THE JOURNAL OF

PEDIATRICS
OCTOBER 1969 V o l u m e 75 Number 4

SPECIAL ARTICLE

The genesis of dermatoglyphics

The [ollowing hypothesis concerning the development o[ fingerprints, previously
recorded in IJart only in anatomic literature, is elucidated and supported by
embryologic and primate studies, as well as by mathematical reasoning: The dermal
ridge configurations are a direct consequence o[ the sur[aee topography o[ the fetal
9hand during the period o/dermal ridge development--between the thirteenth and
nineteenth weeks o[ prenatal li[e--during which time the ridges form transversely to
the lines o[ growth stress. The dermatoglyphic findings [rom 25 individuals with
congenitally mal[ormed hands support the hypothesis. Dermatoglyphics, then, are not
primarily genetically determined, but provide an indirect, indelible historical
perspective o[ the [orm o[ the early fetal hand.

John J. Mulvihill, M.D., and David W. Smith, M.D.

SEATTLE~ W A S I-t.

IN 1923, Cummins 1 wrote: " T h e varying
interpretations of ridge directions are
grouped into two classes. According to one,
9 . . such arrangements are considered to be
primary foci of evolution. An implication of
a direct germinal provision for configura-
tions, per se, is carried by this idea. On the
other hand, the second interpretation ex-
plains the direction of ridges simply on the
From the Dysmorphology Unit, Department o[
Pediatrics, University o[ Washington School
o/ Medicine.
Supported by grants [rom the Children's
Bureau and the United States Public
Health Service.
Presented in part be[ore the Western Society
[or Pediatric Research meetings in
Denver, Colo., Nov. 25, 1968.
basis of response to growth forces operating
during the fetal period of ridge differentia-
tion."
Fingerprints, ~ palm and foot prints, al-
together more properly termed dermato-
glyphics, occupy ever-increasing attention in
medical practice. These patterns of epi-
dermal ridges have a value in diagnosing and
delineating certain syndromes of congenital
malformations, 2 as well as in establishing twin
zygosity,3 in anthropologic surveys,4 and in
population genetics2 Reports of the genetic
influences on the final static form of der-
matoglyphics currently exist in the clinical
literature, 6 with little elaboration of the
~For definition of terms used see T a b le L

Vol. 75, No. 4, pp. 579-589

580 Mulvi.hill and Smith The Journal of Pediatrics
October 1969

Table I. Definitions of technical terms

Term I Definition
Configurations Specific groups of epidermal ridges, embracing any arrangement
Dermatoglyphics Collectively, the configurations on palms, fingers, soles, and toes. Synonyms:
loosely, (epi) dermal ridge patterning, fingerprints
Epidermal ridges Linear elevations of keratin, first apparent at 21 weeks, which lie directly
over primary dermal ridges (Fig. 2, C)
Fetal pads Mound-shaped collections of mesenchymal tissue deep to the epidermis.
First apparent at 6~/2 weeks, very prominent at 9 weeks, and regressing
thereafter. May be primary (10 in number: on each finger tip, in each
palmar interdigital area, and in the hypothenar area) or secondary (any
other ones: typically on central palm, or as pairs on proximal phalanges)
Fingerprints Strictly, recorded impressions of configurations on fingers, especially of ter-
minal phalanges
Open fields Configurations which include only gently curved lines. Synonym: patternless
Patterns Strictly, specific configurations which include sharply curved lines of either
loop or whorl form. Loosely, includes arch form also. Antonym: open
field
Primary dermal ridges Deep linear ledges of stratum basalis ceils of the epidermis (the innermost
cell layer of the epidermis, immediately superficial to the dermis). First
apparent at 13 weeks of gestation as deeply directed growth of epidermis
into dermis (Fig. 2, B); the top of the surface ridges lies directly over
these primary ridges
Secondary dermal ridges Shallow linear ledges of stratum basalis cells of the epidermis, first apparent
at 19 weeks, marking completion of definitive pattern (Fig. 2, C)

dynamic m a n n e r in which these ridge pat- Several stages in the morphogenesis of

