Training and Resource Materials

OSHA T R A I N I N G M A T E R I A L S
O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH A DMINISTRATION
Tower Fall Prevention
Funded through OSHA Susan Harwood Training Grant Program
Published September 2004
This material was produced under grant number 46F3-HT13 from the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. It does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S.
Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply
endorsement by the U.S. Government.
TRAINING & RESOURCE MATERIALS
RIGGING INSTRUCTION
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TRAINEE RIGGING
Demonstrate the ability to perform the required work with minimal or no
supervision. Though this sounds ambiguous, it is targeted for skills that are within the
level of knowledge for personnel ending their trainee period and becoming experienced
tower workers.
The following tasks should be accomplished within the first six months of employment.
1. Demonstrated performance in PPE use and inspection.
Foreman Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________________
3
Rigging
(2.1) To successfully explain proper rigging and its importance, you will need to learn the
items contained in basic rigging techniques. This information is divided into simple- to-
learn areas centered about the basic rigging plan. Additional information can be found in
the Crosby training course that is maintained at the office and the “Handbook for
Riggers.” Another reference that will be provided to you is “Wire Rope and Rigging
Safety.”
(2.2) Though the information you will be required to know is almost the same as for
actually rigging at this level, it will be knowledge factors that you will be required to
know. The skill factors will be demonstrated at higher levels within the system.
Rigging Plan
(2.3) A rigging plan is required prior to beginning a lift of personnel, setting or jumping a
gin pole, or lifting equipment or personnel.
(2.4) A basic rigging plan includes the following:
(2.4.1) Who is responsible (competent) for the rigging?
(2.4.2) Is communication established?
(2.4.3) Is the equipment in acceptable condition?
(2.5) OSHA requires a person who is qualified (competent) to be responsible for
connecting the load. Communications and hand signals must be properly established.
(2.6) Inspections of the rigging gear are required prior to starting each use. Always
inspect rigging daily and prior to use:
(2.6.1) Is appropriate type, proper identification, etc.?
(2.6.2) Are the working load limits adequate?
(2.6.3) What is the weight of the load?
(2.7) Is the hoist and rigging rated for the work to be performed? All hoists have posted
on them the load limits and operating criteria. You are still required to verify that the
cable on the hoist is of the correct size after computing the safety factor for the lift.
(2.8) As a part of the project preparation, the project manager has determined the
maximum load that will be lifted. With this knowledge, we should have all wire ropes,
slings, gin pole size and associated rigging capable of handling the load:
(2.8.1) Where is the center of gravity?
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(2.9) The old rigging saying, “Rig to the center of gravity,” is essential. The load must
lift level and be stable. Use a tag line whenever possible. Chaffing or softeners should
always be used. This will increase the life of the slings and cables:
(2.9.1) What is the sling angle?
(2.10) The load placed on the sling and connecting hardware is dramatically affected by
the sling angle of all multiple leg slings:
(2.10.1) Will there be any side loading?
(2.11) All working load limits are based on in-line loading and can affect load control:
(2.11.1) Is the capacity of the equipment adequate?
(2.11.2) Will the load be under control?
(2.11.3) Tag line is available?
(2.11.4) Is there a possibility of fouling?
(2.11.5) Are areas clear of personnel?
(2.11.6) Are there any unusual loading or environmental conditions?
(2.11.7) What are the wind and weather condition?
(2.11.8) Are there any special requirements?
(2.12) Fouling of load or rigging gear increases loading and can affect load control. It
can also produce stresses that can cause lethal results. Personnel are never to be under a
load. Should there be a failure of a system, this could result in a serious problem. Tag
lines should be used for ground operations that involve loads that will be lifted above six
feet.
(2.13) Overhead lifting is a special event. Risk is created every time we lift a load off the
ground. Special tools, special methods and a special “mindset” are required. Avoid
rigging practices that create risk. “Don’t rush to stand under a load.”
2. Successfully identify the elements of a basic rigging plan.
Foreman Signature: __________________________________ Date: ___________
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Risk Management
(3.1) Risk management is a constant job. It starts with the receipt of the equipment and
follows through to the completion of the job. Just because the equipment and initial set-
up was good, it doesn’t mean that it will be good tomorrow or next week. That is why
daily inspections must be completed. Inspections on PPE and all are lifting
equipment. Risk management requires the identification of those risks, as well as any
actions to correct the situation. This is accomplished by asking key questions:
(3.1.1) How do we manage the risk?
(3.1.2) How do we reduce the risk?
(3.1.3) What action(s) will reduce the risk?
(3.2) The basic requirements for rigging safety can be found in OSHA. However,
compliance to OSHA alone is not sufficient for good risk management. Utilization of
theANSI/ANSE standards and the manufacturer’s recommendations are critical as well.
The basic OSHA section that applies to rigging is OSHA 1910.184, general industry
articles. OSHA 1926 (Subpart R) covers the special requirements for the steel erection
industry. OSHA 1926 (Subpart N) includes additional requirements for cranes.
2. Demonstrate the ability to perform risk management.
Foreman Signature: ______________________________ Date: ________________
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Inspection of Fittings
(4.1) Fittings are always going to be a weak point in the rigging. Inspections of fittings
start with the initial purchase. It continues with each use and periodically, occurring at
least annually.
(4.2) Inspections may be required more frequently, depending upon the type of use.
OSHA and ANSI allow a 15 percent increase in throat opening of hooks; however,
Crosby recommends that hooks be removed from service if any significant deformation
exists.
(4.3) Quick-check marks on Crosby hooks facilitate measuring throat openings. To
check, use a tape measure to measure the distance between the marks. The marks should
align to either an inch or half-inch increment on the measuring device. If the
measurement does not meet this criterion, the hook should be inspected further for
possible damage.
(4.4) Basically, there are five checks for fittings:
(4.4.1) Wear – No more than 10 percent wear of any sectional dimension,
measured by comparing to another section of the fitting.
(4.4.2) Deformation – Any significant, permanent deformation, or change in
shape, indicates it has been overloaded and must be removed from service.
This is a warning. The load that was expected during the rigging plan was
not correct. You should stop operations and evaluate the loads and correct
all rigging that is underrated for the loads being lifted. Under no
circumstance replace the fitting with an identically rated fitting.
(4.4.3) Cracks or Sharp Nicks – Any crack, sharp nick or gouge in the
surface of any fitting is cause for removal from service. Cracks may occur as
a discolored spot on the fitting or hook. Cracks can form when properly made
fittings are repeatedly overloaded. A crack can form if non- heat-treated
fittings are used in frequently cycled loads that are within the working load
limit.
(4.4.4) Modifications – Any modification of any fitting is cause for removal
from service. Welding or heating or substitution of parts is cause for
replacement. Never modify a shackle by substituting the shackle pin. Always
use a shackle pin that is manufactured by the manufacturer of the shackle. All
alloy shackles must have pins that are marked with “HS.” Any
modification will mean that the working load limit is no longer valid. The
person modifying the fitting is responsible for design, testing and
marking.
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(4.4.5) Wire Rope Terminations – More than one broken wire at any (within
one wire rope diameter of the fitting) termination is cause for removal from
service.
(4.5) Some fittings will have cotter pins installed as a safety. When installing a cotter
pin, it should project approximately one-half the fitting’s width and spread at an angle of
about 20°, then be protected with a couple of wraps of tape.
4. Demonstrate the ability to inspect fittings.
Foreman Signature: __________________________________ Date: ___________
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Inspecting Wire Rope Slings

(5.1) OSHA specifies that a wire rope sling shall be removed from service immediately if
any of the following conditions are present:
(5.1.1) Broken Wires – For single-part slings, six randomly distributed
broken wires in one rope lay, or three broken wires in one strand of one rope
lay.
(5.1.2) Metal Loss or Abrasion – Wear or scraping of one-third of the
original diameter of outside individual wires. Wire breaks will show broken
ends worn to a knife’s edge thinness. Abrasive wear obviously will be
concentrated at points at which the rope is rubbed most constantly. These
points usually are the grooves of sheaves and drums and other objects with
which the rope comes into contact. Unwarranted abrasive wear indicates
improperly grooved sheaves and drums, or other localized abrasive
conditions.
(5.1.3) Fatigue – Wire breaks are usually transverse or square, showing
granular structure. Often, these breaks will develop a shattered fracture. Both
of the above characteristics depend upon conditions of operation. Where
fatigue breaks occur, rope has repeatedly been bent around too small a
radius. Whipping, vibration, pounding and torsional stresses will cause
fatigue. This action is accelerated by abrasion and nicking.
(5.1.4) Tension – Wire breaks show one end of broken wire to be coned and
the other to be cupped. Necking down of broken ends is typical of this type of
break. Where tension breaks are found, the rope has been subjected to too
great a strain, either for its original strength or for the strength remaining in it
after other factors of deterioration have weakened it. Frequently, tension
breaks are caused by suddenly applying a load to a slack rope, thereby setting
up incalculable impact stresses.
(5.1.5) Distortion – Kinking, crushing, birdcaging, or other damage that
distorts the rope structure. The main thing to look for is wires or strands that
are pushed out of their original positions in the rope. Slight bends in a rope
where wire or strands are still relatively in their original positions would not
be considered serious damage.
(5.1.6) Heat Damage – Any metallic discoloration or loss of internal lubricant
caused by exposure to heat. RF and lightning strikes can also cause this.
(5.1.7) Bad End Attachments – Cracked, bent or broken end fittings caused
by abuse, wear or accidents.
(5.1.8) Metal Corrosion – Severe corrosion of the rope or end attachments
that have caused pitting or binding of wires should be cause for replacing the
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sling. Light rusting usually does not affect the strength of a sling. Corrosion
can easily be noted by the pitted surface of wire, with break usually showing
evidence of one of three factors – fatigue, abrasion and tension. This indicates
improper lubrication. Extent of damage by corrosion to interior raps of the
rope is extremely difficult to determine. Consequently, corrosion is one of the
most insidious and dangerous causes of rope deterioration. If the fiber core of
the wire rope is not lubricated and is allowed to dry out, it will collapse and
fail.
(5.1.9) Bent Hooks – No more than 15 percent over the normal throat
opening.
5. Demonstrate the ability to inspect wire rope slings.
Foreman Signature: ____________________________ Date: _________________
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Inspections for Webbing Slings

