younger than 22 years, males n=334, females n=476.
Note: Accidents during the month "0" are divided into "before the second phase" and
"after the second phase" accidents and doubled to make them comparable with other
months.
 216

The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase, 18-21 years old and
older drivers

mean*1000
35
30 Before After males
25 females
20
15
10
5
0 Months
1

6
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Figure 14. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers under 22 years, males n=334, females n=476

The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase, 22 years old and older
drivers

mean*1000
35
Before After
30
males
25
females
20
15
10
5
Months
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Figure 15. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers 22 years and older, males n=270, females n=529.
Note: Accidents during the month "0" are divided into "before the second phase" and
"after the second phase" accidents and doubled to make them comparable with other
months.
 217

The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase, 22 years old and older
drivers

mean*1000
35
30 Before After males
25 females
20
15
10
5
Months
0
1

6
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Figure 16. Accidents per 1000 drivers six months before and after the second
phase. The second phase done 18-24 months after the first phase of driver
training. Drivers 22 years and older, males n=270, females n=529

Quality of accidents in connection to the second phase

Accidents with damage more than 500 € just before and after the second phase,
19-22 years old drivers

30
Before After
25
male
20
female
15
10
5
0
6 to 5

4 to 3

2 to 1

1 to 2

3 to 4

5 to 6
.

Figure 17. Accidents with amount of damage more than 500 € per 1000
drivers six months before and after the second phase.
Drivers 19-22 years old, males n=1436 , females n=1612
 218

Accidents in slippery road conditions just before and after the second phase,
19-22 years old drivers

30
Before After
25
male
20
female
15
10
5
0
6 to 5

4 to 3

2 to 1

1 to 2

3 to 4

5 to 6
.

Figure 18. Accidents in slippery road conditions per 1000 drivers six months
before and after the second phase. Drivers 19-22 years old, males n=1436,
females n=1612. Follow-up at least 6 months after the second phase.

Accidents in which the slippery road was an influencing factor just before and
after the second phase, 18-22 years old drivers

30
Before After
25
male
20
female
15
10
5
0
6 to 5

4 to 3

2 to 1

1 to 2

3 to 4

5 to 6
.

Figure 19. The slippery road as an influencing factor in accidents per 1000
drivers six months before and after the second phase. Drivers 19-22 years
old, males n=1436, females n=1612. Follow-up at least 6 months after the
second phase.
 219

12.5.11 Quality of driving and quality of accidents in the intermediate

phase and after the 2nd phase

Percent of driving in slippery road conditions and in the dark and proportion of
accidents in these driving conditions during the intermediate phase

% During the intermediate phase

50
45 Young males Young females Middle-aged drivers
40
35 % of driving
30 % of accidents
25
20
15
10
5
0
slippery

slippery

slippery
.

darkness

darkness

darkness
road

road

road

Figure 20. Percent of driving in slippery road conditions and in the dark and
proportion of accidents in these driving conditions during the intermediate
phase. Young drivers; 18-21 years old, middle-aged drivers; 25-59 years old.
For young males n=932, for young females n=1028, for middle-aged drivers
n=155.

Percent of driving in slippery road conditions and in the dark and proportion of
accidents in these driving conditions after the second phase

%
50
After the second phase
45 Young males Young females Middle-aged drivers
40
% of driving
35
30 % of accidents
25
20
15
10
5
0
.

ad

ad
ad

ss

ss

ss
ne

ne

ne
ro

ro

ro
rk

rk

rk
y

ry

ry
r

da

da

da
pe

pe

pe
ip

ip

ip
sl

sl

sl

Figure 21. Percent of driving in slippery road conditions and in the dark and
proportion of accidents in these driving conditions after the second phase.
Young drivers; 18-21 years old, middle-aged drivers; 25-59 years old.
For young males n=164, for young females n=135, for middle-aged drivers
n=48.
 220

Accidents in slippery road conditions and in the dark. Had the slippery road or
darkness an effect on accident causation?

100
Slippery road had an effect Darkness had an effect
90
80 during intermediate
70 after 2-phase
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Middle-aged

Middle-aged
Young male

Young male
female

female
.

Young

Young
drivers

drivers
Figure 22. Proportion of drivers who answered "Yes" to the questions "Had
the slippery road any effect on accidents causation?" (Note: Only accidents in
slippery road conditions are included) or "Had the darkness any effect on
accident causation?" (Note: Only accidents in the dark or dusk are included).
Young drivers: 18-21 years old, middle-aged drivers: 25-59 years old.

12.5.12 Accidents in the drivers’ career in relation to the second phase

In order to compare the accident rates before and after the second phase and
evaluate the learning curve without the effect of second phase training,
accidents from the beginning of the driving career were monitored. Only the
accidents that accounted for damages more than 500 € are included, since a
reduction in these types of accidents is a specific aim in the second phase
training. Figures 23-25 show means of accidents during the six months
periods at the beginning of the driving career. Figures are drawn separately
for those who completed the second phase 6-12 months after the licensing
(Figure 23), for those who completed the second phase 13-17 months after
licensing (Figure 24) and for those who completed the second phase 18-24
months after the licensing (Figure 25).

The biggest accident reduction emerged among the driver group completing
their second phase training 13-17 months after licensing (Figure 24).
 221

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0-5 m onths 6 m onths before 6 m onths after

Figure 23. Accidents per 100 drivers during the six months in the beginning of
the driving career and six months before and after the second phase. Drivers
who completed the second phase 6-12 months after licensing (n=866). Age;
19-21 years.

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 - 5 m o n th s 6 - 1 1 m o n th s 6 m o n th s 6 m o n th s a fte r
b e fo r e

Figure 24. Accidents per 100 drivers during the two periods of six months in
the beginning of the driving career and six months before and after the
second phase. Drivers who completed the second phase 13-17 months after
licensing (n=616). Age; 19-22 years.

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 -5 6 -1 1 1 2 -1 7 6 m o n th s 6 m o n th s
m o n th s m o n th s m o n th s b e fo re a fte r

Figure 25. Accidents per 100 drivers during the three periods of six months in
the beginning of the driving career and six months before and after the
second phase. Drivers who completed the second phase 18-24 months after
licensing (n=1325). Age of the drivers; 19-23 years.
 222

12.5.13 Conclusions of the Finnish survey results

Overall, the results showed a systematic difference between male and female
drivers: females drive less, have more safety positive attitudes and commit
fewer violations and accidents. The results showed no systematic differences
between lay-instructed and professionally instructed drivers. There are no
differences in attitudes or violations. The only difference was that
professionally trained females had more minor accidents during the
intermediate phase than lay-instructed females. Obviously, the end result of
lay-instruction and professional instruction is much the same in Finland.

The effects of lay- and professional training can be seen in Finland without
mixing these methods because a combination of these is not permitted. It is
known that lay instructed candidates need more attempts to pass the driving
test. This reflects a larger variation in quality in lay instruction where the onus
is on the testing system to check an acceptable skills level.

A very rapid decrease in accident involvement after licensing was observed.

There was a large variation in timing of the second phase. Some signs were
found, showing that the time period after second phase training was less risky
than the time immediately before it. This was the case for all drivers, but it
was especially clear for those drivers who took the second phase rather early.
This result is naturally confounded by the fact that overall, accident risk is
decreasing in time, but it is not altogether explained by this confounding
factor. It can be concluded that the Finnish second phase does not have any
risk-increasing effects that have been reported in Norway and Luxembourg.
On the contrary, the trends seem to be positive but not radical. The length of
the intermediate phase should be carefully considered. According to the
results, a period of two years seems to be too long.
 223

13 Evaluation of results

13.1 Introduction

In this overview of the BASIC project material, the following aspects are
presented and discussed:

- Accidents trends at the beginning of drivers' careers and the degree

of structure of training.
- General findings concerning driver training models, their essential
pedagogical elements and their possible effects
- Accidents while practising,
- The amount of practising,
- Graduated access to driving and graduated licensing systems,
- Recommendations made in relevant earlier projects: GADGET; DAN;
ADVANCED.

These aspects are considered to be in the focus of the BASIC-project. This

chapter concentrates on the effectiveness of training models and
recommendations.

The conclusions and recommendations of the BASIC project are based on

empirical research and theoretical deductions and have evolved from a series
of important projects concerning driver education: GADGET (1999), DAN
(2000), ANDREA (2002) and ADVANCED (2002). In the BASIC-project, no
empirical results have been found which contradict the earlier results and the
recommendations made in these projects. The main conclusions remain true.
However, many areas of driver education and the phenomena of learning to
drive have become clearer and this helps us to provide recommendations.

The main results of the BASIC-analysis are summarised in the form of

recommendations. These recommendations are presented in general terms.
Further background information and detail is provided in earlier chapters.

13.2 Accident trends at the beginning of drivers’ careers

Prior to the recommendations section, here some aspects are described and
conclusions are made. A look at accident cumulation during the beginning of
a driver's career shows a high accident risk and a swift reduction of accidents
during the first months after starting independent driving. This pattern can be
observed in Norwegian results (Sagberg, 2000, 1997), the Finnish BASIC
survey results (Laapotti et al., 2003, this publication), German results
(Schade, 2001) and also in results from the US (Mayhew, Simpson, Williams
and Desmond, 2002). The Finnish survey results indicate that the most
dramatic drop occurs in the 3 first months of driving, results from the US
during the initial 7 months and, in the Norwegian results, during the first 5-7
 224

months. In German results this reduction in accidents (compared to exposure)

levels out after two years. For males and for younger new drivers this
reduction of accidents is bigger than for females and for drivers who are older
(Laapotti et al., 2003). Mayhew, Simpson and Pak (2003) even report an
effect of age almost ten times higher than the effect of experience in novice
drivers´ accidents.

The fastest accident reduction is associated with night-time accidents, single

vehicle accidents, off-road accidents and accidents with passengers (police
reported, register based study includes serious accidents (Mayhew et al.,
2003). Sagberg (1997) reported a 70-80% decline in run-off road accidents
during the first year of driving and only a 25-30% decline in other types of
accidents (survey study, includes minor accidents).