terns develop. While there clearly is a ge-
netic basis for epidermal ridge patterning,
clinicians can best understand normal and
abnormal dermatoglyphics, like so m a n y
morphologic traits, from the viewpoint of
developmental anatomy. Knowledge of this
development allows for intelligent interpre-
tation of most dermal ridge patterns; it also
provides an insight into the nonspecificity of
m a n y of these abnormalities.
T o facilitate this developmental a p p r o a c h
to the clinical use of fingerprints, this p a p e r
sets forth a hypothesis concerning the mor-
phogenesis of dermal ridge patterns, sum-
marizes the evidence which suggested and
supported this proposal, and, as a test of the
hypothesis, presents the dermatoglyphic
findings in grossly m a l f o r m e d hands. An ap-
preciation of the embryogenesis of the der-
mal ridges themselves must precede any dis-
cussion of the formation of dermatoglyphic
patterns.
dermal ridges, outlined in Table II, are
especially important in understanding the
final patterns) t, s
1. Fetal pads a p p e a r during the sixth and
seventh weeks of gestation, just after the
hand loses its webbed appearance. These
elevations of mesenchymal tissue are located
on each fingertip, on the distal p a l m between
each pair of fingers, and on the hypothenar
area of the p a l m (Figs. 1, A and 9, A ) .
2. During the twelfth and thirteenth
weeks, while the pads begin to regress in
relative size, the ridges begin to develop at
the dermal-epidermal junction while the
surface remains smooth. These primary der-
mal ridges subdivide to form more parallel
ridges through the seventeenth week (Fig.
2, B).
3. During the twentieth week, the under-
lying patterns become reflected by identical
configurations on the skin surface (Fig. 2,
C).
Volume 75 Genesis o[ dermatoglyphics 58 1
Number 4

Table II, Morphogenesis of dermal ridges ~

Stage
C-Rt
Weeks length (ram.) Event Figure
4-6 4-13 Early limb development. Arm bud appears, the
hand plate develops, the digits separate as
the web recedes
6y2-8 17-30 Pad appearance. Fetal pads appear in this order: 1, A
second, third; and fourth interdigital, central
palmar, digital (apical), thenar and hypothe-
nar, paired proximal phalangeal
10-12 40-55 Beginning of pad regression. The central palmar 2, A
pad recedes rapidly and completely; the thenar
and hypothenar pads regress at variable rate;
interdigital and apical pads persist longer,
even into postnatal life
13 70 Ridge [ormation. Primary deep dermal ridges
appear:~ 2, B
15 90 Primary ridges multiply
16 100 Sweat anlage and stratum corneum appear
19 140 Secondary deep ridges develop

21 160 Definitive pattern is complete by this time. 2, C

Keratlnized epidermaI surface becomes ridged
over the primary deep dermal ridges
*Summarized from Cummins 7 and ttale, s
tC - R = Crown - R u m p .
.~Primary ridges appear first in centers of radial digital pads; then, laterally and distally in same digits; finally, progressing in
ulnar, in proximal and in caudal directions.

Based on these points, the final dermato-
glyphic pattern is set by the nineteenth
week of gestation. This brief outline of the
developmental anatomy of dermal ridges
alone suggests the developmental approach
to understanding fingerprint patterns.
HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis, previously postulated by
Cummins, 1 states that the dermal ridge con-
figurations are the immediate result of phys-
ical and topographic growth forces affecting
volar skin which is predisposed in a poly-
genie manner to form parallel dermal ridges.
That is to say, the dermal ridge patterning is
not directly determined by genes, but is the
indirect consequence of the total form of the
hand at the time the ridges are developing.
The single unifying principle in the gen-
esis of dermatoglyphics, suggested by the
present study, is that the parallel epidermal
ridges develop transversely to the lines of
growth stress. Therefore, in the proximal and
middle phalanges, whose major growth is
longitudinal, the ridges typically cover the
area transversely. Where a pad or other sur-
face distortion exists, the lines of relative
stress must be curvilinear; hence, the occur-
rence of a more complex configuration (a
pattern) indicates the previous existence of
a pad or other surface distortion prior to
final ridge determination.
EVIDENCE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS
Supporting and expanding upon this hy-
pothesis, we present: ( 1 ) concurring inter-
pretations from the literature, (2) results of
primate studies, (3) theoretical mathemat-
ical reasoning, (4) evidence from embryologic
studies, and (5) observations of fingerprints
in malformed hands.
Literature. Many aspects of the hypothesis
58 2 Mulvihill and Smith The ]ournal o[ Pediatrics
October 1969