(6.1) Webbing slings come in five basic types – endless, eye and eye, twisted eye, folded
eye and bridle.
(6.2) Causes for removal of synthetic webbing slings are:
(6.2.1) Acid or caustic burns
(6.2.2) Melting or charring
(6.2.3) Holes, tears, cuts, snags
(6.2.4) Broken or worn stitches
(6.2.5) Excessive abrasion
(6.2.6) Knots
(6.3) The end fittings can have excessive pitting, corrosion, cracking or distorted and
broken ends. Missing or illegible sling identification.
(6.4) Acids – Nylon is subject to degradation in acids, ranging from little to total
degradation. Polyester is resistant to many acids, but is subject to degradation, ranging
from little to moderate in some acids.
(6.5) Alkalis – Polyester is subject to degradation in alkalis, ranging from little to total
degradation. Nylon is resistant to many alkalis, but is subject to degradation ranging
from little to moderate in some alkalis.
(6.6) Nylon and polyester web slings shall not be used at temperatures in excess of 194
degrees F (90 degrees C) or temperatures below minus-40 degrees F (minus-40 degrees
C).
6. Demonstrate the ability to inspect webbing slings.
Foreman Signature: ___________________________ Date: __________________
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Round Slings
(7.1) Round Sling Inspection – Synthetic round slings are becoming more common. All
of the fibers in a webbing sling are load-bearing fibers and are “wound” within a
protective jacket. The protective jackets are not load-bearing and protect the load
bearing fibers.
(7.2) The most common load-bearing fiber currently in use is polyester; however, the
high strength-low stretch fibers (high performance) are being used more frequently.
(7.3) Polyester round slings should be removed from service when the tag is missing or
when unreadable, melting, charring or weld splatters of any part of round sling are
detected. Holes, tears, cuts, embedded particles. Abrasive wear, or snags that expose the
core fiber. Broken or worn stitching in the cover, which exposes the core fibers.
(7.4) Polyester round slings should be stored in a cool, dry and dark place to prevent loss
of strength when not in use through exposure to ultra-violet rays. Polyester round slings
shall not be stored in chemically active areas.
7. Demonstrate the ability to inspect round slings.
Foreman Signature: ____________________________ Date: ________________
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Load Ratings
(8.1) When determining a wire rope’s size, its length in feet and its diameter in inches
identify the size of the wire rope. The diameter is the distance measured between the
widest points. It is advisable to make three separate measurements on a 6-strand rope,
and four measurements on an 8-strand rope.
(8.2) Most new wire ropes measure slightly over their nominal diameter, as follows:
DIAMETER TOLERANCES
Nominal Rope Diameter (inches) Oversize (inches)
0–¾ + 1/32
13/16 – 1 – 1/8 + 3/64
1 – 3/16 – 1 – ½ + 1/16
1 – 9/16 – 2 – ¼ + 3/32
2 – 5/16 & UP + 1/8
(8.3) The two most important factors to consider when selecting a wire rope are its
fatigue and abrasion resistance, as fatigue and abrasion are slowly destroying every rope
in service.
(8.4) Constant bending of the rope over sheaves and around drums causes fatigue. When
the load is applied to the rope, each wire is stretched with the result that they are drawn
tightly together. As the wire rope is bent around a drum or sheave, there is a complex
movement of the tightly compressed wires. This movement induces high stresses that
may be continually reversing as the rope moves through a system of sheaves, resulting in
failure of individual wires due to fatigue. This point can be illustrated by bending a piece
of wire back and forth at one spot; the wire will soon break due to fatigue.
(8.5) This same repeated bending and straightening of the individual wires as they pass
over sheaves and drums initiates small cracks in the wires that increase in number and
grow larger with continued bending. The process occurs in all ropes, but is accelerated if
the drums and sheaves are small or if the rope is relatively inflexible.
(8.6) In general, the smaller the wires and the more there are, the more flexible the
rope. Adequately sized drums and sheaves will reduce the severity of the bending
stresses and increase the number of bending cycles the rope can tolerate before it is
severely fatigue weakened.
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(8.7) Abrasion occurs primarily on the outer surfaces of wire ropes and is caused by
friction on sheaves, etc., as well as by dust and dirt acting as an abrasive between the rope
and the sheaves and drums. Excess abrasion also occurs when the rope comes into
contact with rough surfaces or sharp edges. The most difficult form of abrasion to
overcome is that caused by the rotation of the wire rope as it runs over sheaves, and on
drums with more than one layer of rope. Abrasion resistance is gained by using rope
having:
(8.7.1) Long exposed lengths of outer wires
(8.7.2) Large diameter outer wires
(8.7.3) High carbon and manganese content
(8.7.4) High-grade material and heat treatment in the steel
(8.8) Where abrasive conditions are severe, Lang lay or specially constructed regular lay
rope should be used. The wires in the Lang lay ropes are laid in the same direction as the
strands; therefore, greater lengths of wires on the surface or crown of the rope are in
contact with the sheaves or drum than on regular lay ropes, thus taking longer to wear
through.
(8.9) Seale rope construction has greater resistance to abrasion because it has larger outer
wires that take longer to wear through. It should be noted, however, that the larger wires
tend to crack and break because of their great stiffness. Because of this, Seale rope
should not be used unless a rope manufacturer who knows the conditions specifically
recommends it for the job.
(8.10) The ability of the rope to withstand distortion and crushing is governed principally
by the use of large outer wires and wire cores to increase the resistance to abuse. The
ideal rope for hoisting purposes provides a medium combination of these properties. For
special conditions, a construction that favors the quality most necessary to the installation
must be selected at a sacrifice of other qualities.
8. Demonstrate the ability to compute load ratings.
Foreman Signature: _________________________________ Date: ___________
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Safety Factor
(9.1) To guard against failure of a wire rope in service, the actual load on the rope should
only be a fraction of the breaking load. To account for all the stresses placed on a rope
during a hoisting operation and to provide the margin of strength necessary to safely
handle loads and guard against accidents, it is necessary for the rope to have a “factor of
safety.”
(9.2) In its simplest form, the factor of safety is defined as follows:
Factor of Safety = Catalogue Breaking
Strength of the Rope
Maximum Safe
Working Load
(9.3) For rigging ropes, the minimum acceptable safety factor is five; and when used on
equipment that is intended to carry personnel, it is 10.
(9.4) To often the safety factor is treated as “reserve strength” and used for additional
capacity. It is not!
(9.5) The factor of safety accounts for:
(9.5.1) Reduced capacity of the rope below its stated breaking strength due to
wear, fatigue, corrosion, abuse and variations in size and quality.
(9.5.2) End fittings and splices that are not as strong as the rope itself.
(9.5.3) Extra loads imposed by acceleration and inertia (starting, stopping,
swinging and jerking of the load).
(9.5.4) Increases in-line pull (load on the rope) due to friction of the rope
passing over sheaves.
(9.5.5) Inaccuracies in the weight of the load.
(9.5.6) Inaccuracies in the weight of the rigging.
(9.5.7) Reduced strength of the rope due to bending over sheaves.
(9.5.8) Shock loading.
(9.6) The list of variables is not complete. It is intended to show why a factor of safety is
required and why it must never be lowered.
9. Demonstrate the ability to compute safety factors.
Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: _____________
15
Safe Working Load

(10.1) Because of the difficulty in remembering the safe working loads of the most
common wire ropes, the following rule of thumb should be used to compute the SWL in
tons:
SWL = Rope Diameter X Rope Diameter X 8
Examples
½” diameter rope —
SWL = ½ X ½ X 8 = 2 Tons
5/8” diameter rope —
SWL = 5/8 X 5/8 X 8 = 3.125 Tons
1” diameter rope —
1 X 1 X 8 = 8 Tons
(10.2) The maximum safe working load with the SF applied is calculated as follows:
10. Demonstrate the ability to compute a safe working load.
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Center of Gravity
(11.1) The center of gravity of a load is that point at which the load will balance. The
entire weight may be considered as concentrated at this point. A suspended object will
always move so that the center of gravity is below the point of support. In order to make
a level or stable lift, the crane or hook block must be directly above this point.
(11.2) Being in a hurry will lead to one or all of these situations being overlooked. We
all experience the late truck or the accelerated schedule or the limited opportunity to work
on something. All of this leads to a “hurry up” mentality. Don’t let this happen to you,
as safety is the prime concern. The way a load rides up the side of a tower is very
important for those on the tower as well as on the ground.
(11.3) When lifting vertically, the load will be shared equally if the center of gravity is
placed equally between the pick points. If the weight of load is 10,000 pounds, then each
sling will have a load of 5,000 pounds. Each shackle and eyebolt will also have a load of
5,000 pounds.
(11.4) The location of the center of gravity relative to the pick points is a very important
consideration.
(11.5) When the center of gravity is not equally spaced between the pick points, the
slings and fittings will not carry an equal share of the load. The sling connected to the
pick point closest to the center of gravity will carry the greatest share of the load.
17
Exhibits A, B and C
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(11.6) In the load shown for Exhibit A, all points are equal and the load’s center of
gravity is, in fact, centered. In Exhibit B, the center of gravity is still centered between
the lift points, but the load is longer than shown in Exhibit A. In Exhibit C, the load is
not longer than the lift points but, as shown in Exhibit B, the center of gravity is not
centered between the lift points. (See page 14.)
(11.7) Sling 2 is closest to the center of gravity and will have the greatest share of the
load:
Sling 2 = 10,000 X 8/ (8+2) = 8,000 lbs.
Sling 1 = 10,000 X 2/ (8+2) = 2,000 lbs.
11. Demonstrate your understanding of the center of gravity and its
importance.
Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: ____________
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Sling Angle Computations & SF

(12.1) Slings are an integral part of lifting operations, and they have their own safety
factors. It is just as important to know the SF for slings that will be used as the load line
lifting the item. There are a number of configurations used. Single vertical hitch, bridle
hitch, single and double basket hitch, choker, etc.
(12.2) Each sling configuration has a use that it is better suited for than another
does. Once the sling arrangement is selected, the angle to the load must be considered
due to the sling’s reduced lifting capability with the increased angle. Never use a sling
angle of more than 30°. When angles of more than 45° are encountered, a spreader
should be used to reduce the angle and increase the safety factor.
(12.3) Loads should never be attached by one sling when personnel are required to be in
contact with the load to provide the balance. Too many times the load has shifted and
personnel are placed in danger. When loads are too long, a spreader bar should be
used. Tag lines can be used to provide distance from the load for personnel
safety. When loads are loose, sling arrangements should be used that will provide a
balanced and secure load. Whenever possible, additional rapping or banding should be
applied to loose loads prior to lifting.
(12.4) A quick figuring method for the loss in lifting capability as it relates to the angle
is:
1. 60° leg angle causes a loss in lifting capacity of 15%.