It is thus clear that young and especially male beginner drivers do not start
with the level of safety that is rather rapidly, in just a few months, reached
when they drive independently.

In Finnish results (Laapotti et al., this report) young (22 years and younger)
and male drivers were more often involved in accidents (self reported,
including minor ones) than older (23 years and older) and female drivers.
However, when accidents per kilometres driven were calculated, the
difference between males and females disappeared. Also, professionally
instructed and layman instructed drivers did not differ according to their
accidents per kilometres rate.

One question can be raised: Why do males begin their independent driving
career on a so much higher risk level than females, whereas among learner
drivers there is no difference between men and women? The reason for this is
not clear, but it may lie in the limitations for practising males to make their
own decisions about where, when and how they should drive since they are
accompanied by their supervisors. What is, of course, self-evident is, for
example, that with a supervisor young male drivers are not as often drunk as
when they drive independently without supervision.

In Austria, the L17 scheme mainly impacts on male drivers: males with L17
have less accidents after licensing than males who have taken standard
education. Among L17 drivers, male accident rates do not even significantly
differ from female rates. There is only a trend for less "accident drivers"
among females. Among traditionally educated drivers, females in Austria
show highly significant lower accident involvement than males. Winkelbauer
(in this report) explains that the L17 lay instruction model seems to make
young male drivers "more like female drivers". This is also a good explanation
why L17 does not significantly reduce female accident risk. Obviously, female
traffic risk is so low that L17 is incapable of achieving further reductions.
However, it is difficult to say that the reason behind similar accident
involvement of males and females is caused by L17 training itself, because
self-selection may also have contributed.
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In Austria L17 drivers also showed better legal behaviour. They committed
less drink driving offences, less speeding offences and were less often
officially ordered to attend driver improvement courses. Their licences were
less frequently withdrawn.

These results could be interpreted in the context of the goals of driver

training. Run-off accidents and night-time accidents are accidents in which
typically motivational problems (speeding, showing off, driving just for fun) are
present. This fact is problematic for the contents of training. Simply increasing
technical driving skill is not enough; motivational aspects should also be dealt
with in training.

13.2.1 Conclusions

The pattern of swift accident reduction, especially amongst young and male
drivers, supports the idea that extra training or at least extra support is
needed in the very first months of independent driving.

Another conclusion is that not only technical driving skills but also
motivational aspects should be included clearly in basic education.

13.3 Review of the new models in basic driver training

The first research goal of the BASIC project was to review the models in use
and under development. In the following section, a review is made according
to the classification of the systems presented in chapter 2.

Integrated and combined models (lay/professional) are common at present. A

combination of layman and professional instruction is the most typical way of
conducting the training, even in those countries where the training can be
acquired by lay-instruction alone. The integrated/combined models
developing fastest at the time are: Austria has introduced L17 system,
Germany their new accompanied driving model from the age of 17, and there
are new plans in the Netherlands and Sweden. France has already had their
accompanied driving model for some time.

In those countries where professional training has been the only possibility,
the idea is now to lengthen the training period and increase experience with
lay-instruction, but not necessarily decreasing the amount of professional
training (Austria, Germany, France). Thus, professional training remains an
essential element that provides the basic skills for independent practising.
The latest trend in integrated/combined models is to start with driving school
instruction and examination.

The integrated and combined models give more structure to lay-instruction

and/or accompanied driving and at the same time give more experience when
compared to rather limited driving school instruction.
 226

Long learning periods are becoming more common. Systems with a low
starting age aim at long training periods. The Swedish and Norwegian
concept of simply letting the candidates start early is one possibility, but the
French, Austrian and German systems start with professional training in a
structured way.

A layman-instruction only system is actually rare in practice. The most typical

candidate has combined professional and lay-instruction voluntarily, but the
recent trend is to make the combination compulsory.

Totally liberal models are actually rare; the UK is the only real example of
such a system. Even in the Netherlands, where methods of training and
training goals are not controlled, lay-instruction has not been allowed. When
professional training has not been structured by a curriculum, the trend is to
provide more structure: RIS in the Netherlands and Pass Plus in the UK.
Plans in Sweden also reflect this trend.

Models based only on professional training are becoming rare, and lay
instruction is used to increase experience. However, it has to be kept in mind,
that not everyone has the possibility of lay-instruction and a system that is
based only on professional training has to be available.

Multiphase systems are becoming more popular. Since the GADGET and
DAN projects, Austria has introduced a multiphase driver education system.
Switzerland is planning to start in 2005. Germany, Belgium, France, the
Netherlands and Spain are undergoing trials (NovEV project). The goal in
multiphase systems is to include the motivational aspects of driving and, in
some cases, also more demanding technical skills.

The distinction between one-phase and multiphase systems is becoming

obscure. There may be no clear-cut courses, but a set of contacts during the
period of accompanied driving or after licensing when practising
independently. Multiphase systems develop towards psychological treatment
combining layman instruction and professional instruction.

There seems to be no future for short training periods only. However, the use
of compact professional training is to prepare candidates for accompanied
driving and/or to pass the test.

Better integration of theoretical and practical training is another trend. The

Dutch RIS model, as well as the Danish revised professional driver training,
aim at achieving this goal. A similar process was carried out in Finland, also
in connection with the implementation of the two-phase system.

Demerit point systems are often combined in licensing systems. Special

treatment of novice drivers in this respect can be considered a part of an
extended learning period. A special demerit point system for novices has
achieved positive results.
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The driving test remains in a key position. At the moment there is a lot of
development in driver training, and testing should be able to follow the trends
and to guide its development. In particular, the introduction of motivational
aspects in training places extra demands on testing.

13.4 Evaluation of support for learning, costs and benefits and cultural
demands

The second research goal was to analyse and evaluate the new models, their
aims, contents and methods concerning
- Support for learning and pedagogical and didactic solutions.
- Costs and benefits, who pays and who benefits
- Cultural and structural demands of application of new methods

13.4.1 Support for learning and pedagogical and didactic solutions

In the following analysis, different models are analysed in relation to the

pedagogical elements described above:
-Quantity of training/practising
-Duration of training
-Goals and contents of training
-Definition and targeting of the goals
-Degree of structure and control of training
-Amount and quality of feedback
-Training environment
-Climate of training or teaching
-Training methods
-Relationship between practical and theoretical instruction

The analysis is based on the view that the authors have got in the evaluation
studies available and the material gathered in the BASIC-project. It should be
noted that the strengths and weaknesses are associated with a certain model
or training method disregarding the context in which they are used. Thus, for
example, the limitations of lay-instruction are problematic also when lay
instruction is used in combination with other training methods.

Professional training

The strengths of professional training are associated with goals and contents of
training, definition and targeting of the goals, degree of structure and control
of training and the amount and quality of feedback. Training methods are also
well mastered in professional training.

Whether the training evironment supports learning is not self-evident. This is very
much dependent on the contents of the practical test.

Clear weaknesses in professional training are the quantity and duration of training.
The duration of training can be improved by distributing the resources over a
longer period according to the principles of phased learning.
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The climate of training/teaching may, or may not, encourage attitudinal change. This
is naturally dependent on the goals of training and the methods that are used.
The relationship between theoretical and practical training is, again,
potentially enhanced, but this is not self-evident. Again, the curriculum and it's
methodical guidelines play a key role.

Lay-instruction

Lay instruction is clearly strong where professional instruction is weak, and

vice versa. The strengths of lay instruction are associated with the quantity
and duration of training/practising. Also, there is a possibility to gain
experience in a representative collection of different environments and driving
tasks, and also to get feedback. Furthermore, the climate may encourage the
learner to develop safety positive attitudes. However, these positive
characteristics are not necessarily attained. The strengths are not as clear as
in professional training. There is considerable variation.

The clearest weaknesses in lay-instruction are in the definition of the goals

and the contents of training. These may vary a lot. Also, the structure of
training remains obscure due to insufficient definition of goals.

Short training

When short professional courses are evaluated, the strengths are generally
the same as in professional training. In compact training, goals have to be
clear and well defined and feedback concerning meeting the goals must be
efficient. The training methods and the relation between theoretical and
practical training are also supposed to be well balanced. There are more
doubts in the variability of training environments.

The weakness in short/compact training is the quantity and duration of

training. It is difficult to reach an automatic level of performance, even in basic
skills. Another clear problem of short training or education period is that it
does not encourage attitudinal change and may lead to overestimation of the
learner drivers' skill if the wrong methods are used.

Extended training

The clear strengths of extended training period are associated with the quantity of
training and practising and duration of training. However, the rest of the
factors providing support for good learning results remain obscure. Several
questions should be raised as to the goals and their clarity, methods,
structure of training as well as on the climate that encourages safety positive
attitudinal change. The problem is that simply giving the possibility of
extended training does not dictate what has to be trained and how it should
be done. A large variation is caused by the fact that most of the training is
done in a lay-context.

Combined models

Combined or integrated models go a step further. In general, all the question marks
associated with extended learning periods only can be removed. There are
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better possibilities for implementing relevant goals and contents in a well

defined way because of professional input. Also, feedback and pedagogical
methods are presumably better. However, whether the training encourages
attitudinal change is dependent on the goals defined in the curriculum. Of
course, defining the goals in the curriculum is not enough. Attitudinal change
is also dependent on the lay-instructors' personal values and attitudes as well
as on the training methods. The training environment is, also in this model,
dependent on testing, but not as much as in training that is based only on
professional instruction. This is especially true if there is a minimum mileage
defined in accompanied driving.

Multiphase training

The strengths associated with multiphased training are especially in the duration of
training and in the possibilities to encourage safety-positive attitudinal
change. Multiphased training can also pursue more demanding tasks than
single phase training. A clear problem is associated in the use of the
intermediate phase (if it consists of independent driving) if the quantity is not
controlled or defined. Another problem is how to make optimal use of the
independent training period.

Liberal models

As concluded above, theoretically the British system is liberal and the

Swedish and Dutch systems do not define minimum demands for training.
However, in real life, learners combine professional training with lay
instruction or they are forced to use professional services. Anyway, being
liberal at the same time results in considerable variation and nothing definite
can be stated about the elements that support learning. They may or may not
be sufficient. Everything is based on testing.