Fig. 1. Fetal hand (A) at tenth gestational week (Crown-rump length [C-R] ~ 40 mm.) with
prominent pads, compared with dermal ridge patterning of an adult hand (B). Adult patterns
are located where fetal pads were prominent: each finger tip, the interdigital areas of the
distal pahn, and occasionally in the hypothenar area. (Note: The same fetal hand is under
different illumination in A.)

already exist in the anatomic literature.

Fig. 2. Sections of skin from fetal hands. A, 1189
weeks (C-R = 51 mm.). The thin epidermis has
no ridging. B, 15 weeks (C-R = 90 mm.). Al-
though the surface epidermis remains smooth, the
primary dermal ridges have developed. C, 22
weeks (C-R = 183 mm.). Keratinized surface re-
fleets underlying primary ridge pattern; secondary
ridges are developing between the deeper primary
ridges. (Hematoxylin and eosin, x450:')
Bonnevie 9 summarized the conclusions of the
earliest investigators: "A very intimate con-
nection has been observed between pads and
patterns with regard to the degree of eleva-
tion of the pads and the special configura-
tions of their patterns." Admitting to some
genetic factor in p a t t e r n determination,
Wilder, 1~ in 1930, added: " W h a t e v e r it is
that is inherited in the field of dermato-
glyphics, it is not definite types of morpho-
logical patterns. If there is any inheritance of
configurations, it is not a direct one, but
rather one which results from the inheritance
of the t o p o g r a p h y of the areas covered by
the ridges." M o r e recently, Gall and asso-
ciates 11 commented: "Friction ridge pat-
terns are a secondary reflection of underlying
patterns of development of growth centers
in the fetal h a n d and are not independently
determined genetically." Similarly, Craw-
furd 12 stated: " T h e shape of [the volar] pads
determines fingertip patterns, the ridges
covering the skin in the most economical
way possible according to strict topological
principles." Penrose 13 suggested that ridges
are aligned at right angles to compression
forces, that they take the shortest routes on
the embryonic surfaces, and that abnormal
configurations m a y be the result of altera-
Volume 75 Genesis of dermatoglyphics 583
Number 4