(12.5) This is only a rule of thumb and is not a hundred percent accurate. It is, however,
easy to remember and will allow the workers to better see a dangerous situation. Angle
charts have been reduced in size and are provided to each employee. In addition, rigging
books have been issued to each employee, and these should always be used as a
reference.
(12.6) As the horizontal sling angle becomes smaller, the slings and fittings at the load
connection work harder. The slings also place more crushing force on the load. As the
sling angle approaches 30°, the multiplier increases significantly. Below 30°, the
multiplier increases even more dramatically. Never allow a horizontal sling angle
smaller than 30°.
(12.7) The multiplier is computed by taking the length of the sling, (bearing point to
bearing point) and dividing it by the drop (height from load to hook). You have the load
multiplier.
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(12.8) Each sling sees ½ of the weight, plus the forces that are created that tend to
compress the load. As horizontal sling angle becomes smaller, the sling load goes up.
60° 45° 30° 10°
1.155 1.414 2.0 6.7
(1.2) (1.4)
(12.9) As the sling angle approaches 30 degrees, the multiplier increases significantly.
Below 30 degrees, the multiplier increases even more dramatically. Never allow a
horizontal sling angle smaller than 30 degrees.
90° 60° 45° 30°
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(12.10) In the rigging triangle, if you take the length of the sling, (L) (bearing point to
bearing point), and divide by the drop (H), you have the load:
H
(12.11) In multiple leg sling arrangements, it is wrong to assume that a three or four leg
hitch will have a capacity directly based on the number of legs. If the legs are close to
the same length and are properly spaced around the center of gravity, the capacity of all
three legs are available. Capacity is computed as follows:
CAPACITY
CAPACITY = # OF SINGLE LEGS X # OF LEGS
LARGEST L/H
# = 3 IF THE LOAD DOES NOT “ROCK”
# = 2 IF THE LOAD DOES “ROCK”
(12.12) If the legs are not equal in length, the loads in the sling legs will not be equal. In
some situations, the load may only be supported by two legs, while the third acts to
balance it.
(12.13) A 4-leg sling has no greater capacity than a 3-leg sling arrangement, unless each
leg is exactly equal in length and they are equally spaced around the center of gravity:
CAPACITY
CAPACITY = OF SINGLE LEGS X # LEGS
LARGEST L/H
# = 3 IF THE LOAD DOES NOT “ROCK”
# = 2 IF THE LOAD DOES “ROCK”
(12.14) If the legs are not equal in length, the loads in the sling legs will not be equal. In
some situations, the load may be supported by only two legs, while the third and fourth
act to balance it.
(12.15) Here are some demonstrations of stresses and loads placed upon slings at
different angles. All loads in this example are 1,000 pounds:
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500 lbs. 575 lbs. 575 lbs.

1000 lbs. 60°
705 lbs. 705 lbs. 1000 lbs.

1000 lbs. 5735 lbs. 5735 lbs.
45° 30° 5°
12. Demonstrate your ability to perform sling angle computations.
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Wire Rope Terminations

(13.1) Wire ropes are terminated in many different methods. Each method provides a
different efficiency or reduction in strength of the rope.
(13.2) Swage and spelter sockets provide 100 percent efficiency. Flemish and turnback
eyes provide at least 90 percent. Wedge sockets and wire rope clips provide 80 percent
efficiency. Keep in mind that these efficiency ratings are only good when the
terminations are used properly.
(13.3) End attachments of wire rope installations are of the greatest importance to safety.
It is important to know that many wire rope attachments, even when properly made and
installed, develop less than the full strength of the rope. Not only must you know what
type to use and how to properly install them, but you must also know their safe working
loads as compared to that of the rope. Safety requires knowing how to:
(13.3.1) Select the correct fittings and connections.
(13.3.2) Properly install them.
(13.3.3) Evaluate their safe load capacity.
(13.4) It is extremely important that all fittings be of adequate strength for the
application. Whenever possible, “load rated” (safe working load stamped on the fitting)
fittings should be used. For overhead lifting, forged fittings of weldless construction are
the only type recommended. Many types are available, and the choice depends on
various factors of the installation.
(13.5) Zinc and swaged socket attachments are used on the more permanent type of
installation, such as pendants. They are suitable only for standing ropes subject to little
or no movement, as rope movements tend to crack the ropes at entry to sockets. Rapid
hoisting, road traveling, and impact loads, acceleration or braking loads always set up
severe vibration in the rope directly above the point of the load attachment. There is no
way to prevent rope fatigue and eventual wire breaks from occurring at the point where
the rope enters the sockets.
(13.6) Zinc (spelter) sockets are efficient and permanent terminal attachments for wire
rope. They are the most reliable of all terminal fittings and, when properly attached,
these standard drop forged sockets are 100 percent efficient. They are recommended for
all standing ropes and whenever service conditions are severe. Only trained and properly
qualified personnel should be permitted to make these connections since it is a skill that
requires good facilities and a thorough understanding of the manufacturer’s instructions.
(13.7) Swaged sockets also make efficient and permanent terminal attachments for wire
rope. They are made by compressing a steel sleeve over the rope with a hydraulic
press. Properly made, they provide an efficiency of 100 percent.
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(13.8) Careful inspection of the wires leading into these socketed terminals is most
important because the strength of this section (from five to 10 feet above the load
attachment) is bound to be greatly reduced because of fatigue within the wires. On visual
inspection, one broken wire is sufficient to cause it to be condemned. It is, therefore,
advisable to cut this damaged section off periodically, even though it may look sound.
About one-third of the estimated life of the rope is a good interval.
(13.9) When inspecting any existing socketed connection, examine the rope closely for
corrosion at the socket base. This corroded wire is very susceptible to fatigue.
(13.10) Cappel sockets, when properly installed and frequently inspected, provide 100
percent efficiency. However, their efficiency depends entirely upon the wedges being
kept tight. Since the wedges are interlocked and cannot move independently of each
other, the unit affords a holding power equal to the strength of any type of wire rope. The
sockets also allow frequent inspection of the whole section of rope on which the grip is
exerted.
(13.11) Wedge sockets are one of the simplest devices for anchoring a wire rope. They
are intended for on-the-job attachment and for quick rope replacement. For overhead
lifting, their advantages include ease and speed of applying and detaching. They are also
used where spliced eyes cannot be reeved and would have to be made after the rope is in
place.
(13.12) The efficiency of wedge sockets is among the lowest of all end terminations and
varies depending on model and manufacturer. Care must be taken that jarring and
vibration do not force the wedges out and that accidental slackening of the rope does not
release the socket.
(13.13) Unless you use a special “piggyback” clip, don’t clip the dead end of the rope to
the live side. This seriously weakens the attachment. The clip takes the load and can
deform and break the rope.
(13.14) When using wedge sockets, it is good practice to start out with a longer rope than
is required so that the socket can be renewed periodically without having to splice the
rope. The wedge can be punched out of the socket, the bad wire cut off and the new end
re-fitted in the socket. The rope end should always protrude at least six to nine inches.
(13.15) Spliced eyes in various forms are frequently used as wire rope end attachments.
(13.16) With the exception of some slings, all spliced eyes must incorporate rope
thimbles to maintain rope strength and reduce wear. If a thimble is not used on a spliced
eye, the efficiency of the connection can be reduced by as much as 10 percent because
the rope flattens under the load.
(13.17) The danger with eye splices is that they differ widely in efficiency but differ very
little in appearance. There are many forms of eye splices that look similar. Moreover,
the type can be difficult to identify exactly when covered by serving wire or pressed
metal sleeves. Caution is the word with eye splices.
25
(13.18) Every wire rope manufacturer attaches a different name to its particular type of
eye splice, but they are usually variations of the three basic types:
Group 1: Flemish Eye (Rolled Eye)
Flemish Eye + Serving
Flemish Eye + Pressed Metal Sleeve
Group 2: Tucked Eye (Hand-Spliced Eye or Liverpool Splice)
Tucked Eye + Serving
Tucked Eye + Pressed Metal Sleeve
Group 3: Fold Back Eye + Pressed Metal Sleeve
(13.19) Those in the first group are rated at about 100 percent of the catalogue breaking
strength. Those in group two, with the exception of the tucked eye plus pressed metal
sleeve that is almost 100 percent, are rated at about 70 percent.
(13.20) Cable clips/eye clips/saddle clips – the most common method used to make an
eye or attach a wire rope to a piece of equipment is with cable or Crosby clips of the U-
bolt type (also known as fist grip).
(13.21) U-bolt clips must have the U-bolt section on the dead or short end of the rope,
and the saddle on the live or long end of the rope. The wrong application (U-bolt on live
instead of dead end) of even one clip can reduce the efficiency of the connection to 40
percent.
(13.22) Never use less than the number of clips recommended. A chart follows (page
24); however, always refer to the riggers’ handbook or the manufacturer’s
recommendations if in doubt:
Rope Minimum Amount Rope Torque in

Diameter # of Clips Turn-Back Foot-Pounds
(inches) From Thimble Unlubricated
(inches) Bbolts
1/8 2 3¼ --
3/16 2 3¾ --
¼ 2 4¾ 15
5/16 2 5½ 30
26
3/8 2 6½ 45
7/16 2 7 65
½ 3 11 ½ 65
9/16 3 12 95
5/8 3 12 95
¾ 4 18 130
7/8 4 19 225
1 5 26 225
1 1/8 6 34 225
1¼ 6 37 360
1 3/8 7 44 360
1½ 7 48 360
1 5/8 7 51 430
1¾ 7 53 590
2 8 71 750
2¼ 8 73 750
2½ 9 84 750
2¾ 10 100 750
3 10 106 1200
(13.23) Now that we have learned all of the basic functions used to compute the SF, here
is a problem on which to practice. This is an important part of being able to demonstrate
your understanding of the information covered at this level. Remember, all computations
should be performed during the rigging plan and not as each task is performed.
(13.24) Here is the information for the problem:
(13.24.1) We will need a wire rope to act as a guy wire for the load to be hoisted.
27
(13.24.2) We want a 5/1 design factor (SF).