13.4.2 Costs and benefits, who pays and who benefits

Naturally a real cost-benefit analysis in driver education context is a really

complicated task. Swedish researchers have, however, done such an
evaluation. Their conclusion was that an extended learning period gave more
benefits (reduced accident involvement after licensing) than costs (accident
involvement during training). Their analysis concentrated on accident
involvement. The Swedish good cost-benefit ratio is naturally a result of the
positive effect of their lowered starting age for practising. If a similar
evaluation had been done in Norway, the results would have been quite
different.

One of the problems in extending practical training in traffic is its accident risk.
An extension is also possible by using lay-instruction or accompanied driving.
Lay instruction is at the same time riskier than professional training. Special
approaches should be developed for lowering the risk of lay-instruction.

Extended or combined models may not be suitable for all because they
include lay-instruction or accompanied driving. The family relations, access to
a car or other economical aspects may interfere. Evaluation studies show
 230

clearly that combined or extended models are chosen only by a minority, or at

best by half of the population. Families that select extended and combined
models are generally of a good educational level and socio-economical
status. Thus, the implementation of extended or combined models create
selectivity. The problem is how to offer parallel training models that are, if not
the best possible, a good option nevertheless.

A question that has been raised in connection with extended learning periods
and a lower starting age is the possible effect on selection of transport
method. Evaluations show that use of car is more intense in those groups that
take the combined/extended model (France, Austria and Sweden) when
compared to traditional training. Naturally, it is difficult to say whether this is
an effect of training itself or the different life situations or motives in the
groups. However, the question is relevant, how to avoid an increase in car-
use when practising and access to driving are available at a lower age. There
is a safety positive trend at least in Nordic countries, where licensing already
at the age of 18 has become less popular. In the rest of Western Europe
there is variation in licensing.

A totally different aspect is the use of two wheelers. The safety gains
somewhere (accidents as a car driver) may be losses elsewhere (accidents
as moped drivers or as users of other two wheelers). One central argument
for Austrian L17 was for replacing the use of mopeds with access to car-
driving which is safer. The same discussion has been going in the
Netherlands. Thus, access to car-driving is not only a matter in itself, but it
should be seen in a broader perspective in relation to other modes of mobility.

13.4.3 Cultural and structural demands of application of new methods

Basic driver education models in each country are a result of a long culture-
bound process. The BASIC-project made it clear to the authors that at the
moment a trend can be found. In many countries new elements are being
introduced in addition to existing elements, or already existing elements are
being combined in a new way. Also, it is typical to make existing systems
more systematic and structured. It is very rare to abandon an existing system
(Norway abandoned its two phase system and radically reduced the number
of obligatory professional lessons). This means that there are parallel
systems available in many countries.

The general cultural and structural demands of basic driver education do not
differ from the demands in implementation and development of, for example,
driver rehabilitation courses. This topic is discussed in the EU "ANDREA"
report.

Firstly, there should be knowledge concerning the traffic problems and

problems associated with novice drivers in a specific country. The second
aspect is the credibility of the overall safety system. Thirdly, basic driver
education should be seen in relation to other legal systems targeting the
driver’s license. A fourth demand is the infrastructure for arranging the
 231

education. And the last aspect is the system for evaluating and the
surveillance of the training that is available.

In basic driver education, the infrastructure for training, and especially the
instructors, plays a key role. The recent trend in implementing multiphase and
combined models put extra demands on the professional skills of instructors.
They have to be prepared to work with more experienced drivers, to co-
operate with lay-instructors and accompanying persons and to structure and
guide independent practising or lay instruction. Traffic instructors should be
able to support the drivers in learning to learn and in self-evaluative skills.
Also, the inclusion of motivational aspects as well as trying to influence an
economical use of the car places special demands on training methods and
thus on the skills of instructors. These aspects should be incorporated into the
education of traffic instructors.

As it has been stated above, driver testing is still the main control system in
basic driver training. It seems that its purpose may be different in different
systems. The role may be in controlling the very basic skills before starting to
drive accompanied, or in controlling the final result. At the moment the EU-
directive on driver testing sets the guidelines. However, the goals of testing
should be set according to the training system. This may become a theme
that should be discussed. Nevertheless, the demands on driver testing are
great. One aspect that still is problematic is how to include driving style and
motivational factors in driver testing. Also, according to the analysis presented
above, the environmental coverage of the test is essential.

13.5 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the models

The third research goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of models, their
possible safety and other effects as well as restrictions of possible use, e.g.
effects of self selection. In the following the models are described in relation
to the criteria for effectiveness described in the beginning of the report. In a
way, the effectiveness of a model is dependent on the criterion against which
it is evaluated.

13.5.1 Satisfaction of the learners

Learner satisfaction is not an aspect which provides much guidance for

development. Learners are generally satisfied with that what they get. There
are results in the Austrian L17, the Finnish first and second phase, Finnish
lay-instruction and also Swedish extra courses. Satisfaction with the French
AAC seemed to be somewhat problematic when the overall functioning of the
system is considered. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that people are
satisfied with the system they have selected or are forced to select. However,
results on satisfaction show also that it is possible to get high learner
satisfaction in compulsory elements of training. In all, learner satisfaction is an
aspect that should be monitored in order to detect problems with the system.
 232

13.5.2 Passing rates

Passing rates tend to be higher in professional training and in more structured

training models and extended models. This conclusion is supported by the
results showing very low passing rates in countries where the control of
demands for training are not strict (UK, NL, S, B). In UK it is possible to get a
learner's permit and to take the theory test on one’s 17th birthday. If the test is
passed one can book for the driving test. There are no requirements on the
minimum time of the learner period, for example. This may partly explain the
very low pass rate in the practical test in the UK.

When compared to professional training, less structured lay instruction results

in lower pass rates than professional instruction in Finland. The Dutch RIS-
model, which is a more structured version of professional instruction, resulted
in higher pass rates than traditional Dutch training. Furthermore, extended
and combined models of Austria and France have increased the pass-rate
when compared to traditional training.

In all, passing rates are a problematic criterion for a well-functioning system.

The conclusion presented above is based on the assumption that testing is
valid, i.e. it is measuring the skills and knowledge that are required to manage
safely while driving alone.

13.5.3 Attitudes

Some conclusions about the material can be made also concerning the
attitudes of novice drivers in different training models. However, it is very
difficult to say anything about the effects of the system, because of self-
selection. The Swedish 16-year group does not differ in any of the measured
attitudinal questions. Also in Austria, L17 drivers did not seem to differ from
those that take only driving school lessons. In France, AAC drivers have more
safety-positive attitudes reflected in their higher usage of safety belts. In
Finland no differences in attitudes were found between lay instructed and
professionally instructed drivers, in the BASIC survey.

13.5.4 Violations

Finnish lay instructed drivers have fewer violations than professionally trained
drivers. In Sweden, those choosing extended training period did not differ
from those who started practising at 17,5. In Austria, L17 drivers had less
violations than those who took only driving school lessons. In France, the
situation was vice versa. AAC drivers had more speeding violations when
compared to traditional training. It should be pointed out that in Austria,
Finland and France these populations in extended or lay-instruction are very
small (10-25% of all novices), whereas in Sweden almost 50% took the
extended training system at the time of the evaluation research.
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13.5.5 Amount of driving

The amount of driving is higher for those drivers who have taken the Austrian
L17 system when compared to drivers trained in driving schools. French AAC
drivers also drove more than those in the traditional system. Further, the
Swedish 16-year group drove more after licensing than the others. In Finland,
professionally trained drivers drove more than lay-instructed ones. The quality
of driving also differed in Finland. Professionally trained drivers drove more
just for fun.

13.5.6 Accident involvement

Accidents during training

In Sweden, UK, Finland and Norway, lay-instruction was more accident prone
than professional training. Survey results show that accidents are rather rare
and they are typically minor bumps and scratches. It was only possible to get
nationwide data in Sweden concerning accident involvement during
practising, showing the whole situation. Results show that serious accidents
happen almost only in lay-instruction. The risk of accidents increases as the
amount of practising increases (Norway). However, training at the age of 16
does not seem to be especially dangerous in Sweden and Norway.

Accident involvement in two phase systems where licensing precedes

second phase

The Norwegian second phase produced problematic results. Accident

involvement for young male drivers in slippery road conditions increased. On
the other hand, accidents in the dark decreased. In Luxembourg (DAN-report)
there was some evidence of increased accident involvement after the second
phase. The BASIC-survey in Finland showed that there was no peak after the
second phase, but rather a clear decrease in accident involvement. Serious
accidents, nighttime accidents and accidents in slippery road-conditions
decreased after the second phase. The Finnish long-term results after
implementation of second phase show a decrease in all accidents after the
renewal.

Accidents after licensing

The Austrian L17 drivers had lower accident involvement than in traditional
training. Swedish drivers in extended training had lower accident involvement
too. Qualitatively, those starting at 16 had a higher percentage of single
vehicle accidents, accidents in complex traffic situations and a lower
percentage of collisions compared to traditionally trained drivers' accidents. In
France, there was some evidence for a lower number of minor accidents for
AAC drivers but no difference in more serious accidents was found when
compared to drivers with traditional training. Also, the Norwegian extended
training system failed to produce a lowered accident involvement when
compared to those starting to practise later. There was no difference in
 234

accident involvement of lay-instructed and professionally instructed drivers in

Finland.

13.6 Accidents while practising

In the BASIC project new material was collected from Finland and the UK to
study the number of accidents while practising. This topic is essential when
the possibility of increasing especially layman instruction/accompanied driving
is being considered. Some results were also available from Sweden, USA
and Norway.

In the survey studies, professional instruction appeared to be rather safe.

There are no major differences in accident rates between layman and
professional instruction, but the amount of lay instruction is typically bigger
and thus, per learner driver the risk is bigger than in professional training.
However, the Swedish results of accident registers on fatal and serious
accidents are worrying. There are, on average, 3 killed in training-related
accidents per year in Sweden, all of which are in layman instruction. In
Sweden, the most typical pattern of a fatal accident in layman instruction is
losing the control of the vehicle in difficult road conditions.