tions in the fluid balance at an early embry-

onic stage. Cummins 14 best summarized the
hypothesis in 1935: "Ridge direction, hence
the production of patterns and the determi-
nation of their particular forms, is wholly
dependent upon growth forces in the
embryo . . . . The character and history of the
pads in the normal human embryo afford
further support for this interpretation . . . .
It appears that the ridge-forming capacity
is an inherent possession of the epidermis
covering the palmar and plantar surfaces,
but that the manner in which the ridges
align themselves is influenced by growth
complexes, perhaps simple mechanical
forces, within the embryonic member . . . .
The configuration is to be regarded not as
a self-fashioned ridge complex but as a re-
sultant of the pad growth."
Primate studies. Observations in non-
human primates--all of which have dermato-
glyphics too--readily confirm the thesis
that fingerprint patterns reflect the surface
contour of the fetal hand during ridge ;for-
Fig. 3. Hand of rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta).
mation. In the rhesus monkey (Macaca The centers of the palmar concentric whorls
mulatta), for example, some fetal pads per- coincide with the summits of the prominent per-
sist into adult life. As seen in Fig. 3, the sisting pads. The finger tips have neither promi-
pad sites and the locations of ridge pattern- nent pads nor concentric whorls.
ing coincide remarkably, with the centers
of the whorls corresponding to the peaks of
the pads? 5 In the same species, contrary to dermatoglyphic configurations as "the re-
man, there are only simple configurations sult of laying a carpet of parallel lines, in
on the finger tips; however, the rhesus some way as economically as possible over
fingertip pads regress relatively earlier in the contours presented by the fetal hand."
fetal life than do the comparable human Indeed, as long ago as 1906, arguing in geo-
pads? 6 Hence, the limited patterning of the metric terms, Kolosoff and PaukuP 9 sug-
fingertips is not surprising in the rhesus. As gested that parallel forces, when placed over
a further confirmation, the fingertip pads a symmetric elevation (such as a fetal pad),
do persist prominently in Gorilla gorilla, would predictably form a whorl. Further-
which then have predominantly whorls on more, they pointed out the remarkable sim-
the finger tips? ~ While human pads typically ilarity of certain fingerprint patterns to com-
regress in utero, 7 persisting pads are occa- mon physical-mathematical phenomena, such
sionally seen, especially in newborn infants. as graphs of differential equations and the
In summary, the centers of patterns coin- lines of navigation (Fig. 4). In addition, the
cide with the summits of pads; this coin- triradius recalls the arrangements of lines at
cidence is clearly evident when the pads per- 120 degrees to each other that are formed
sist beyond fetal life. ;from soap films under tension.
Mathematical reasoning. While explaining Biologic phenomena rarely display math-
a mathematical formula concerning dermal ematical precision and the foregoing similar-
ridge patterns, Penrose ~8 vividly described ities may be coincidental; nonetheless, the
584 MulvihiIl and Smith The Journal of Pediatrics
October 1969