(13.24.3) The load is 3,500 pounds.
(13.24.4) We have two wires available for use – a ½” with a breaking strength of
25,600 pounds and a 9/16” with a breaking strength of 33,600 pounds.
(13.24.5) The guy angle is 45°.

(13.24.6) We are using wedge sockets and wire rope eye clips.
3500 X 1.4 = 4900

½” = 25600 X .8/5 = 4096
9/16” = 33600 X .8/5 = 5376
45°
28
(13.25) Hopefully, you were able to solve this and determine which size rope was
needed. If not, here’s how to do it:
(13.25.1) Take the load and multiply it by the angle multiplier. In this case,
1.4. This can be found in your rigging book (3,500 X 1.4 = 4,900 lbs.). This
is the tension in the guy wire or the working load limit of the wire.
(13.25.2) Now, we figure the limits of the wire available.
½” = BS (25,600) X Termination Rating (80% or .8) / Safety Factor (5) = 4096
9/16” = BS (33600) X TR (.8) / SF (5) = 5376
(13.25.3) Now, you take the information gained in step one and compare. The
9/16” rope exceeds the 4900 pounds and is the correct rope in this case.
(13.26) The basic requirements for proper termination are:
(13.26.1) Select the proper size clips and turnback.
(13.26.2) Place the clips on in the proper sequence.
(13.26.3) Torque all clips evenly.
(13.26.4) Apply the first load and re-torque.
(13.27) When applying clips, apply the first clip one base width from the dead end.
Apply the second clip as near the thimble as possible and apply all additional clips evenly
between the first two.
(13.28) Never use malleable clips for any critical application. Malleable clips are cast
iron and are not consistent in ability to meet torque and efficiency requirements. Also,
never saddle a dead horse; in other words, the U-bolt will always be on the turnback
portion.
13. Demonstrate your understanding of wire rope terminations.
Foreman Signature: _____________________________________ Date: ________
29
Chaffing/Softeners
(14.1) Sharp and abrasive edges reduce the life of slings and cables. Softeners should be
used at any time when cables are not clear of contact with the material or tower. The
type of sling is not important. Softeners will always extend the life and are an important
part of keeping personnel safe.
(14.2) A block of wood or some kind of protective cover can be placed between the cable
and the load. This action will not take any additional time and will save money and
provide safety.
14. Demonstrate your understanding for the use of softeners.
Foreman: ______________________________________ Date: _________________
15. Recommended by foreman through official evaluation to take advancement

test.
Successfully passed written examination with a score of ________________________

Date: __________________________________________________________________
Administered by: _______________________________________________________
(Printed Name) (Signature)
30
DD RATIO COMPUTATIONS
31
(3.28) High contact pressures between the rope and drum surface cause this imprinting
and scoring. If this condition is evident, then the drum must be resurfaced and the
contact pressure reduced by one of the following:
1. Decreasing the load on the rope

2. Increasing the drum diameter
3. Replacing the drum with one having harder
metal
(3.29) The radial contact pressure can be calculated as follows:
P = 2L/Dd
Where P = radial pressure in psi
L = rope load in lbs.
D = tread diameter of drum or sheaves (inches)
d = rope diameter (inches)
Example: 7/8” 8 X 19 round strand rope
Maximum working load = 11,800 lbs.
Drum diameter = 18”
P = 2L/Dd = 2(11,800)/18 X 7/8 = 1,498 psi
This contact pressure means that the drum must be made of
manganese steel to handle the cable.
Rope Construction Contact Pressure (PSI) Limits for

Sheave & Drum Materials
Cast Iron Cast Steel Manganese
Steel
6 X 7 Reg. Lay 300 550 1,470
6 X 7 Lang Lay 350 600 1,650
6 X 19 Reg. Lay 480 900 2,400
6 X 19 Lang Lay 550 1,000 2,750
6 X 37 Reg. Lay 585 1,075 3,000
6 X 37 Lang Lay 660 1,180 3,300
8 X19 Reg. Lay 680 1,260 3,500
6 X 8 Flat Strand 500 900 2,500
6 X 25 Flat Strand 800 1,450 4,000
6 X 33 Flat Strand 975 1,800 4,900
32
Rope Drum Diameter (inches) for Various Types of Ropes

Diameter 6X7 6 X 19 6 X 19 Warr. 6 X 19 F 6 X 37
(inches) 18 X 7 N.R. 6 X 16 F 8 X 19 Seale
6 X 27 F.S.
¼ 10 8 7 6 5
5/16 13 11 9 8 6
3/8 16 13 11 10 7
7/16 18 15 13 11 8
½ 21 17 15 13 9
9/16 23 19 17 15 10
5/8 26 21 19 16 11
¾ 31 25 22 19 13
7/8 37 30 26 23 16
1 42 34 30 26 18
1 1/8 47 38 34 29 20
1¼ 52 42 37 32 22
1 3/8 58 47 41 36 25
1½ 63 51 45 39 27
SHEAVES
(4.1) Always check the condition and dimensions of the sheave grooves before the new
rope is placed in service.
(4.2) When the groove diameter is slightly larger than the nominal rope diameter, it
provides maximum support for the rope. If the groove is too large, it cannot provide
adequate support, and the rope may become flattened. Alternately, too small a groove
will pinch and bind the rope, causing abrasion and bringing.
(4.3) The diameter of a rope diminishes in size after lengthy service due to abrasion and
loss of core support. An undersized rope may wear an undersized groove in the sheave
and, if a new rope is installed in the worn groove, it may become wedged between the
flanges.
(4.4) Sheaves, drums and rollers must be of a correct design if optimum service is to be
obtained from both the equipment and the wire rope. Because there are many different
33
types of equipment and many different operating conditions, it is difficult to identify the
one specific size of sheave or drum most economical for every application.
(4.5) This is the rule to follow: The most economical design is the one that most closely
accommodates the limiting factors imposed by the operating conditions and the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
(4.6) All wire ropes operating over sheaves and drums are subjected to cyclic bending
stresses; hence, the rope wires will eventually fatigue. All other factors being constant,
the magnitude of these stresses depends upon the ratio of the diameter of the sheave or
drum to the diameter of the rope. Frequently, fatigue from cyclic, high magnitude
bending stress is the principal reason for shortened rope service.
(4.7) To illustrate, in order to bend around a sheave, the rope’s strands and wires must
move relative to one another. This movement compensates for the difference in diameter
between the underside and the topside of the rope, with the distance being greater along
the topside than it is on the underside next to the groove. Proper rope action and service
are adversely affected if the wires cannot move to compensate for this situation. Also,
there can be additional limitations to wire movement because of excessive pressure
caused by a sheave groove diameter that is too small, or by lack of rope lubrication.
Changing the bending direction from one sheave to another should be avoided, as this
reverse bending further accelerates wire fatigue.
(4.8) The relationship between sheave diameter and rope diameter is a critical factor that
is used to establish the rope’s fatigue resistance or relative service life. It is expressed as
D/d ratio where “D” is the tread diameter of the sheave and “d” is the diameter of the
rope. The table that follows (page 4) lists the suggested minimum D/d values for various
rope constructions.
(4.9) To find any tread diameter from this table, the diameter for the rope construction to
be used is multiplied by its nominal diameter (d). For example, the minimum sheave
tread diameter for a ½” 6 X 21 FW rope would be ½” (nominal diameter) X 30
(minimum ratio) or 15”.
34
CONSTRUCTION SUGGESTED
MINIMUM D/d
RATIO
6X7 42
19 X 7 34
18 X 7 Rotation Resistant
6 X 19 S
6 X 25 B Flattened Strand 30
6 X 27 H Flattened Strand
6 X 30 G Flattened Strand
6 X 31 V Flattened Strand
6 X 21 FW
6 X 26 WS
8 X 19 S 26
7 X 21 FW
6 X 25 FW
6 X 31 WS
6 X 37 FWS
7 X 25 FW 23
6 X 36 WS
6 X 43 FWS
7 X 31 WS
6 X 41 WS 20
6 X 49 SWS
7 X 36 WS
8 X 25 FW
6 X 46 SFW 18
6 X 46 WS
8 X 36 WS
WS = WARRINGTON SEALE FWS = FILLER WIRE SEALE
SFW = SEALE FILLER WIRE SWS = SEALE WARRINGTON SEALE
S = SEALE FW = FILLER WIRE
(4.10) Under normal conditions, machines receive periodic inspections, and their overall
conditions are recorded. Such inspections usually include the drum, sheaves and any
other parts that may come into contact with the wire rope and subject it to wear.
35
INDEX FOR TOWER WORKERS
36
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Formulas, Conversions, Definitions
USEFUL MATH FORMULAS 3
Basic Functions 4
Conversion Factors & Tables 6
Decimal & Metric Conversion Tables 8
GLOSSARY 9
Design (Safety) Factor – Working Load Limit 10
TOWER INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY 11
A/B Block PCS Licensee – Base Insulator 12

Block – Carabiner 13
Cathode - Corrosion 14
Cross Rods – F Block Licensee 15
Fall Arrest Equipment – Guy Anchor 16
Guyed Tower – Jump the Pole 17
KHz (Kilohertz) - MTSO 18
National Association of Tower Erectors
(NATE) – RF Burns 19
Rig the Tower – Stress Analysis 20
Stub – Two Thousand Footer 21
Vortex Limiter – Winch 22
BASIC TOWER SECTIONS 23
Column Splice & Tower Face 24

Typical Gusset Arrangements 25
Hairpin & Tower Guy Wire Connections 26
Guy Wire Fan Plate Connections 27
Anchor Arrangements 28
ANTENNA 29
Antenna Names & Dimensions 30