Finland, the UK and Sweden have roughly the same levels of accidents while
learning to drive. About 2-5 percent of drivers are involved in an accident
during practising. These results are based on surveys and include all
accidents such as minor bumps and scratches. In Norway, about 4 percent of
the drivers are involved in accidents during lay-instruction. However, in
Norway, professional instruction is considerably safer with less than 1% of
drivers involved in accidents. These figures refer to involvement in accidents
without controlling for exposure. The Norwegian difference between
professional and lay instruction is probably explained by higher exposure in
layman instruction than in professional instruction, but of course the
difference in total number of accidents still remains.

The risk of accident involvement per driver in layman instruction in the US

(Mayhew, Simpson and Pak, 2003) is at the same level as in the UK, Finland,
Sweden and Norway. It is not possible to rely totally on this comparison
because of problems in defining the accidents.

From the Swedish and Norwegian results it can also be concluded that
starting layman or professional instruction earlier than 17 or at 17½ does not
increase the risk of accidents during training (survey data including minor
accidents) especially in relation to exposure.

During training there are no clear differences between male and female
learner drivers (UK, Austria, Finland, Sweden) regarding accident
involvement. This suggests that driving school or layman instructors in the car
have such an effect which eliminates the normal differences found after
licensing between male and female driving behaviour.
 235

According to the results gathered here there is no obvious reason against

increasing the amount of layman instruction. However, it is clear that in
layman instruction the risk of being involved in an accident increases because
of an increase in mileage. Moreover, according to Swedish statistics, the risk
of serious accidents is higher in lay instruction than in professional training.
Sixty-four of the 444 accidents among learner drivers during 1994–2000
occurred in driving school cars and 380 in private cars. This means that 85%
of all accidents during practice are related to lay instructed practice. All of the
fatal accidents and over 90% of the severe injury accidents occurred during
lay instruction. However, the serious accidents correspond to driving in
difficult conditions. Those accidents could be reduced by improving the
knowledge of lay-instructors on risks associated with training and by better
planning of training.

13.6.1 Conclusions

Layman instruction, or perhaps it would be better to say accompanied driving,

seems to be a rather safe way of increasing experience, and is clearly safer
than driving independently.

Layman instruction or accompanied driving may be also an effective way to

make driving generally more familiar for novice drivers. Driving may not have
that much emotional appeal when it is no longer a novelty. With supervision it
is possible to prevent violations at the beginning of a driving career and at the
same time to prevent accidents. The effects would then be similar to those in
graduated licensing systems. The youngest novice drivers seem to have the
greatest need of this kind of supervised driving.

13.7 The effects of amount of practising on accidents after licensing

For the Basic project it is important to take a look at the amount of practising
and its effects on accidents after licensing. In Finland, the layman instructed
drivers cover roughly double the mileage when practising compared to
professionally instructed novice drivers. However, there is no clear difference
between these groups in accident involvement (survey, including minor
accidents) after licensing (Laapotti et al., in this report). When it comes to
pass rates in the driving test, layman instructed candidates obtain lower pass
rates both for the theoretical and practical test. It should be noted that in
Finland it is not possible to combine professional and layman instruction.

In Norway it was found that low accident risk (survey, including minor
accidents) was associated with a low and high amount of layman training.
This was expected to be caused by illusory mastery of driving skill. Drivers
with medium amount of training have acquired reliance on their skills, but the
skills are not nevertheless real. Drivers with low amount of practising have
remained suspicious about their skills and drivers with high amount of
practising have actually developed good skills. Generally the increase of
practising was moderate in Norway (compared to the time when driver
training could start when learner driver was 17 years old) and there was no
effect of lowering the starting age on accident involvement after licensing.
 236

The French results on accompanied driving (layman instruction combined

with driving school instruction) with the requirement of 3000 km of training do
not show any clear effects on accident involvement when compared to
traditional training in driving schools. According to the qualitative study by
Chatenet (1999), there are, however, serious problems with the
implementation of the system.

The Swedish results showed a considerable increase in the amount of

practising when the starting age of driver training was lowered to 16 years.
Accident involvement was also lower in the 16-year-old group than for those
who started training later. Swedish accident data is based on police reports.

The Austrian results on L17 system show that males who have got their
training with the L17 system have less accidents (especially within the second
and third year of the driving career) than males trained in driving schools. The
circumstances of accidents reported by L17 drivers do not significantly differ
from SE drivers' accident circumstances. There was no difference between
L17 and driving school trained females. So far only 15% of Austrian
youngsters use the L17 system.

Until now, evidence concerning the increase in quantity of training and its
effect on accident involvement after licensing is ambiguous. There are no
convincing results in favour of simply increasing training without specification
and structuring it, except in Sweden and in Austria (males only). It should be
noted that in evaluation studies self-selection of the groups forms a source of
possible bias in the result. It is difficult to take into account all the differences
in different groups such as training environment and driving exposure after
licensing.

13.7.1 Conclusions

It can be concluded that a positive effect may result from an increase in the
length and amount of training. Another conclusion is that this effect is not an
automatism. First of all, the content of training seems to be an essential pre-
condition. In layman systems this is currently not controlled. Another
important factor is that only a limited number of candidates choose extended
training. This amount varies from 15% in Austria, 15-20% in Finland, 25% in
France and 50% in Sweden. If only a low number of learners select a certain
system, it naturally decreases system's potential for large effects in the driver
population. The Norwegian example also shows that simply giving the
possibility to start practising early does not necessarily increase the amount
of practising to an optimal level.

It has also to be remembered that even increasing the amount of training

usually means that training takes place in layman training, and that a majority
of layman instructors’ students also take professional training (and in many
cases big amounts of it). In the countries studied. professional training still
plays an important role in driver training.
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13.8 Graduated access to driving

One possibility to lengthen training is to make the period after licensing also a
part of the training process. There are three basic ways to do this.

1. Graduated licensing systems (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand)

2. Stricter punishments and definitions for traffic violations for novice drivers.
(Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria)
3. Two- or multiphase training systems. (Austria, Finland, Luxembourg)

13.8.1 Graduated licensing system (GLS)

GLS is used in countries where the licensing age is very low and where
driving school system is not well organised or controlled. GLS systems
typically consist of basic training (theory and practical training) followed by
accompanied driving. After that the novice driver can drive alone, but with
restrictions (e.g. a nighttime curfew). GLS can be considered both a restrictive
and an educational solution. It is a restricting method when night-time driving,
use of alcohol and driving with passengers are restricted and it is an
educational method when it is used for gathering experience in safe
conditions (e.g. supervised driving).

Graduated licensing systems have been widely used in USA, Canada,

Australia and New Zealand. Latest results from USA show that GLS is a
safety increasing method, but only for ages under 18 when there is no
restrictive methods or proper training i.e. the starting point is poor for these
very young novice drivers (Mayhew et al., 2002). There is no clear effect for
novice drivers over 18. The implementation of restrictive GLS systems in
Europe is problematic because licensing age is typically 18. However, a lower
threshold for consequences after committing violations have been applied
with success in Europe (Germany, Finland).

13.8.2 Conclusions

Starting to use only GLS in a way that it is used in the USA is not
recommended in European countries, where the age of licensing is normally
18. However, it seems that accompanied driving is suggested to be used as a
part of the integrated education system. Accompanied driving is especially
recommended for the youngest learner drivers. Also, stricter consequences
for violations are recommended.

13.8.3 Demerit point systems

Results from Germany have shown an accident reduction for young drivers
after the implementation of a demerit point system. In Finland, the violation
rates of young drivers were reduced after implementation of a follow-up
system including warning letters, lower criteria for cancelling the license and
face to face contact with police.
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One clear result in the available material is that driver training should not be
used as a trade-off for a shortened restriction period or learning period. It
seems to cut safety benefits (Mayhew et al., 2002; Boase and Tasca, 1998).
Results in Luxembourg also provide some evidence for the problems which
derive from cutting restrictions (speed limit) after training (Peräaho et al.,
2000 in DAN report).

The negative results of the combination of a shortened restricted period and

professional training is often suggested to be evidence for the ineffectiveness
of formal driving. However, that result does not imply that formal training is
ineffective. Rather, this ineffectiveness can be accounted for as an effect of
selectivity where the motivation lies in taking formal training to obtain a
reduction in restrictions, rather than taking formal training in order to learn.

13.8.4 Conclusions

As concluded earlier in DAN-report, it seems, that demerit point systems are

effective in preventing first violations and then also accidents.

13.9 Multi-phase training systems

Two-phase driver training systems have been evaluated in Norway, Finland

and Luxembourg. The Luxembourg study was part of the DAN project and it
did not give any answers as to the effect of a two-phase system in itself in
before/after setting, but rather concentrated on accident distribution around
the second phase. The Luxemburgish results showed a slight cumulation of
accidents after second phase of training. This could be explained either by
the removal of the speed limit after training, in addition to other driving
restrictions, or by the technical orientation of training. Later, the system and
training ideology in Luxembourg has been somewhat adapted, but so far
there are no new evaluation results available.

The Norwegian results regarding its two-phase driver education were

disappointing and Norway abandoned the system. The implementation of skid
training as a compulsory second phase increased skidding accidents and also
all accidents in the young male driver group. The negative results were
hypothesised to be caused by a false sense of overconfidence on personal
driving skills caused by the training. The contents of the courses were
technically oriented. A fact that received less attention is that accidents in the
dark decreased in Norway. This positive result was evaluated to be a result of
the different content of dark driving course when compared to the skid course.
The dark driving course simply showed the risks of dark driving and also
clearly demonstrated the effects of speed and limitations in a driver's ability to
compensate for it by increased skills.