analysis of the variables present in these

phenomena of calculus, navigation and
physics, in comparison with the potential
stresses and strains in the developing fetal
hand, could produce testable hypotheses con-
cerning the genesis of dermatoglyphics.
In any case, just as the site of the pad
Fig. 4. Geometric explanation of the formation of indicates the location of patterns, these
a spiral (whorl). Embryonic skin with developing mathematical concepts permit a geometric
ridges (dotted lines) is placed over a hemisphere explanation for the genesis of particular
(fetal pad) producing a stretch force P which
causes the ridges to form angle a with any merid- types of patterns, such as arches, radial and
ian MN. The ridges then are under minimum ulnar loops, and whorls. The final pattern
tension. In calculus, this curved line is the graphic may be interpreted as the consequence of
display of the equation: the height and contour of the pad at the
critical time when ridges are developing2~
X/ X 2 + y 2 ~ ce are tan Y 9
a low pad with little disruption of the paral-
In navigation, this pattern is known as a Ioxo- lel lines resulting in an arch, a high pad
drome. (From Kolosoff and Paukul. 19) giving a whorl, and a pad of intermediate
height producing a loop. Furthermore, a pad
with a steeper side on the radial aspect of
the fingertip would lead to an ulnar loop. 21
(Fig. 5).
!i. Embryologle studies. Generally in mor-
phogenesis, the orderly sequence of events
is most critical, while the duration of each
.,~ .,,~ stage varies within a certain time range. In
fact, the independent developmental timings
of the appearance and regression of the pads
High pad Whorl and of the formation of ridges are so inter-
related that slight variations in the onset of
either process would be sufficient to account
for some of the variability of patterns and
..." -/-......~ ~
of frequencies of patterns which are found
(> " ../ s ' ,'A:'."')
%.2 r
~";
in normal and abnormal conditions. As
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Wilder 2~ lamented in 1904, the conclusive
study has not been d o n e - - t o measure asym-
metry in the fetal pads and correlate these
Loop data with published frequencies of pattern
(ulnar) types.
A further elaboration of the embryologlc
account given above can yield additional in-
direct evidence for the mechanistic explana-
tion (Table I I ) . Some pads appear only
fleetingly and irregularly. These so-called
"secondary" pads include a very prominent
central palmar pad which regresses com-
pletely, well before any primary ridges ap-
pear. Consistent with this timing is the lack
Fig. 5. Presumed relationship between character of any record of central palmar patterns.
of fetal pad and final finger tip ridge patterns. Second, pairs of secondary pads on the prox-
Volume 75
Number 4
imal phalanges may persist longer than
usual accounting for the occasional presence
of arches on the radial and ulnar sides of the
proximal phalanges. ~ Thus, in these in-
stances, the developmental timing of pad re-
gression may contribute to the final pattern-
ing.
Observations of malformed hands. The
study of dermatoglyphics in malformed
hands provides a model for testing the hy-
pothesis that dermal ridges form trans-
versely to surface growth forces and that
patterning conforms to the shape of the s
hand rather than being determined directly
by gene action. Anomalies such as syndactyly,
radial dysplasias, ectrodactyly, and adactyly
represent errors of morphogenesis which
have occurred before the development of
dermal ridge patterning. Under the hypothe-
sis, the alterations of dermatoglyphics in
these malformations should be predictable.
Because such defects are often unilateral, the
other hand can serve as an intraindividual
control.
This approach has been used by Cummins
and a few others, but has never been incor-
porated into the clinical literature. Cum-
mins 22 reported 19 such malformations and
argued for mechanistic factors for determi-