Red Lighting Placement 32
New Tower Construction/Painting Requirements 33
37
RIGGING GLOSSARY 34
Abrasion – Closing Line 35

Construction – Fatigue 36
Fiber Core – Laced Blocks 37
Lagging – Nominal Strength 38
Opening – Two-Blocked, Block & Block 39
Warrington Seale (WS) – XIP 40
TERMS, DEFINITIONS & INTERPRETATIONS 41
Basket Choker (Sling) – Rooster Head 42

Shall – Will 43
HOIST USAGE TERMS & DEFINITIONS 44
After Inspections – When Back in Service 45
38
USEFUL MATH FORMULAS

Basic Functions (4)
Conversion Factors & Tables (6)
Decimal & Metric Conversion Tables (8)
Basic Functions
D
H
R
C = Circumference C=2xπxR
R = Radius
D = Diameter A = π x R² V = Volume of Cylinder*
H = Height
A = Area
V=AxH
π = 3.14159
C = / a²+ b²
This equation is useful for
h estimating the length of a guy wire,
where b is the height of the pull-off
and a is the distance to the guy C
b anchor. b
A = Area
A = .5 x h x b
a
39
W
L
H
L
A = Area A=LxW
V = Volume*
* To determine the number of yards of
V=LxWx
concrete needed to fill a volume (V)
H
measured in cubic feet, divide V by 27.
40
Conversion Factors & Tables

MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN … MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
INCHES 25.40 MILLIMETERS 0.03937S INCHES
FEET 0.3048 METERS 3.281 FEET
YARDS 0.9144 METERS 1.094 YARDS
MILES (STATUTE) 1.609 KILOMETERS 0.6214 MILES (STATUTE)
SQUARE INCHES 645.2 SQUARE MILLIMETERS 0.00155 SQUARE INCHES
CUBIC INCHES 16.39 CUBIC CENTIMETERS 0.06102 CUBIC INCHES
CUBIC FEET 0.02832 CUBIC METERS 35.31 CUBIC FEET
CUBIC YARDS 0.7646 CUBIC METERS 1.308 CUBIC YARDS
POUNDS 0.4536 KILOGRAMS 2.205 POUNDS
POUNDS 0.0004536 METRIC TONS 2205 POUNDS
SHORT TONS 0.9072 METRIC TONS 1.102 SHORT TONS
LONG TONS 1.016 METRIC TONS 0.9842 LONG TONS
LBS. PER FOOT 1.488 KGS. PER METER 0.6720 LBS. PER FOOT
LBS. PER SQ. IN. 0.0007031 KGS. PER SQ. MM. 1422 LBS. PER SQ. IN.
LBS PER SQ. FT. 4.882 KGS. PER SQ. METER 0.2048 LBS. PER SQ. FT.
SHORT TONS PER SQ. IN. 1.406 KGS. PER SQ. MM. 0.7112 SHORT TONS PER SQ. IN.
LONG TONS PER SQ. IN. 1.575 KGS. PER SQ. MM. 0.6349 LONG TONS PER SQ. IN.
LBS. PER CU. FT. 16.02 KGS. PER CU. METER 0.0643 LBS. PER CU. FT.
IMPERIAL GALS. 4.546 LITERS 0.2200 IMPERIAL GALS.
U.S. GALS. 3.765 LITERS 0.2642 U.S. GALS.
CUBIC FEET 28.32 LITERS 0.03531 CUBIC FEET
FEET 0.1667 FATHOMS 6 FEET
MILES (STATUTE) 0.8684 MILES (NAUTICAL BRIT) 1.1515 MILES (STATUTE)
CUBIC FEET 6.229 IMPERIAL GALS. 0.1605 CUBIC FEET
CUBIC FEET 7.481 U.S. GALS. 0.1337 CUBIC FEET
IMPERIAL GALS. 1.201 U.S. GALS. 0.8327 IMPERIAL GALS.
CUBIC FEET 62.4283 WT. OF WATER IN LBS. 0.01612 CUBIC FEET
IMPERIAL GALS. 10 WT. OF WATER IN LBS. 62º F 0.10 IMPERIAL GALS.
U.S. GALS. 8.327 WT. OF WATER IN LBS. 62º F 0.1201 U.S. GALS.
DIAMETER 3.1416 CIRCUMFERENCE 0.31831 DIAMETER
DEGREES IN F .5556X(Fº-32) DEGREES CELSIUS (1.80XCº)+32 DEGREES IN F
FOOT POUNDS 0.13826 KG.M 7.233 FOOT POUNDS
P.S.I. 0.006896 Mpa (N/mm²) 145.038 P.S.I.
P.S.I. 7.0307X10(-4) Kg/mm² 1422 P.S.I.
LBS. 0.004448 Kn 224.8 LBS.
SHORT TONS 8.8968 KN 0.1124 SHORT TONS
41
Decimal & Metric Conversion Tables
FRACTIONAL DECIMAL METRIC FRACTIONAL DECIMAL METRIC

EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT (MM) EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT
(IN) (IN) (IN) (IN) (MM)
1/64 .0156 .397 33/64 .5156 13.097
1/32 .0312 .794 17/32 .5312 13.494
3/64 .0469 1.191 35/64 .5469 13.891
1/16 .0625 1.5888 9/16 .5625 14.288
5/64 .0781 1.984 37/64 .5781 14.684
3/32 .0938 2.381 19/32 .5938 15.081
7/64 .1094 2.788 39/64 .6094 15.478
1/8 .1250 3.175 5/8 .6250 15.875
9/64 .1406 3.572 41/64 .6406 16.272

5/32 .1562 3.969 21/32 .6562 16.669
11/64 .1719 4.366 43/64 .6719 17.065
3/16 .1875 4.762 11/16 .6875 17.462
13/64 .2031 5.159 45/64 .7031 17.859
7/32 .2188 5.556 23/32 .7188 18.256
15/64 .2344 5.953 47/64 .7344 18.653
¼ .2500 6.350 ¾ .7500 19.050
17/64 .2656 6.747 49/64 .7656 19.447

9/32 .2812 7.144 25/32 .7812 19.844
19/64 .2969 7.541 51/64 .7969 20.241
5/16 .3125 7.938 13/16 .8125 20.638
21/64 .3281 8.334 53/64 .8281 21.034
11/32 .3438 8.731 27/32 .8438 21.431
23/64 .3594 9.128 55/64 .8594 21.828
3/8 .3750 9.525 7/8 .8750 22.225
25/64 .3906 9.922 57/64 .8906 22.622

13/32 .4062 10.319 29/32 .9062 23.019
27/64 .4219 10.716 59/64 .9219 23.416
7/16 .4375 11.112 15/16 .9375 23.812
29/64 .4531 11.509 61/64 .9531 24.209
15/32 .4688 11.906 31/32 .9844 24.606
31/64 .4844 12.303 63/64 .9844 25.003
½ .5000 12.700 1 1.0000 25.400
42
GLOSSARY
Design (Safety) Factor – Working Load Limit (10)
GLOSSARY
Design (Safety) Factor – An industry term denoting a product’s theoretical reserve

capability. Usually computed by dividing the catalog ultimate load by the working load
limit. Generally expressed as a ratio (e.g., 7 to 1 (loads) 10 to 1 (personnel)).
Fatigue Rated – Tested to a minimum standard of 20,000 cycles at .5 times the working
load limit. Will meet the requirements of the Euronom standards for fatigue.
Proof Load – The average force applied in the performance of a proof test. The average
force that a product may be subjected to before deformation occurs.
Proof Test – A test applied to a product solely to determine injurious material or

manufacturing defects.
Shock Load – A force that results from the rapid application of a force (e.g., impacting,
jerking) or rapid movement of a static load. A shock load significantly adds to the static
load.
Static Load – The load resulting from a constant applied force or load.
Ultimate Load – The average load or force at which the product fails or no longer
supports the load.
Working Load – The maximum mass or force that the product is authorized to support
in a particular service.
Working Load Limit – The maximum mass or force that the product is authorized to
support in general service when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise with
respect to the centerline of the product. This term is used interchangeably with the
following terms:
1. WLL
2. Rated Load Value
3. Resultant Working Load
43
TOWER INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY

A/B Block PCS Licensee – Base Insulator (12)
Block – Carabiner (13)
Cathode – Corrosion (14)
Cross Rods – F Block Licensee (15)
Fall Arrest Equipment – Guy Anchor (16)
Guyed Tower – Jump the Pole (17)
KHz (Kilohertz) – MTSO (18)
National Association of Tower Erectors (NATE) – RF Burns (19)
Rig the Tower – Stress Analysis (20)
Stub – Two Thousand Footer (21)
Vortex Limiter – Winch (22)
TOWER INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY
A/B Block PCS Licensee – Designation used to describe the first two PCS blocks
auctioned by the FCC. Large telecommunications firms and other consortia typically buy
up these blocks. Each licensee receives 30 MHz of spectrum in its licensed area. A
licensed area is classified as an MTA (Major Trading Area).
AM (Amplitude Modulation) – Radio technology that sends a signal by varying the

amplitude of a “carrier” wave.
AM Tower – Tower that is isolated from ground and acts as an antenna. RF radiates
from the entire structure as opposed to an antenna on the structure as is the case with
other towers.
Amplitude – The magnitude of the depth of a radio wave.
Anode – Is a metallic device sacrificial to other device. It will corrode away while
protecting cathode.
Antenna – Electrical device used to amplify and broadcast radio signals. High gain
antennas are typically larger and will amplify transmitter power for broader coverage.
Antenna Mount – Steel structure attached to a tower to which antennas are fastened for
broadcast of signals.
Anti-Two Block System – A system designed for placement at the hoist and the top
sheave. Typically, the top position will be a transmitter attached to a spring-actuated
44
weighted chain. When the headache ball comes in contact with the weight on the chain,
it will lift the chain. This relaxed tension will allow the spring to pull shut, closing the
circuit and transmitting the signal to the base unit located on the hoist. The base system
will alarm, allowing the operator to know that he must stop raising the load. Some
systems are attached so that they stop the hoist without operator input.
Back-to-Back – A secondary section of steel used to reinforce diagonals or horizontals.
Base Insulator – Ceramic insulator typically at the bottom of an AM tower. Designed to

electrically insulate the tower from the ground.
Block – A heavy-duty pulley used for rigging, as in “block and tackle.” Types of blocks
used and names are:
1. Snatch Block – Usually placed on the stub for temps to be attached.