The first evaluation of Finnish two-phase system was done soon (two years)
after implementing it in 1990. The results were somewhat disappointing. The
number of accidents (survey, including minor accidents) did not decrease.
However, many positive changes were established in driver training in
general. The Finnish renewal did not only add a compulsory skid-course but
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the whole curriculum was renewed and the second phase included also
evaluation and feedback on driving skill in normal traffic. The contents of the
skid-course were insight oriented and large parts of it were based on
demonstrations of the effects of speed. Furthermore, there is no extra
advantage (e.g. getting rid of restrictions) associated with the second phase.
The only disadvantage of not going to the second phase in time is that the
driver has to go to a new examination and then he or she can obtain a further
two years to go to the second phase to get a permanent license. During this
two-year period the driver is again treated as a new driver: he or she has a
lower threshold for having the license cancelled.

The implementation of the system lasted years and the development work
continued until the mid-nineties in Finland. The long term evaluation (DAN)
showed a shortening of the risky period of novice drivers in a such way that
novice drivers reached the safety level of the general driver population
already during their third year of driving. For the BASIC-project a new
analysis was done for more up to date results. The analysis showed that the
pattern of accident trends was similar for both all accidents registered in
insurance companies and in fatal accidents. However, at the moment there is
a problematic trend. The accident rates of 19 years old drivers (latest the
second driving year) have been starting to rise in the end of nineties in
Finland.

In order to assess the question of the timing of the second phase, a large
survey was conducted in Finland for the BASIC project. From the material it
can be seen that the accident rates of novice drivers decrease fast after
licensing. The peak is over after 3-4 months after licensing. At the same time
novice drivers postpone the second phase from the minimum of six months
after licensing to typically around 15-18 months after licensing. In the DAN
evaluation of the Luxembourg second phase, a similar result of postponing
the second phase was found.

The main result of the evaluation of Finnish two-phase system was, when
controlling the length of the driving period and the mileage before and after
the second phase, that the amount of accidents per driver was lower after the
second phase than before. The accident reduction in the youngest group (18-
20 years) was clear for serious (over 500 Euro) accidents (20%-67%) and for
the accidents where slippery roads had an effect on the accident (38%-48%)
depending on timing of the second phase.

Of course it should be expected that accident risk decreases as experience

increases Thus in the beginning of a driver’s career the accident risk is high
and it falls as a result of learning. The speed of the trend then decreases. In
the Finnish results we could, however, find a clear reduction of accidents after
second phase also at a later point in the driver’s career. This was not to be
expected if the reduction were based only on normal learning.

Earlier results (Norway, Luxembourg) showed negative safety effects, but in

the long term evaluation of Finnish novice drivers, as well as in the new
evaluation, it is possible to see different results: the risk of a serious accident
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or an accident affected by slippery road conditions was lower after the second
phase of training than before. Because the design of the study was not
experimental but before-after, we cannot, however, conclude that the
reduction was the effect of the second phase.
The second phases in Norway as well as in Luxembourg (at least partly at the
time of the earlier studies) were more oriented towards technical driving skills
and the emphasis was on mastery of driving in difficult road conditions. In
Finland, at least in terms of the goals set, but not always on a practical level,
in both the second phase and the basic phase training is based more on the
ideas of insight and avoidance of risks than on technical skills. This difference
may be one of the explanations for the difference found in the evaluation
results.
The smallest reductions in accidents happened when drivers came late to the
second phase and the biggest reductions when the drivers came quite early
(13-17 months) after licensing to the second phase. When the fast reduction
of accidents in the beginning of driver's career is then considered, it seems
possible that the timing of second phase in Finland is now too late and it
should be located closer to the immediate post-licensing period.

13.9.1 Conclusions

Modern multiphase training systems (two- or more phases) can be used to

improve novice drivers’ safety, but only adding the second phase to the
former basic phase does not seem to be effective. It is important that the
whole driver education forms a solid system and that it not only consists of
unrelated, independent parts.

Modern multiphase systems (Austria, Sweden: a proposal) do not necessarily

contain one or more “courses” after practising in traffic. They should rather be
a structured continuum consisting of feedback sessions with professionals
and there should also be the right group of novice drivers to get the expected
safety benefits. This conclusion is based on the notion of the importance of
peer groups in attitude change.

13.10 Degree of structure of training

One essential question in developing driver training is how to get training

contents under control and to ensure that training follows designed
guidelines.

It seems that especially layman instruction is free of guidelines and there is

not much knowledge about the educational process within it. The Swedish
study on lay-instruction showed that co-operation between professional and
layman instruction is not optimal, as well as the distribution of training during
the training period. Professional training seemed to cumulate towards the end
of the learning period. Only very few layman instructors followed a curriculum
even when it was available.
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The French evaluation on accompanied driving showed serious pitfalls in the

implications of the system: a lack of co-operation between professional
teacher and layman instructors, omitting theoretical instruction, problematic
teaching climate and goals in layman instruction. Chatenet concluded in her
study (1999) that the French accompanied driving model is not what it is
supposed to be. As a conclusion Chatenet presents an insurer's opinion: "The
idea is excellent, the method inadequately explained and the essential not
applied".

From the perspective of the BASIC-project, the AAC training in France gives
some ideas. First of all creating a system and allowing it to be applied is not
enough to ensure good implementation. A lot of resources are needed to
control the quality of application. Another lesson is that a driver training
system may fail to produce positive results. A lack of positive effect does not
necessarily reveal anything about the training system itself but rather about its
application. To say something about the functioning of the system in principle
is a task that requires a lot of information on the process.

One result is that the introduction of a more structured training curriculum has
produced better results in the Netherlands (RIS) when it comes to pass rates
in the driving test. However, so far the evaluation of the possible safety
effects has not been completed.

The Finnish results on improved pass rates in the driving test for
professionally trained candidates are clear. Structured training following a
curriculum seems to be a more effective in reaching the required level.

Denmark has revised its driver training curriculum to be more structured. The
Danish follow-up study shows a decrease in accident involvement of novice
drivers after the renewal. The results should be scrutinised carefully, but the
conclusion was that there is a need for better control of driving schools,
development of training guidelines and improvement of education of driving
instructors.

The Swedish 16-year system was considered as a success. However, as a

result of process analyses, Sweden has also been looking for more structure
to the layman instruction.

13.10.1 Conclusion

The overall conclusion is that any renewal can fail to live up to expectations or
cannot be used to its potential if the practical implementation is not controlled
well enough. Furthermore, there seems to be evidence for the idea that a
better structure of training is more effective, at least for producing an
acceptable level in the driving test.
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14 Recommendations from earlier projects

In the GADGET-project it was recommended to promote graduated licensing,
probationary licensing, protected experience and a combination of graduate
licensing and educational measures aiming at the upper right corner of the
GADGET-matrix. The GADGET report already expressed the problem of
equality in the training if the training is mainly based on private instruction
(GADGET, 1999, 197).

The GADGET-project was also looking further when it concluded that “in
order to continuously improve driver training it is necessary to do three things:
1) Permanently monitor the driver-training programs and licensing systems,
2) Carefully observe the development of specific parameters in society and
economy and
3) Draw conclusions from other areas relevant to road safety” (GADGET,
1999, 205). Further research and development of driver training has followed
the guidelines of the GADGET-report. However, there still is no permanent
system for following the development of driver training systems at a European
level.

Recommendations in the DAN-report (2000), which were more specific and

detailed, closely mirrored the ideas presented in the GADGET-report.
Recommendations concentrated on “an extended supported learning period
for novice drivers regardless of age, which should be implemented on a
mandatory basis at least stepwise”. Other recommendations concerned
mainly how this kind of period could be arranged in the most effective way:
1) The measures of the extended supported learning period for novice drivers
should be sufficiently differentiated,
2) Two approaches are required: General prevention for all novice drivers and
individual rehabilitation for violators only. According to the recommendations
“a probation period with demerit point systems and feedback of about two to
five years for novice drivers as well as a central index of traffic offenders
should be implemented”.

One of the important pedagogical and psychological principles was also

expressed in the DAN-report: Safe driving courses have to prevent
participants from over-estimating their own skills after participation or
misinterpreting the drivers task as simply a task of mastery of vehicle
manoeuvring or single emergency situations”. Individual feedback was seen
as one of the important elements of any post licensing measure (DAN, 1999,
237-238).

The ADVANCED-project continued the work of earlier projects, especially

DAN and ANDREA. In the ADVANCED-report, the most specific
recommendations were published. Recommendations cover a large area of
phenomena concerning driver education. The recommendations concerning
post-licensing training and second phase training of the ADVANCED-project
(2002) give good practical guidelines for improving not only post license
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training but also basic training, as one of the results of this BASIC-project is to
support the development of an Integrated Driver Education Approach (IDEA).
In this integrated approach or model all the methods used earlier in best basic
training as well as the best methods used in post licensing training are
needed.

In ADVANCED (2002) there was two general recommendations and a large

number of specific ones. The general recommendations were:
1) Courses should focus more on the specific needs of each participant and
encourage them to improve their driving style and behaviour. More
participant-centred methods are needed, designed to encourage participants
to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses (self-reflection) and to provide
the motivation to change.
2) Trainers need stronger coaching skills (for individuals) and moderation
skills (for groups). They should receive specific training for this, and courses
should be adapted accordingly.

Because specific recommendations are important to get a whole picture, they

will also be listed here in short. Originally the recommendations concerned
post-license training but in an integrated approach they naturally concern the
whole training process as well.

Track-based driver courses

1. Track-based courses should focus more heavily on risk awareness than on

manoeuvring skills.
2. Track-based courses should be aware, however, that practical exercises
designed to focus on risk awareness may still be interpreted by participants
as skills exercises (leading potentially to overconfidence).

On-road driver courses

1. On-road providers of training should consider breaking up the day’s training

(or half-day training) into more easily recalled and varied sessions (in order to
provide a more stimulating learning environment and more focus on the
participant’s higher level needs).
2. Course providers and trainers should be aware that being an exemplary
driver is not sufficient to be a good, post-license trainer. Trainers require a
range of teaching skills to “help the participant help themselves”.
3. Course providers should reconsider the benefits of in-car trainer
demonstrations in terms of the positive and negative effects that this can have
on participants.
4. Road-based as well as track-based course providers should take steps to
evaluate a range of participants over time, to assess what they have retained
from the training and what difference this has meant in practice

Detailed recommendations in ADVANCED concerned

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a) Course construction: target group orientation, limit group sizes, clear goals,
effective delivery and verification of goals reached, working climate and co-
operation between trainer and participants
b) Course content and methods : take into account the 4 levels of driver
behaviour, balance skills training with risk awareness exercises, use on-road,
track and classroom exercises, training must be relevant to real-life, avoid
overconfidence and use counter-measures and establish a dynamic
relationship with your participants.