nation of the directions of dermal ridges.
Penrose is presented such cases to illustrate
the economy of the patterns. Other cases
have been reported for different reasons and
..... :-.... :'...',~ ~
....................~ .~-. . . . . . . . . . .
.::.;:: - :.:::
Fig. 6. Grossly aberrant configurations conform to
the altered morphology of the distal limb in this
3-year-old boy with severely shortened and mal-
formed upper limbs.
Genesis o/ dermatoglyphics 58 5
are consistent with the present hypothesis
and our own evidence. 2a, 29
9 Further support was obtained from our
studies of 25 patients with congenital mal-
formations of the upper limb. Each volar
surface was photographed and prints were
obtained from both hands by usual meth-
ods, 25 or by the newly developed methods
using either plastic 6 or dry pigment on clear
plastic tape? 7 The photographs and prints
were simplified into line drawings which do
not show the flexion creases; the recommen-
dations of the London symposium2s were fol-
lowed for nomenclature. Only general obser-
vations of the cases will be presented; the
findings of all of the cases are available on
request.
Fig. 6 demonstrates the predisposition of
volar skin of even the most malformed hands
to form parallel dermal ridges; in this case,
Fig. 7. Syndactyly. Hands of 2-year-old boy with
unilateral syndactyly of second to fifth digits; one
surgical repair was done between the third and
fourth digits. The metacarpals of the affected
hand were small and thus the hand was short.
:(
:::
Fig. 8. Syndactyly. Hands of 17-year-old girl with
acrocephalosyndaetyly (typical Apert's syndrome).
Syndactyly was extensive between second, third,
and fourth digits, and to a lesser degree between
fourth and fifth digits.
586 MulvihiIl and Smith The Journal of Pediatrics
October 1969

the dermatoglyphics are obviously grossly our 5 cases of ectrodactyly and 3 of adactyly
altered, secondary to the aberrant form9 tend to be largely normal in the proximal
Syndactyly, as reported previously ~2, 2a, 29 palm. T h e distal palm, however, may lack
and supported by our 13 cases, features: triradii altogether or m a y have a few triradii,
(1) absence of one distal palmar triradius which are associated either with the largest
for each pair of syndactylous fingers, (2) nibs of "digital" tissue in adactyly or with
continuous transverse ridges across the un- atypical distal palmar patterns, such as
separated digits, and (3) depending on the whorls, in ectrodactyly. These latter con-
extent of fusion, a tendency of the finger tip figurations are located over prominent ele-
ridge configurations to remain as individual vations of tissue on the medial aspects of
patterns, to join into a single large pattern, the "lobster claw" hand. The fingertips in
or to become simple longitudinal lines, as ectrodactyly may bear normal patterns or
seen in Figs. 7 and 8. hypoplastic ridges (Figs9 10 and 11).
The dermatoglyphics in radial dysplasias In summary, malformations of the hand
such as absence of the thumb, carpal bones,
a n d / o r radius have not been reported. In
our 7 cases of these dysplasias, which vary
in severity, the dermatoglyphics are unusual
in their direction, with a more transverse
orientation across the palm (Fig. 9). Normal
dermal ridges curve circumferentially around
the thenar eminence, appearing longitudinal
t
in the palm print (Fig. 1, B); occasionally,
a true thenar pattern is seen. Because of the
peculiar transversality of the ridges in radial .. ,.. . :............
;:.../
dysplasias, one can readily surmise that, as a
result of the defect, no thenar prominence
or pad existed in the early fetal months and
therefore, the ridges tend to form trans-
versely to the longitudinal growth axis.
Ectrodactyly and adactyly have in common
the absence of digits. In agreement with re-
ported cases, 23, 24, 89 the ridge patterns in 'Fig. 10. Ectrodactyly. Hand of a 2-year-old boy
with nonfamilial bilateral ectrodactyly. Prints of
right hand were incomplete but similar.