2. Float Block – Used for tightening the temps located out by the anchors.
3. Heel, Foot or Base Block – Located at the base of the tower for guy wires
load line and jump line.
Boom – An antenna-mounting bracket that positions the antenna away from the tower
structure. Resembles a fence gate in many instances. Also known as a gate.
Bowline Knot – A common knot used in rigging. Mandatory that tower climbers know
how to tie.
Broadcasting Company – Also known as a broadcaster, a potential customer in the radio

or TV business. Towers are typically taller then other tower users, but most companies
have fewer of them. However, because of relaxation to telecommunications law, owners
are able to now acquire multiple stations and, therefore, are getting larger tower
portfolios.
Bullet – Connector used to continue the signal path at the connection points for the
transmission line.
C Block Licensee – Designation used to describe the third PCS block auctioned by the
FCC. This block was also referred to as the entrepreneur block because it was reserved
for small enterprises. It turned out that the licensees actually spent more per POP than
the A/B. Each licensee receives 30 MHz of spectrum in his or her licensed area. A
licensed area is classified as a BTA (Basic Trading Area).
Cable Clip – U-bolt and saddle assembly used to hold a loop together on the dead end of
a guy cable or wire rope. “Never saddle a dead horse” is a way to remember the proper
installation of a cable clip.
45
Cable Grips – Tool used to grip guy cables in order to pull and hold tension either for
testing or erecting.
Candelabra – An antenna-mounting platform, typically at the top of a tower, designed to

hold multiple antennas.
Carabiner – An oval-shaped metallic device with a double-action, locking snap gate

used in rigging.
Cathode – Metallic structure such as an anchor that an anode attaches to, to prevent
corrosion.
Cathodic Protection – Technology that utilizes electro-chemical principles to mitigate

corrosion on buried underground structures.
CDMA – One of three different technologies used to broadcast signals between towers
and wireless telephones in a PCS or cellular telephone system. The other technologies
are TDMA and GSM.
Cell Site – Cellular site used for broadcasting cellular signals. Typically includes a
tower, a building, fencing and miscellaneous site work.
Cellular Licensee – One of two licensees in each county across the U.S. One license
was awarded based on licensee being the largest telephone wire line carrier in the county.
The other license was awarded based on a lottery system. Counties are classified as RSA
(rural) or MSA (metropolitan).
Chinese Finger – Another name for hoisting grips. The device constricts or gets tighter
as weight is added.
Choker – Is typically a manufactured length of cable with a manufactured eye at each

end. Chokers are used to pick up heavy loads and are rated with a SF based upon the size
of the cable and the angle and configuration being used.
Clove Hitch – A common knot used in rigging to attach a rope to round members. Is
mandatory for tower climbers to know how to tie.
Coaxial Cable – Also referred to as coax, transmission line, feed line, Heliax and line.
Used to carry RF signals from a transmitter to an antenna or from a receive antenna to a
receiver. Made of copper with an air dielectric or foam dielectric insulation between the
outer copper conductor to the inner conductor. Typically is corrugated and made for
bending as required.
Co-Location – Utilizing an existing structure to place required antenna systems.
46
Connector – Brass or silver device used to terminate coaxial cable at each end in order to
interface with the antenna or the transmitter.
Corrosion – The process of a refined metal returning to its native state, such as steel to
oxide. Process is magnified in certain conditions, such as in low resistivity electrolytes
where current can easily flow and/or when an anodic material is attached electrically to
another metal.
Cross Rods – Also referred to as diagonals, hog rods, wind bars, etc. Are structural
members on the tower that extend diagonally between two points on the tower face. On
tall towers, these members are often removable for repair or replacement.
CSF (Corrosion Severity Factor) – A means of communicating the degree of corrosion

found on anchor shafts below grade. Developed by SFT.
Dampers – Devices used to reduce vibration of the guy wires. Without the dampening
effect, the wires can be caused to vibrate wildly, sometimes called galloping. Sand
dampers or low frequency dampers are typically located near the anchor points. High
frequency or wishbones, bow ties, etc., are located next to the tower and have a small
cable tie to protect against the damper falling.
D/E Block Licensee – Designation used to describe the fourth PCS block auctioned by
the FCC. Typically bought up by large telecommunications firms and other consortia, in
many cases to supplement those geographic areas in which they were unsuccessful in
obtaining the A/B block auction. Each licensee receives 10 MHz of spectrum. A
licensed area is classified as a BTA (Basic Trading Area).
Dipole – The mechanical structure of many antennas. Small antennas without a radome
are referred to as “exposed dipole” antennas.
Dish – Directional parabolic microwave antenna.
Down Tilt – Terminology used to describe how a PCS or cellular antenna is oriented
relative to the ground.
Electrolyte – Any substance in which electricity can flow, such as water or soil. One of
the key ingredients required in the set up of a corrosion cell. Other required elements
include anode, cathode and electrical path between the two.
Equipment Shelter – Term used to describe the shelter used to house the radio
equipment at the base of the tower.
Exposed Dipole – A dipole antenna with no radome.
47
F Block Licensee – Same as C block, except each licensee received only 10 MHz of
spectrum. A licensed area is classified as a BTA (Basic Trading Area).
Fall Arrest Equipment – Describes the various pieces of equipment used to catch a fall
should it occur. This includes a full body harness to distribute the forces throughout the
body, a shock-absorbing lanyard, a solid connecting point on the structure and, in some
cases, a lifeline.
Fan Plate – The steel portion of guy anchor, with holes to attach guy anchors.
FM (Frequency Modulation) – Radio technology that sends a signal by varying the

frequency of a “carrier” wave.
Free Climbing – Climbing on a tower without any positive fall protection in place. If
this is required, a free climbing brief will be conducted prior to the climb that will cover
the climb path possible tie off points/rest areas, rescue procedures and detail as to why a
free climb is required.
Frequency – The number of times a radio wave passes through one cycle. The
“frequency spectrum” is divided into sections and allotted by federal license to the
various users. Different frequencies have different behaviors. Microwave and PCS are
on the high end of the spectrum, and AM radio is on the low end.
Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection – Technology that utilizes a more refined metal as
a sacrificial means of protecting a less refined metal in an underground environment.
Examples: Magnesium to protect steel, zinc to protect steel. The magnesium or zinc give
up their life for the steel.
Gate – An antenna-mounting bracket that positions the antenna away from the tower
structure. Resembles a fence gate in many instances. Also known as a boom.
GHz – One of three different technologies used to broadcast signals between towers and
wireless telephones in a PCS or cellular telephone system. The other technologies are
TDMA and CDMA.
Gin Pole – The device used as a crane boom that is placed on the tower face and used to
lift sections or antennas. Gin poles come in various sizes and are tracked and non-
tracked. Typically, tracked poles are used on large towers where heavy loads will be
lifted.
Guy Anchor – Steel shaft with concrete anchorage below grade used to support guy
cables. Also referred to as an anchor point.
48
Guyed Tower – Lattice tower with guy cables to support the structure vertically.
Typically used where heavy loads are required and land is plentiful. Is least expensive
per foot.
Half Cell – Same as reference cell. Used to check potential of a metal in an electrolyte.
Copper/copper sulfate is most commonly used half cell or reference cell in the corrosion
industry.
Half Hitch – A common knot used in rigging. Is mandatory for tower climbers to know
how to tie.
Hairpin – A device used to hold and provide adjustment on a guy cable at the anchor
point. Typically found on large-scale towers.
Hangers – Typically stainless steel or plastic devices used to fasten coaxial cable to a
tower or other structure. There are standards on how often coax needs to be fastened,
typically every 3-4 feet.
Headache Ball – Item used as a counterweight at the end of a cable or rope to bring the
weight of the cable down the tower.
Hertz – Unit of measurement of radio waves. One Hertz is one cycle of a radio wave per
second. Represented as a graph starting at a zero line rising to a certain point, dropping
back to the zero line and passing it to the equal point below zero, and back to zero. Is a
sine curve.
Hoisting Grip – Wire device used to lift coaxial cable without damaging the coax. Is
similar to a Chinese finger. Coax when being lifted will not have greater than 200 feet
between any pick point.
Horizontals – Structural members on the tower that extend horizontally between two
points on the tower face.
Johnny Ball – Guy cable insulator. Typically made of ceramic material. Designed so
that if it should break, the guys are looped together and will catch together. Used on AM
tower guys and electrical transmission line pole guys.
Jump Line – Typically a wire rope cable used to lift the gin pole up and down on the
tower.
Jump the Pole – Term used to describe the procedure of raising the gin pole to a higher
elevation.
KHz (Kilohertz) – One thousand Hertz. One Hertz is one cycle per second of a radio
wave. KHz is one thousand cycles per second.
49
Lanyard – Typically a rope with snap hooks on each end used with a safety harness to
attach personnel to the tower. Most harnesses utilize a 3-6 foot fall catching lanyard and
various lengths of positioning lanyards, typically 2-3 feet in length.
Lattice Tower – Tower that utilizes diagonal and horizontal bracing in its structural
design.
Life Line – A rope typically 5/8”, or a cable used along with a sliding/camming device to
provide fall arrest and wide-ranging “hands free” vertical movement.
Line Sweeps – Terminology used to describe the procedure for electronically testing
coaxial cable and antenna systems.
Load Cell – Measuring device used to test guy wire tensions on guyed towers.
Load Line – A wire rope cable used with a winch to lift objects or personnel up and
down a tower.
MHz (Mega Hertz) – One million Hertz. One Hertz is one cycle per second of a radio
wave. MHz is one million cycles per second.
Microwave – Signals typically above 2000 MHz or two GHz. Usually utilize a dish to
transmit or receive the signal, but not with PCS. Not to be confused with satellite dishes,
tower dishes shoot from point to point and not to extra-terrestrial satellites.
Monopole – Cylindrical pole with platforms attached to support antennas. Typically