There were also 24 detailed recommendations for countries wishing to

introduce obligatory “2nd phase” training for novice drivers/ motorcyclists.
These recommendations are available in the ADVANCED-report for
interested readers.
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15 Recommendations of the BASIC-project concerning driver

education in Europe
All the earlier recommendations described above are still valid and they form
the basis of the recommendations made here.

In short it can be said that on the basis of empirical findings and scientific
knowledge in psychology and education, the ideal education system can be
described in the following way:

It offers
- clear goals and contents for training,
- enough feedback to improve behaviour and to learn
- theoretical and practical training supporting each other
- a possibility to gain enough experience,
- a valid environment to practise necessary skills
- a learning period long enough to consolidate the skills and knowledge in
memory,
- a learning climate favourable for safety.

This list of factors is valid for skills learning in any context but many factors
limit the possibilities to arrange this kind of training. Some goals are also
easier to reach than others. It is easy to make learner drivers satisfied and it
is also easy to take care of the immediate learning effects: passing rates in
the theoretical and practical driving test. Reaching these goals does not need
a long learning period but rather a structured and controlled education
system.

Changing attitudes in a safety oriented direction is not as easy as passing the

present driver's test. It takes time and various methods are needed. Those
methods are more demanding than what is currently used in basic skill
training.

The most difficult goal to reach is safety of the novice driver when he or she is
driving independently. This goal needs all the measures which are available.

The results of this study support the earlier findings and recommendations.
Conclusions and recommendation made in GADGET, DAN, ANDREA and
ADVANCED are highly important and they will not be repeated here in detail.

Recommendations of the BASIC project

1. All the available training measures for achieving goals (professional

training, accompanied driving, phasing the training, development of the
test, etc.) should be used. There is no single measure which is
effective enough alone.

2. The recommended alternative to driver education is an Integrated

Driver Education Approach (IDEA). IDEA consists of structured
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learning methods provided by professional instructors (basic

requirements for driving in traffic and tools for learning to learn and to
evaluate one’s own behaviour) and accompanied practising in traffic
(to get more experience and to make driving more of an everyday
activity) and after opportunities to discuss experiences (meetings,
group discussions) made by professionals (instructors, psychologist
etc.) to increase self-awareness of one’s own habits, strong and weak
points and risks in traffic. A follow-up period with low thresholds for
intervention after violations is also recommended.

3. Training of technical driving skills should start in a structured way

(professional or structured lay-instruction) from the lowest levels of the
driving hierarchy (manoeuvring and traffic situations) and drivers
should then continue to learn these skills automatically in traffic with an
accompanied person. This period offers experiences to be used later
when higher levels of driving (goals and contents of driving and goals
for life and skills for living) are concerned in training with professionals.
This does not mean that more general safety aspects should wait; they
can be addressed already from the beginning. However, practical
driving skill should be built bottom-up and experience with it should be
used when dealing with, for example, attitudinal aspects in possible
further training.

4. An integrated approach is especially important for the youngest learner

drivers before allowing them independent access to traffic. The rapid
decrease of accidents after starting to drive independently is more
typical for the younger and for the male drivers than for the older (e.g.
over 22 years) and for females. Older novice drivers and female novice
drivers also start their driver career with fewer accidents than young
males.

5. As a consequence of an integrated education approach, the demands

for professional instructors increase. They should have good
knowledge and skills, not only in teaching skills and knowledge on the
two lowest levels, but also when interacting with layman supervisors
and teaching them the goals and methods in safe driving as well as
giving feedback to learner drivers during accompanied driving.

6. Accompanied driving should include not only a minimum amount of

driving but also a structure and methods to control it. Creating
possibilities to use different methods does not guarantee that the
methods will be used if there is no way to control it. The control could
be based on operations of driving schools and testing authorities. The
need for control can be supported with the notion that the negative
consequences of accidents are not only the problem of individual
drivers but that society bears a responsibility as well.

7. The present EU-legislation defines the role and contents of driver

testing. However, the content of the driving test depends on where it is
situated in the integrated approach. If it is situated after the first part
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(basic skills), then it should focus on basic driving skills and it would
then allow drivers to practise with an accompanying person. If the
examination takes place at the end of the whole driver education,
including accompanied driving, the focus should be more on
measuring all the four levels of driving hierarchy. The aim of such an
examination would be to check the education system and the
candidate's ability to drive safely. Overall, measuring the higher levels
of driving hierarchy needs to be considered in more detail.

8. The interventions of professionals after accompanied driving (second

or multi-phase) should clearly support more risk awareness and self-
evaluation than be technically oriented. The results concerning young
novice drivers' serious accidents do not support the assumption that
accidents are mainly based on poor technical skills of the driver.

9. To be effective in increasing safety the whole process of an integrated

driver education approach does not necessarily have to take two
years, for example. However, when the restricted driving period for
novices (lower thresholds for violations) is included the whole process
takes time. It is important to make the novice driver continue to think of
him/herself as a learner also after licensing. This requires an ongoing
system. The beginning of a driving career is the time when the basis
for safe driving and driving habits are laid down and it is also the most
risky time.

10. Professional driver education as an alternative should be always

available for persons who do not have the possibility to follow an
integrated approach. Lay-instruction or accompanied driving may not
be available for economic reasons, availability of a car or a suitable
person.

11. If unnecessary examinations, meaning very low pass rates, are to be

reduced, then giving more structure to the training (e.g. curriculum,
RIS, etc.) is an effective solution.
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16 Some points for further discussion concerning basic

driver education
During the project it became clear that there is no single or easy method to
radically improve the effectiveness of driver education. It is more like a web of
different solutions and models which could make the beginning of novice
drivers’ driving careers safer. In short, high investments are needed in order
to get the best possible results. In relation to the previous statement it can be
thought, what kind of message is conveyed to young drivers by a system with
no requirements for training at all?

Another very general issue is the control and constant evaluation of existing
systems. It is obvious that whatever model is applied in a certain country, it
should be done as well as possible. At the moment, it is possible that not
even the present systems are used to their full potential. National and EU-
wide control and evaluation systems are needed.

The third general aspect is the coverage of the systems. Even though many
methods are very promising, they are selected only by a small proportion of
learners. It can be stated that a big impact in a small group is not as important
as a small impact in a large group when the whole system is being
considered. Promising systems should be made more appealing. Another
strategy is to have several good systems available at the same time.

The last point for discussion is the role of mothers in driver education.
Females beat males totally in terms of traffic safety. In some countries the
system has succeeded in encouraging mothers to be lay-instructors or
accompanying persons. This is probably due to the possibility of having two
lay-instructors or accompanying persons. Hopefully, mothers could convey a
more safety positive attitude to their children.
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17 Les recommandations du projet BASIC relatives à la

formation du conducteur en Europe.

Toutes les recommandations préalables de ce rapport restent toujours

valables et elles constituent la base des recommandations ci-dessous.

Selon les recherches empiriques et la connaissance scientifique dans le

domaine de la psychologie et de l’éducation, le système idéal d’éducation
peut être décrit de manière suivante:

Il offre:
- des objectifs clairs et un contenu de formation structuré
- suffisamment de feed-back pour améliorer le comportement et pour
apprendre
- une formation théorique et pratique interdépendante
- la possibilité d’accroître l’expérience sur la route,
- un environnement adapté pour tester les capacités nécessaires
- une période d’apprentissage assez longue pour acquérir les capacités et
connaissances
- un climat d’apprentissage favorable à la sécurité

Cette liste est valable pour l’apprentissage de capacités dans n’importe quel
domaine, mais plusieurs facteurs limitent la possibilité de mettre en œuvre
une telle formation. Certains objectifs sont plus faciles à atteindre que
d’autres. Il est plus facile de satisfaire les conducteurs débutants ou
d’atteindre des effets d’apprentissage immédiats (notamment le taux de
réussite à l’examen théorique et pratique). Pour atteindre ces objectifs il ne
faut pas de période longue d’apprentissage mais plutôt un système
d’éducation structuré et contrôlé.

Il est moins facile de changer les attitudes envers la sécurité que de réussir à
l’examen de conduite actuel. Les méthodes pour cela sont plus exigeantes
que celles que l’on utilise actuellement dans la formation initiale des
compétences de conduite.

L’objectif le plus difficile à atteindre est d’assurer la sécurité des conducteurs

novices lorsqu’ils conduisent de façon autonome. Cet objectif doit utiliser tous
les moyens disponibles.

Les résultats de cette étude corroborent les conclusions et recommandations

d’autres études européennes préalables. Celles des projets GADGET, DAN,
ANDREA et ADVANCED sont très importantes mais elles ne seront pas
répétées ici en détail.
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Les recommandations du projet BASIC:

1. Toutes les mesures de formation disponibles pour atteindre les

objectifs (la formation professionnelle, la conduite accompagnée, la
formation à phases multiples, le développement de l’examen, etc)
doivent être utilisées. Aucune mesure unique est suffisamment
efficace à elle seule.

2. L’alternative à la formation de conducteur telle que pratiquée

actuellement est l’approche de l’éducation du conducteur intégrée
(Integrated Driver Education Approach = IDEA). L’IDEA comporte des
méthodes d’apprentissage structurées dispensées par des instructeurs
professionnels (les exigences de base pour conduire dans la
circulation, les outils pour apprendre à apprendre et pour évaluer son
propre comportement), la conduite accompagnée sur la route (pour
acquérir de l’expérience et pour faire de la conduite une activité plus
normale et quotidienne) et, ultérieurement, l’occasion de discuter des
expériences personnelles (réunions, discussions en groupe) avec les
professionnels (les instructeurs, les psychologues etc) afin d’accroître
la prise de conscience de nos propres habitudes, nos points forts et
faibles et la prise de conscience des risques dans la circulation. Une
période de suivi est également recommandée lorsqu’il il y a des règles
plus strictes en matière d’infractions.