':!

9 "'~ i~ j / > - 4 v-:---..

..e,,%..,/... ,

(~.., !/ /"// /' / i

Fig. II. Adactyly. Hands of a one-year-old boy

Fig. 9. Radial dysplasia. Hands of a 19-year-old w h o had unilateral absence of second to fifth
boy with bilaterally absent thumbs and no thenar digits, a rudimentary thumb, and shortened meta-
prominences. carpals.
IZotume 75
Number 4
supply the final evidence that dermal ridge
patterns are secondary expressions of the
fetal hand morphology and specifically sup-
port the principle of ridges developing trans-
versely to the stress of growth. Therefore,
in malformed hands as well as normal ones,
the dermal ridge configurations can be best
understood from the viewpoint of develop-
mental anatomy.
COMMENT
Although no one piece of evidence is proof
in itself, the above facts from various sources
support the hypothesis that dermal ridge pat-
terns are largely determined by the growth
and topography of the fetal hand when
ridges are forming. Our observations of mal-
formed hands also suggest the principle that
parallel ridges develop transversely (at right
angles) to the plane of growth forces, realiz-
ing that fetal pads result in curvilinear pat-
terns whose complexity reflects the height
and form of the pads at the time of ridge
development. While this theory comple-
ments rather than contradicts the well-doc-
umented polygenic mode of inheritance of
certain dermatoglyphic traits, such as total
fingertip ridge count and the main line in-
dex, ~ it newly emphasizes the indirect de-
termination of dermal ridge patterns instead
of ascribing any specific pattern or trait to
immediate genic direction. Thus, appreciat-
ing that dermatoglyphics provide a historical
perspective of the hand morphology around
the thirteenth to nineteenth weeks of pre-
natal life, further studies of the genetics of
dermal ridge patterning hopefully will relate
to the genetic influences on the form and
growth of the fetal hand.
As an illustration of this approach, the
high frequency of low arches on the finger-
tips of a patient with trisomy 18 syndrome
may be interpreted as the consequence of
hypoplasia of the fetal pads. Similarly, the
dermatoglyphic alterations in patients with
Down's syndrome can be related to the al-
tered form of the hand in this disorder. Con-
sidering the complexity of the morphogene-
sis of the hand, it is not surprising that
dermatoglyphic changes have been noted in
Genesis of dermatoglyphics 587
most patients with multiple malformation
syndromes, whether of genetic or environ-
mental etiology3
Finally, realizing this mode of genesis of
dermal ridge configurations, several pre-
cautionary comments are warranted. First,
although unusual dermatoglyphic traits can
be valuable indicators of altered morpho-
genesis, the authors know of no single der-
matoglyphic finding in the hand that is path-
ognomonic per se. 2 In fact, these traits have
such a wide range of normal that most "ab-
normal" findings can be seen in otherwise
normal persons. Second, the usual diagnostic
problem is not whether a child is abnormal
- - m a n y other signs are much more reliable
for that--but rather, which abnormal condi-
tion he represents from several possibilities.
Most dermatoglyphic surveys, save one, 81 do
not supply this information, for they com-
pare patients with one disease or syndrome
with random normal controls. Such surveys
may establish that a dermatoglyphic feature
is unusual, but they do not prove the unique-
ness of that feature for the particular dis-
order under study. Finally, data can be col-
lected for innumerable dermatoglyphic
traits; yet, because many features are inter-
related (e.g., presence of hypothenar pattern,
position of distal axial palmar triradius, the
a t d angle, and palmar main line formula-
tion), the apparent surfeit of numbers be-
trays the amount of new information which
can vary independently on one hand. There-
fore, when enough traits are examined for
correlation with a specific disease, and if a
confidence level of p = 0.05 is accepted, then
chance alone should make 1 in 20 correla-
tions examined significant from a statistical
viewpoint? 2
SUMMARY
A developmental approach toward the
clinical uses of fingerprints is based on the
hypothesis that dermatoglyphics accurately
reflect the shape of the fetal hand between
the thirteenth and nineteenth gestational
weeks, when dermal ridges are developing,
and that the ridges generally are oriented
transversely (at right angles) to the surface
588 Mulvihill and S m i t h
stress. Evidence for this hypothesis comes
from previously r e p o r t e d interpretations,
from p r i m a t e a n d embryologic studies, from
m a t h e m a t i c a l considerations, a n d from the
d e r m a t o g l y p h i c findings on grossly mal-
f o r m e d bands. C a u t i o n must be exercised in
the clinical use of dermatoglyphics for the
following reasons: because no one feature is
pathognomonic, because dermatoglyphic
standards are a r r i v e d at statistically for p o p u -
lations a n d not for individuals, a n d because
chance alone m i g h t explain correlations of
d e r m a t o g l y p h i c traits with specific diseases.
Yet, d e r m a l ridge patterns can be a valuable
indication of the early fetal h a n d m o r p h o l o g y
and, as such, m a y provide evidence of altered
morphogenesis of the h a n d prior to 19 weeks
of fetal life.
We give thanks to Dr. A. Blue, for making
his patients available to us, similarly to Chil-
dren's Orthopedic Hospital and Medical Center
in Seattle, Rainier State School in Buckley, and
Fircrest State School in Seattle; to Dr. T. Shep-
ard, Central Laboratory for Human Embryology.,
for providing access to his fetal material; to Dr.
C. B. Allendoerfer, Department of Mathematics;
to Dr. J. Aase and D. Hadden for giving ma-
terial and aid in printing dermatoglyphics; to the
Regional Primate Center, University of Wash-
ington, Seattle, for Fig. 3; to Dr. H. Ochs for
help in translating; to P. Wood, Medical Illus-
tration, University of Washington, for Figs. 5 to
11; to N. Fargo, for secretarial assistance; most
especially to L. tIarrah for loyal and patient
help in searching the literature.
REFERENCES
1. Cummins, H.: The configurations of epider-
mal ridges in a human acephalie monster,
Anat. Ree. 26: 1, 1923.
2. Alter, M.: Dermatoglyphic analysis as a
diagnostic tool, Medicine 46: 35, 1967.
3. Slater, E.: Diagnosis of zygosity by finger-
prints, Acta psychiat, scandinav. 39: 78, 1963.
4. Biswas, P. C.: Ethno-geographic variations
in dermatoglyphics, Proc. 2nd Internat. Cong.
Human Genet. 3: 1430, 1961.
5. World Health Organization: Research on
human population genetics, WHO Techn.
Rep. Ser. No. 387, 1968.
6. Holt, S. B.: The Genetics of dermal ridges,
Springfield, II1., 1968, Charles C Thomas,
Publisher.
7. Cummins, H . : The topographic history of
the volar pads (walking pads; " Tastballen)
The ]ournag of Pediatrics
October 1969
in the human embryo, Contrib. Embryol. 20:
103, 1929.
8. Hale, A. R.: Morphogenesis of volar skin
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Volume 75
Number 4
28. Penrose, L. S.: Memorandum on derrnato-
glyphic nomenclature, Birth Defects Original
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99. Cummins, H.~ and Sicomo, J.: Plantar epi-
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Genesis of dermatoglyphics 589
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