used where aesthetics is an issue and land is scarce. Is most expensive structure per foot.
Mounting Iron – Refers to antenna mounting brackets of all types that interface the
tower to the antenna.
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) – Contains all safety-related information on a

chemical product used in industry. It gives handling procedures, first aid, cautions, etc.
OSHA requires that these be easily accessed for each chemical product used on a job site.
MTSO – Acronym used to describe the switch building for a cellular or PCS company.
Pronounced “mit-so.”
National Association of Tower Erectors (NATE) – An association of tower erectors

formed for furthering the cause of tower erection companies in the U.S. and Canada.
Path Alignment – Term to describe a procedure where two microwave dishes/antennas

are pointed directly at each other in other to communicate with each other.
50
PCS (Personal Communications Services) – New technology used for wireless

communications. Spectrum is in the 1850-2000 MHz range.
PCS Site – Sites used for broadcasting PCS signals. Typically includes a tower, a
building or concrete pad with outdoor mounted radios, fencing and miscellaneous site
work.
Plumb & Tension – Term used to describe procedure where guyed towers are checked to
verify vertical alignment and guy cables are checked for proper tension. This procedure
is often done during tower inspections.
Positioning Seat – A part of the harness designed to keep a worker in position while
performing a task. Not fall arrest equipment, but part of the harness.
PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) – Is personal protective equipment such as

harness, gloves, eye protection, etc.
Radios – Generic term used to describe the electronic componentry that generates signals
for broadcast or receives signals.
Radome – A protective cover or shield, attached to an antenna to provide protection to

the more delicate radiating elements, to provide a more efficient wind profile. Typically
made of fiberglass or high quality plastics.
Reference Cell – Measuring device to check potential of cathodic protection system and
to test life of sacrificial anodes.
RF (Radio Frequency) – Radio frequency radiation. Describes the type of energy that
is used to send signals through antenna systems and the atmosphere. Not radiation in the
same sense as nuclear radiation or ionizing radiation. The effects of RF radiation do not
build up in the body, rather the only known effect on the body is to heat, like a
microwave oven. Soft tissue, like eyes and areas where the bones are near the skin
(wrist, ankle), tend to feel the heat first.
RF Burns – A small but painful burn caused by touching tower members or antennas in
an RF field.
Rig the Tower – Term used to describe the process of placing cables and sheaves on the
tower attached to a hoisting device to lift items up and down from the tower.
Rooster Head – A device placed at the top of the gin pole. It rotates 360 º and is used to
run the load line through and lift loads.
51
Rooftop Site – Antenna site where existing building is used to elevate antenna systems.
Typically used in cities where tower sites are unavailable or economics dictate co-
location.
Safety Climb System – A permanent cable or rail installed on a long ladder used along
with a camming device to provide continuous, moving fall arrest. Required on all towers
built after 1998.
Safety Harness – A device used by personnel to arrest falls and to attach personnel to the
tower for working in a hands-free environment. (See also Fall Arrest Equipment,
Positioning Seat.)
Sectored Site – Terminology used to describe the practice of installing multiple antenna
on one tower oriented typically in three directions to optimize coverage without sending
signal into areas where it is not wanted. Most large cities utilize sectored sites, PCS,
cellular and SMR.
Self-Supporting Tower – Lattice tower that slopes, with the tower base being wider than
the top. Typically used where heavy loads are required and land is scarce.
Shackle – A connecting device used in rigging. Made of steel and capable of holding
heavy loads.
Sling – Typically a manufactured loop of nylon or polyester used to pick up heavy loads.
Safety factors are computed for slings just as they are for cables and chokers.
SMR (Specialized Mobile Radio) – Typically in the 800 MHz range. Allows similar
characteristics to cellular, but more suited to fleets because of its ability to have more
than two users listening at one time.
Spud Wrench – Wrench used in the alignment of two pieces of steel for placement of
bolts, such as when connecting two tower sections together. This wrench has a long
pointed end for sliding into and aligning holes.
Stress Analysis – Structural analysis performed on a tower by a licensed professional

engineer. Analysis takes into account wind, ice and antenna loads. Analysis typically
Uses the telecommunications industry association/electronic industries association
standard 222-F for criteria.
Stub – The first and bottom-most piece of a tower being erected. Must be set in place
and be of sufficient height so can place the gin pole on it. Typically a crane will be used
to set the stub and all sections to the first guy level.
Tag Line – Is typically a cable line used with a winch and attached to a tower used in
conjunction with the load line to keep objects and personnel from coming into contact
52
with the tower. There are three basic configurations used – straight tag, trolley tag and
inverted tag.
Tall Towers – Refers to large-scale towers, usually 1,000 feet and over. Most often used
to support TV broadcast antennas and sometimes FM broadcast antennas. Also known as
“Big Iron.”
TDMA – One of three different technologies used to broadcast signals between towers
and wireless telephones in a PCS or cellular telephone system. The other technologies
are CDMA and GSM.
Test Head – Special term devised to describe the unit used with the anchor guard system.
The test head ultimately attaches to the reference cell and is the device that the voltmeter
attaches to in order to check mixed circuit potential.
Thimble – A sleeve designed to create a smooth, even bend in a rope, wire rope or guy
cable dead-end.
TIA/EIA 222-F – Standard written by industry volunteers (typically PEs) for the
manufacture of towers and antenna support structures. Standard usually assumes ½” ice
and around 85 mph winds applied to most structures. Wind speed changes from county
to county across the U.S.
Tower Inspection – Procedure where personnel climb and visually inspect a tower for
potential problems and test for tower plumbness and guy cable tension. Tower
inspections typically accompanied by written reports.
Transit – Instrument used to visually check for plumbness.
Turnbuckles – Threaded device used to tighten or loosen guy cable tension.
Two Thousand Footer – A 2,000-foot tower typically used to hold a TV antenna. This
is typically the tallest that is built. Above this height, towers are subject to wind and ice
loads that cause too much unpredictability. Experience has shown that towers will not
stand for long periods above 2,000 feet. A case in point – the 2,000-foot tower that went
down near Grand Forks, ND, in the ice. Towers are the tallest manmade structures in the
world, and this sets our industry apart from all others.
Vortex Limiter – Typically a short wire that is wrapped around the guy wire disrupting
the smooth flow path that causes galloping.
Water Tower Site – Antenna site where an existing water tower is used to support
antennas. Typically used where land is scarce or economics mandate co-location.
53
Weather Proofing – Is also referred to as vapor seal, cold-shrink, elephant snot, etc.
Pliable rubbery substance used to seal connectors to keep out moisture.
Winch – Also known as hoist. A device with cylindrical drums with cable used to hoist
items up and down the tower. Also used to hoist personnel to work stations on the tower
typically hydraulically operated with gas or diesel engines.
54
BACIC TOWER SECTIONS

Column Splice & Tower Face (24)
Typical Gusset Arrangements (25)
Hairpin & Tower Guy Wire Connections (26)
Guy Wire Fan Plate Connections (27)
Anchor Arrangements (28)
55
COLUMN SPLICE & TOWER FACE
The graphic depictions throughout this section are generic and represent a variety of
towers and possibilities that can be associated with any tower. Though there are many
different towers, the construction and the appearance are consistent with those on pages
24-28.
NUT
WASHER 3/8”
BOLT HEAD
TOWER COULMN
TYPICAL COLUMN SPLICE

TYPICAL FLANGE DETAIL
FACE Y FACE Z
FACE X
56
TYPICAL GUSSET ARRANGEMENTS
DIAGONALS
GUSSET PLATE
HORIZONTAL
CHANNEL
SPACER
BOLT HEAD
NUT
HEAD
BACK TO BACK
TOWER LEG FROM TOP VIEW
TYPICAL GUSSET ARRANGEMENT (RODS ARE PICTURED) (K BRACE

WOULD NOT HAVE THE ROD ON THE BOTTOM OF THE GUSSET.)
GUY LEVEL GUSSET
57
HAIRPIN & TOWER GUY WIRE CONNECTIONS
CLOSED BRIDGE SOCKET HAIRPIN

OPEN STRAND SOCKET
GUY WIRE
DETAIL AT ANCHOR
DETAIL AT TOWER
GUY GUSSET
TOWER GUSSET
PIN
OPEN STRAND SOCKET
58
GUY WIRE FAN PLATE CONNECTIONS
WASHER B
COTTER PIN B
PIN B
TOP VIEW OF HAIR PIN CONNECTION SPACER
BOLT
PLATE A
GUY 3
GUY LEVEL 2 COTTER PIN A
ANCHOR PIN A MAIN
SHAFT
WASHER A
PLATE B
GUY
LEVEL
1
FAN PLATE
CLOSED BRIDGE SOCKET
59
ANCHOR ARRANGEMENTS
EXAMPLE OF AN OUTER ANCHOR
EXAMPLE OF
STARMOUNT OR ARBOR ANCHOR
EXAMPLE OF AN INNER AND MIDDLE ANCHOR
60
ANTENNA
Antenna Names & Dimensions (30)
Red Lighting Placement (32)
New Tower Construction/Painting Requirements (33)
61
62
63
64
RIGGING GLOSSARY
Abrasion – Closing Line (35)
Construction – Fatigue (36)
Fiber Core – Laced Blocks (37)
Lagging – Nominal Strength (38)
Opening – Two-Blocked, Block & Block (39)
Warrington Seale (WS) - XIP (40)
RIGGING GLOSSARY
Abrasion – Frictional surface wear on the wires of a wire rope.
Bight – The bend of a line, rope or cable.
Birdcage – A colloquial term used to describe the appearance of a wire rope forced into
compression. The outer strands form a cage and, at times, displace the core.
Bleeding Line – When a cable is overloaded, the lubricant in the cable will be squeezed
out, and run excessively.
Block – A term applied to a wire rope sheave (pulley) enclosed in side plates and fitted
with some attachment such as a hook or shackle.
Boom Hoist Line – Wire rope that operates the boom hoist system of cranes, draglines,
shovels, derricks, etc.
Boom Pendant – A non-operating rope or strand with end terminations to support the
boom.
Breaking Strength – Breaking strength is the ultimate load at which a tensile failure
occurs in the sample of wire rope being tested. (Note: The term “breaking strength” is
synonymous with actual strength.) Nominal strength is the published (catalog) strength
calculated by a standard procedure accepted by the wire rope industry. The wire rope
manufacturer designs wire rope to this strength, and you should consider the strength
when making design calculations.
Change of Layer Point – That point in the transverse of a rope across the face of the
drum where it reaches the flange, reverses direction and begins forming the next layer.
65
Choker – Sling, wire rope with eyes spliced on each end. Typically used to lift loads.
Clip – A fitting for clamping two parts of wire rope to each other.
Closing Line – Wire rope that performs two functions:
1. Closes a clamshell or orange peel bucket