3. La formation technique aux capacités de conduite doit commencer de

manière plus structurée (par la formation professionnelle ou une
formation structurée avec un profane) à partir des niveaux inférieurs du
modèle hiérarchique du bon conducteur (les manœuvres du véhicule
et la maîtrise des situations de circulation) puis, par la suite, les
conducteurs doivent développer des automatismes dans la circulation
dans le cadre d’une conduite accompagnée. Cette période permet des
expériences qui peuvent être utilisées ultérieurement lorsqu’on aborde
les niveaux supérieurs de la conduite (les motifs et contexte de la
conduite et les habitudes de vie) lors d’une formation avec des
professionnels. Ceci ne veut pas dire que les aspects plus généraux
de la sécurité ne peuvent pas être abordés; ils peuvent l’être dès le
début. Pourtant, les capacités de la conduite pratique devraient être
acquises du bas vers le haut et les expériences acquises devraient
être évoquées lors d’une formation complémentaire concernant, par
exemple, les aspects comportementaux.

4. Une approche intégrée est particulièrement importante pour les jeunes

conducteurs débutants avant qu’ils conduisent seuls. Une diminution
rapide du nombre d’accidents après le permis est plus flagrante parmi
les plus jeunes et les conducteurs mâles que parmi les conducteurs
novices plus âgés (plus de 22 ans) ou les conductrices. D’ailleurs, les
conducteurs novices plus âgés et les conductrices commencent leur
activité de conduite en ayant moins d’accidents que les mâles plus
jeunes.
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5. Dans le cadre de l’approche d’éducation intégrée, les exigences

relatives aux instructeurs professionnels augmentent. Ceux-ci
devraient posséder de bonnes capacités et connaissances, non
seulement en ce qui concerne les capacités d’enseignement et les
connaissances aux niveaux inférieurs, mais aussi lorsqu’ils travaillent
avec des accompagnateurs profanes pour leur apprendre les objectifs
et méthodes en vue d’une conduite sûre et en vue de permettre un
échange dans le cadre de la conduite accompagnée.

6. La conduite accompagnée devrait non seulement comporter un

volume de conduite minimum mais aussi une structure et des
méthodes pour la contrôler. Il ne sert à rien de créer des possibilités
pour utiliser des méthodes différentes s’il n’y a pas moyen de les
contrôler. Le contrôle pourrait se concentrer sur les activités des
écoles de conduite et les autorités responsables de l’examen. Les
contrôles sont nécessaires dans la mesure où les conséquences
négatives des accidents sont de la responsabilité de la société plutôt
que simplement un problème touchant certains conducteurs à titre
individuel.

7. La législation communautaire actuelle définit le rôle et le contenu de

l’examen du conducteur. Pourtant, le contenu de l’examen de conduite
dépend où il se situe dans l’approche intégrée. S’il intervient après la
première partie (capacités de base), l’examen devrait porter sur les
capacités de conduite de base ; il permettrait aux conducteurs
d’acquérir de l’expérience dans la circulation avec un accompagnateur.
Si l’examen a lieu tout à la fin de la formation du conducteur, y compris
la conduite accompagnée, il devrait viser à mesurer les quatre niveaux
du modèle hiérarchique du conducteur. L’objectif d’un tel examen
serait de contrôler le système éducatif et la capacité du conducteur à
conduire de manière sûre. Cela dit, la façon de mesurer les niveaux
supérieurs du modèle hiérarchique du conducteur doit être envisagée
de manière plus détaillée.

8. Durant la période après la phase de conduite accompagnée (deuxième

ou multi-phase), les professionnels devraient encourager la prise de
conscience des risques et l’auto évaluation des conducteurs plutôt que
chercher à améliorer leurs capacités techniques. L’analyse des
accidents graves parmi les conducteurs novices ne montrent pas qu’ils
résultent d’un manque de capacités techniques.

9. Pour améliorer la sécurité routière il ne faut pas que l’approche de

l’éducation du conducteur intégrée prenne 2 ans, par exemple.
Pourtant, un tel système prend du temps quand on inclut la période
restrictive pour les conducteurs novices (règles plus strictes
concernant les infractions). Il est important que les conducteurs
novices se considèrent toujours comme débutants même après
l’obtention du permis de conduire. Ceci nécessite un système continu.
Le début d’une vie de conducteur est le moment où l’on construit les
 252

fondations de ses habitudes de conduite et d’une conduite sûre: elle

est également la période la plus risquée.

10. La formation professionnelle du conducteur devrait toujours exister

pour ceux qui n’ont pas la possibilité de suivre l’approche intégrée. Il
se peut que la conduite accompagnée ou la formation avec une
personne profane ne puissent être pratiquée pour des raisons
économiques par manque d’une voiture ou d’une personne disponible.

11. Si l’on souhaite réduire le nombre d’examens inutiles, qui mène a un

taux de réussite très bas, il importe de mieux structurer la formation (le
curriculum, le RIS aux Pays-Bas, etc).

18 Quelques thèmes à discuter concernant la formation

initiale du conducteur

Au cours de ce projet il est devenu clair qu’il n’y a pas de méthode unique ou
facile qui peut nettement améliorer l’efficacité de la formation du conducteur.
En fait, il s’agit plus d’une palette de solutions et de modèles différents qui
pourrait faire que le début de la carrière de conduite d’un conducteur novice
soit plus sûre. Bref, il faut investir beaucoup afin d’atteindre les meilleurs
résultats possibles. Finalement, il importe de se demander quel message est
transmis aux jeunes conducteurs par un système de formation qui n’a pas
d’exigences du tout.

Un autre thème qui a été abordé dans ce rapport est celui du contrôle et de
l’évaluation constante des systèmes actuels. Il est évident que, peu importe le
système appliqué dans un pays donné, sa mise en oeuvre doit être aussi
efficace que possible. En ce moment il est fort probable que les systèmes
actuels ne jouent pas pleinement leur rôle. Des systèmes d’évaluation et de
contrôle nationaux et européens sont nécessaires.

Le troisième aspect général porte sur l’étendue des systèmes. Bien que de
nombreuses méthodes aient l’air performantes, elles ne touchent qu’une
petite proportion des débutants. Force est de constater qu’un impact
significatif dans un petit groupe n’est pas aussi important qu’un petit impact
dans un grand groupe. Les systèmes performants doivent attirer plus de
personnes. Une autre approche est d’offrir un maximum de bons systèmes
simultanément.

Le dernier point à discuter porte sur le rôle des mères dans l’éducation du
conducteur. Du point de vue de la sécurité routière, les femmes sont
beaucoup plus efficaces que les hommes. Dans certains pays, le système a
réussi à encourager les femmes à s’imposer d’avantage en tant
qu’accompagnateur de conduite. Ceci résulte probablement de la possibilité
d’avoir deux accompagnateurs. Les femmes peuvent transmettre une attitude
plus orientée vers la sécurité à leurs enfants.
 253

19 Empfehlungen zur Fahrausbildung in Europa

Die nachfolgenden Empfehlungen bauen auf den früheren Empfehlungen auf,
die weiter oben beschrieben wurden, und die in ihrer Gültigkeit unverändert
bestehen bleiben.

Auf der Grundlage empirischer Befunde und wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse

aus der Psychologie und Pädagogik kann eine ideale Ausbildung wie folgt
beschrieben werden:

Sie bietet:

- klare Ausbildungsziele und -inhalte

- ausreichende Rückmeldung, um das Lernverhalten zu optimieren

- theoretische und praktische Anteile, die sich wechselseitig

unterstützen

- die Möglichkeit zum Aufbau ausreichender Erfahrung

- eine valide Lernumgebung zur Einübung der notwendigen Fertigkeiten

- eine ausreichend lange Lernzeit, um Fertigkeiten und Wissen zu

verankern

- ein sicherheitsförderliches Lernklima

Die Liste dieser Faktoren gilt auch für das Lernen und den Fertigkeitserwerb
in anderen Bereichen. Die Möglichkeiten zur Umsetzung der einzelnen
Faktoren werden jedoch durch eine Vielzahl von Umständen eingeschränkt.
Auch sind bestimmte Lernziele einfacher zu erreichen als andere. So ist es
vergleichsweise leicht, Fahrschüler zufrieden zu stellen und kurzfristige
Effekte wie eine hohe Bestehensrate in der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung zu erzielen.
Eine Voraussetzung für das Erreichen dieser kurzfristigen Ziele ist eine
strukturierte und kontrollierte Ausbildung, nicht aber eine lange Lernzeit.

Einstellungsveränderungen zugunsten einer sicherheitsorientierten Fahrweise

sind dagegen weniger leicht zu erreichen. Zeit und ein Spektrum
unterschiedlicher Methoden werden hierfür benötigt. Diese Methoden sind
anspruchsvoller als jene, die für den Erwerb grundlegender Fahrfertigkeiten
von Bedeutung sind.

Das am schwierigsten zu erreichende Ziel ist die Sicherheit von

Fahranfängern am Anfang der Fahrkarriere. Diese Zielsetzung erfordert den
Einsatz aller zur Verfügung stehenden Maßnahmenansätze.

Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Studie unterstützen die Empfehlungen

vorangegangener Studien. Insbesondere ist auf die Projekte GADGET, DAN,
ANDREA und ADVANCED zu verweisen, deren Schlussfolgerungen und
Empfehlungen hier im Einzelnen nicht wiedergegeben werden.
 254

Empfehlungen

1. Um die Fahrausbildungsziele zu erreichen, sollten alle verfügbaren

Maßnahmenansätze genutzt werden: professionelle Ausbildung,
Begleitetes Fahren, Stufenausbildung, Entwicklung der Prüfung u.a.m.
Es existiert kein Maßnahmenansatz, der als Einzelmaßnahme bereits
eine ausreichende Wirksamkeit entfalten könnte.

2. Als Alternative zur herkömmlichen Fahrausbildung wird eine Integrierte

Fahrausbildung empfohlen (Integrated Driver Education Approach -
IDEA -). Die Integrierte Fahrausbildung beinhaltet eine strukturierte
Ausbildung, die von professionellen Fahrlehrern durchgeführt wird
(Erwerb von Grundlagen für die motorisierte Verkehrsteilnahme und
von Werkzeugen für das Lernen und die Überprüfung des eigenen
Fahr- und Verkehrsverhaltens), eine Phase der begleiteten Einübung
in den Verkehr (Fahrerfahrungsaufbau und Eingewöhnung in das
Fahren als alltägliche Angelegenheit) und, nach einer Phase des
selbständigen Fahrerfahrungsaufbaus, professionelle Interventionen
(von Fahrlehrern, Psychologen etc. geleitete Treffen und Gruppendis-
kussionen) zur Erhöhung der Aufmerksamkeit gegenüber den eigenen
Gewohnheiten, Stärken und Schwächen sowie den Risiken bei der
Verkehrsteilnahme.

3. Die Vermittlung technischer Fahrfertigkeiten sollte in strukturierter

Weise erfolgen (professionelle Fahrausbildung oder strukturierte
Laienausbildung) und auf der untersten Ebene der GADGET-Matrix zu
den Fahrerkompetenzen (Fahrzeughandhabung und
Verkehrssituationen) beginnen. Danach sollte der Fertigkeitserwerb
und die Automatisierung der Fertigkeiten mit einer Begleitperson im
Verkehr fortgesetzt werden. Diese Phase ermöglicht den Aufbau von
Erfahrungen, die genutzt werden können, wenn höhere Ebenen der
Fahrerkompetenz (Inhalte, Ziele und Fertigkeiten in Bezug auf die
Fahrtätigkeit und in Bezug auf das Leben allgemein) im Rahmen von
professionellen Aufbaukursen behandelt werden. Das bedeutet nicht,
dass allgemeinere Sicherheitsaspekte erst zu einem späteren
Zeitpunkt der Fahrausbildung behandelt werden dürfen. Jedoch sollte
von Grund auf ein Aufbau praktischer Fahrfertigkeiten erfolgen, um bei
der Behandlung von Einstellungsaspekten in möglichen späteren
Weiterbildungen an diesen Erfahrungen anzuknüpfen.

4. Das Durchlaufen einer Integrierten Fahrausbildung vor dem Zugang

zur selbständigen motorisierten Verkehrsteilnahme ist insbesondere
für die jüngsten Fahranfänger wichtig. Das schnelle Sinken des
Unfallrisikos nach dem Beginn des selbständigen Fahrens ist typischer
für die jüngeren und die männlichen Fahranfänger als für die älteren
(z.B. über 22 Jahre) und die weibliche Fahranfänger. Ältere und
weibliche Fahranfänger starten ihre Fahrkarriere zudem mit weniger
Unfällen als junge männliche Fahrer.
 255

5. Als Folge eines integrierten Fahrausbildungsansatzes erhöhen sich die

Anforderungen an die professionelle Ausbildungstätigkeit der
Fahrlehrer. Grundlegend ist zunächst die Befähigung zu einer
Vermittlung der Kompetenzen der beiden untersten Ebenen der
GADGET-Matrix. Darüber hinaus sollten Fahrlehrer jedoch auch in der
Lage sein, mit Laienausbildern und Begleitern zu interagieren, ihnen
die Ziele und Methoden des sicheren Fahrens zu vermitteln und
Fahrschülern Rückmeldungen während der Phase des Begleiteten
Fahrens zu geben.

6. Für das Begleitete Fahren sollte nicht nur ein

Mindestfahrleistungsumfang vorgesehen werden, sondern auch
Strukturen und Methoden, die eine Überprüfung der Übungspraxis
erlauben. Wenn man sich lediglich darauf beschränkt, die Anwendung
verschiedener Methoden freizustellen und von Kontrollen absieht, ist
nicht gewährleistet, dass die Methoden tatsächlich angewendet
werden. Eine Kontrolle könnte an die Fahrschulen und Fahrerlaubnis-
Prüfstellen angebunden werden. Eine Kontrolle begründet sich u.a.
aus dem Gesichtpunkt, dass die negativen Konsequenzen von
Unfällen nicht nur ein Problem des einzelnen Fahrers sind sondern
auch in der Verantwortung der Gesellschaft liegen.

7. Rolle und Inhalte der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung sind in den EU-Richtlinien

definiert. Der angemessene Inhalt der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung bestimmt
sich auch danach, an welcher Stelle sie in einer Integrierten
Fahrausbildung angesiedelt ist. Bei einer Ansiedlung nach dem ersten
Ausbildungsteil (Grundlagen) sollte sie auf die grundlegenden
Fahrfertigkeiten ausgerichtet sein und den Zugang zur Übungspraxis
mit einem Begleiter regeln. Bei einer Ansiedlung am Ende der
gesamten Fahrausbildung, eingeschlossen die Phase des Begleiteten
Fahrens, sollte sie auf alle vier Ebenen der GADGET-Matrix
ausgerichtet sein. Das Ziel der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung läge dann in der
Überprüfung der Ergebnisse des Ausbildungssystems und der
Befähigung des Kandidaten zum sicheren Fahren. Generell ist
festzustellen, dass die Frage einer Prüfung von Kompetenzen, die auf
den höheren Ebenen der GADGET-Matrix angesiedelt sind, noch einer
detaillierteren Betrachtung bedarf.

8. Statt auf eine Vermittlung fahrtechnischer Fertigkeiten sollten

professionelle Interventionen nach dem Begleiteten Fahren (im
Rahmen von Zwei-Phasen oder Mehr-Phasen-Modellen) darauf
ausgerichtet sein, die Gefahrenwahrnehmung zu schärfen und die
Fähigkeiten zur Selbsteinschätzung zu verbessern. Die Befunde zu
den schweren Unfällen junger Fahranfänger unterstützen nicht die
Vermutung, dass diese Unfälle hauptsächlich auf zu geringe
fahrtechnische Fertigkeiten der Fahrer zurückzuführen sind.

9. Um wirksam zu einer erhöhten Fahranfängersicherheit beizutragen,

benötigt eine Integrierte Fahrausbildung nicht notwendigerweise einen
Zeitraum von zwei Jahren. Wenn jedoch die Probezeit mit einer
abgesenkten Sanktionsschwelle mit in die Betrachtung einbezogen
 256

wird, ist von einem entsprechend längerer Zeitraum für die der
Fahranfängervorbereitung auszugehen. Es ist wichtig, die
Fahranfänger dazu zu führen, sich auch nach dem
Fahrerlaubniserwerb noch als Lernende zu sehen. Dies erfordert, dass
das System der Fahrerlaubnis auf Probe für den Fahranfänger auch
tatsächlich spürbar ist. Am Anfang der Fahrkarriere wird die Basis für
Fahrgewohnheiten und sicheres Fahren gelegt. In dieser Zeitspanne
besteht zugleich das höchste Unfallrisiko.

10. Die professionelle Fahrausbildung sollte stets als eine Alternative zur
Verfügung stehen, wenn Personen nicht an einer integrierten
Fahrausbildung teilnehmen können. So könnte etwa der Zugang zur
Laienausbildung oder dem Begleiteten Fahren aus wirtschaftlichen
Gründen, wegen der Nichtverfügbarkeit eines Autos oder dem Fehlen
einer geeigneten Begleitperson versperrt sein.

11. Dem Problem einer zu hohen Quote von Wiederholungsprüfungen

beim Fahrerlaubniserwerb sollte durch eine stärkere Strukturierung der
Fahrausbildung begegnet werden.

20 Gesichtpunkte zur weiteren Diskussion

Im Verlauf der Projektbearbeitung ist deutlich geworden, dass es keine
einfache und auch keine einzelne Maßnahme gibt, die zu einer wesentlich
erhöhten Wirksamkeit der Fahrausbildung führen könnte. Es ist eher ein
Netzwerk unterschiedlicher Lösungen und Modelle, mit dem der Anfang der
Fahrkarriere sicherer gemacht werden kann. Um die bestmöglichen Resultate
zu erzielen, sind hohe Investitionen erforderlich. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist
die Frage zu stellen, welche Botschaft junge Fahrer von einem System
empfangen, das keinerlei Anforderungen an die Fahrausbildung stellt.

Ein Punkt von allgemeiner Bedeutung ist die Kontrolle und kontinuierliche
Evaluation der bestehenden Maßnahmenansätze. Es liegt auf der Hand, dass
jeder Maßnahmenansatz so gut wie möglich umgesetzt werden sollte.
Möglicherweise wird gegenwärtig jedoch nicht einmal das volle Potential der
bestehenden Maßnahmen ausgeschöpft. Auf nationaler Ebene und EU-weit
werden daher Systeme der Kontrolle und der Evaluation benötigt.

Ein dritter allgemeiner Aspekt ist durch den Umfang der Beteiligung an den
Maßnahmen bezeichnet. Obwohl viele Ansätze sehr vielversprechend sind,
werden sie nur von einem kleinen Teil der Fahrschüler und Fahranfänger
genutzt. Es ist daran zu erinnern, dass auch eine große Wirkung, die lediglich
bei einer kleinen Gruppe erzielt wird, von geringerer Bedeutung ist als eine
kleine Wirkung bei einer großen Gruppe, die das ganze System umfasst.
Vielversprechende Maßnahmenansätze und Einrichtungen sollten attraktiv
gestaltet werden. Eine weitere Strategie besteht darin, Auswahlmöglichkeiten
unter mehreren guten Maßnahmenansätzen zu gewährleisten.

Der letzte Punkt zu einer weiteren Diskussion ist die Rolle von Müttern in der
Fahrausbildung. Frauen sind Männern hinsichtlich des verkehrssicheren
 257

Verhaltens überlegen. In einigen Ländern konnten Mütter dazu ermutigt

werden, als Laienausbilder bzw. Begleiter tätig zu werden. Eine
Voraussetzung dafür besteht darin, dass es Fahranfängern erlaubt ist, mit
mehreren Begleitern zu üben. Möglicherweise können Mütter in besonderem
Maße sicherheitsorientierte Einstellungen an ihre Sprösslinge weitergeben.
 258

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