2. Operates as a hoisting rope
Construction – Is the geometric design description of the wire rope’s cross-section. This
includes the number of strands, the number of wires per strand and the pattern of wire
arrangement in each strand.
Core – The axial member of a wire rope about which the strands are laid.
Corrosion – Is the chemical decomposition of the wires in a rope through the action of
moisture, acids, alkalines or other destructive agents.
Corrugated – The term used to describe the grooves of a sheave or drum after these have
been worn down to a point where they show an impression of a wire rope.
Design Factor – In a wire rope. It is the ratio of the nominal strength to the total
working load.
Diameter – A line segment that passes through the center of a circle and whose end
points lie on the circle. Is related to wire rope. It would be the diameter of a circle that
encircles the wire rope.
Dog-Leg – Permanent bend or kink in a wire rope caused by improper use or handling.
Dragline – (1) Wire rope used for pulling excavating or drag buckets, and (2) the name
applied to a specific type of excavator.
Drum – A cylindrical barrel, either of uniform or tapering diameter on which rope is

wound either for operation or storage. Its surface may be smooth or grooved.
End Preparation – The treatment of the end of a length of wire rope designed primarily
as an aid for pulling the rope through a reeving system or tight drum opening. Unlike end
terminations, these are not designed for use as a method for making a permanent
connection.
Equalizing Sheave – The sheave at the center of a rope system over which no rope
movement occurs other than equalizing movement. It is frequently overlooked during
crane inspections with disastrous consequences. It can be a source of severe degradation.
66
Falls – A set of blocks reeved or laced, with cable or rope.
Fatigue – As applied to wire rope, the term usually refers to the process of progressive
failure resulting from the bending of individual wire. These fractures may and usually do
occur at bending stresses well below the ultimate strength of the material; it is not an
abnormality although it may be accelerated due to conditions of the rope such as rust or
lack of lubrication.
Fiber Core – Cord or rope of vegetable or synthetic fiber used as the rope’s axial
member.
Filler Wire – Small spacer wires within a strand that help position and support other
wires. Is also the name for the type of rope’s strand pattern that uses filler wires.
Flattened Strand Rope – Wire rope that is made either of oval or triangular shaped
strands in order to form a flattened rope surface.
Fleet Angle – That angle between the rope’s position at the extreme end wrap on a drum
and a line drawn perpendicular to the axis of the drum through the center of the nearest
fixed sheave.
Galvanized Rope – Wire rope made up of galvanized wire.
Grooved Drum – Is a drum with a grooved surface that accommodates the rope and
guides it for proper winding.
Grooves – Depressions, helical or parallel, in the surface of a sheave or drum that are
shaped to position and support the rope.
Headache Block – The travel block of the multiple, or main load line.
Holding Line – Wire rope on a clamshell or orange peel bucket that suspends the bucket
while the closing line is released to dump its load.
Idler – Sheave or roller used to guide or support a rope.
Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC) – A wire rope used as the axial member of a
larger wire rope.
Jib or Whip Line – The single load line.
Kink – A unique deformation of a wire rope caused by a loop of rope being pulled down
tight. It represents irreparable damage to and an indeterminate loss of the rope’s strength.
67
Laced Blocks – Passing cable through a set of blocks by starting from an outside sheave
and following in rotation. Will usually tilt the travel block when running empty.
Lagging – (1) External wood covering on a reel to protect the wire rope or strand, or (2)
the grooved shell of a drum.
Lay – (1) The manner in which the wires in a strand or the strands in a rope are helically
laid, or (2) the distance measured parallel to the axis of the rope (or strand) in which a
strand (or wire) makes one complete spiral curl about the core (or center). The latter is
also referred to as lay length or pitch.
Lay Types:
1. Right Lay – The direction of strand or wire helix corresponding to that of a

right-hand screw thread.
2. Left Lay – The direction of strand or wire helix corresponding to that of a left-
hand screw thread.
3. Regular Lay – The type of rope in which the lay of the wires in the strand is
the opposite direction to the lay of the strand in the rope. The crowns of the
wires appear to be parallel to the rope’s axis.
4. Lang Lay – The type of rope in which the lay of the wires in the strand is the
same direction as the lay of the strand in the rope. The crowns of the wires
appear to be at an angle to the rope’s axis.
5. Alternate Lay – Lay of a wire rope in which the strands are alternately regular
and lang lay.
Lead Line – That part of a rope tackle leading from the first, or fast, sheave to the drum.
(See Drum and Sheave.)
Luff – Using two or more sets of falls, by attaching to the lead line of the first set of falls
another set, to give greater pulling power.
Milking – Sometimes called ironing, this is the progressive movement of strands along
the rope’s axis, resulting from the rope’s movement through a restricted passage such as a
tight sheave.
Monkey Tail – Anything used, such as a 4x4 (wood), to prevent a travel block from
twisting. Also to prevent a turnbuckle from twisting while tightening, and after it has
been tightened.
Mousing – Wiring the throat of a hook to prevent a choker from jumping out of the hook.
Also to prevent a block that is hooked to lashing or a choker, from slipping off.
Nominal Strength – (See Breaking Strength.)
68
Opening – Permanent distortion resulting from cold plastic metal deformation of the
outer wires. Usually caused by pounding against a sheave or machine member or the
heavy operating pressure between rope and sheave, rope and drum, or rope and adjacent
wrap of rope.
Reel – A flanged spool on which wire rope or strand is wound for storage or shipment.
Reeve – To pass a rope through a hole or around a system of sheaves.
Reeved Blocks – Passing cable (or rope) through a set of blocks, as opposed to laced
blocks, and in such a manner so that there are no lines crossed or rubbing each other.
Reserve Strength – The strength of a rope exclusive of the outer wires.
Rocker Beam – Beam used for hoisting flimsy trusses, or long flimsy loads. Also used
to equalize the weight, and to keep the load from buckling.
Rotation-Resistant Rope – A wire rope consisting of an inner layer of strand laid in one
direction covered by a layer of strand laid in the opposite direction. This has the effect of
counteracting torque by reducing the tendency of finished rope to rotate.
Seize – To make a secure binding at the end of a wire rope or strand with seizing wire or
seizing strand.
Sheave – A grooved pulley for wire rope.
Smooth-Faced Drum – A drum with a plain, ungrooved surface. (See Drum.)
Softeners – Anything used to protect the load or cable, also rope, from damage while
making a lift. Also prevents load from slipping.
Spreaders – A set of chokers or slings of equal length used to lift a load.
Strand – Several round or shaped wires helically laid about an axis.
Strength – (See Breaking Strength.)
Tag Line – A length of rope used to guide a load being lifted into a desired position.
Two-Blocked, or Block & Block – When the blocks are right up to each other and can
go no farther. Also used to “say” that you are as far as you can go with whatever you are
doing.
69
Warrington Seale (WS) – The name for a type of strand pattern characterized by having
one of its outer layers (usually the outer) made up of an arrangement of alternately large
and small wires.
Wedge Socket – Wire rope fittings in which the rope is secured by a wedge. (See
Fitting.)
Wire Rope – Several wire strands helically laid about an axis.
XIP – A specific grade of WRCA wire rope trademarked as XIP.
70
TERMS, DEFINITIONS
&
INTERPRETATIONS
Basket Choker (Sling) – Rooster Head (42)
Shall – Will (43)
71
TERMS, DEFINITIONS & INTERPRETATIONS
Basket Choker (Sling) – A basket choker is two chokers attached from the two sides of
the bottom of the gin pole to the tower. Usually, basket chokers are used in conjunction
with an independent set of chokers that go around a tower leg and then hook back into the
eye of the basket chokers. Calculations for these must include the weight of the gin pole,
load and jump lines, headache ball(s), and the weight of the section(s) or equipment being
put into place, plus a suitable safety factor.
Bridle (Collar) Choker (Sling) – A bridle or collar choker is two chokers attached from
the top of the existing tower to a vertical mid-point on the gin pole.
Cantilever Height – The height of the gin pole above the uppermost section of the track.
This is usually not greater than 50 percent of the height of the gin pole or 40 percent of
the weighted axis of the gin pole.
Gin Pole – A gin pole is a device unique to the telecommunications industry used to raise
successive sections of tower steel or equipment into position. This temporary device
allows headroom to accommodate the length of the next tower section or equipment
being installed. Gin poles come in a variety of styles and sizes. Procedures may vary
slightly from pole to pole.
Headache Ball (Counter Weight, Overhaul Ball) – Is a means of returning the end of
the load line to the ground when the weight of the cable (weight per foot times length)
exceeds the weight of the attachment on the end of the load line.
Hoist – A mechanical device that uses a power source to rotate drums holding lengths of
cable to raise or lower any given structural piece or any equipment.
Jump Line – A length of cable the size and strength to safely raise the gin pole as each
consecutive section of the tower is installed. The choker and block used for the jump line
are usually attached to the tower leg of the preceding tower section and hung on the next
section as it passes the attachment point.
Load Line – A length of cable of sufficient strength to hoist each piece of steel or
equipment that is to be raised into place.
May – Permissive choice.
Rooster Head – A device unique to the telecommunications industry located on the top
of the gin pole, secured with a sheave, capable of rotating 360 degrees.
72
Shall – Mandatory under normal conditions.
Should – Suggested or advisory, the best available advice at the time.
Will – Mandatory, with provisions allowing some discretionary action.
73
HOIST USAGE TERMS & DEFINITIONS

After Inspection – When Back in Service (45)
HOIST USAGE TERMS & DEFINITIONS
After Inspection – A new certificate for personnel handling will be issued by the
inspector/serviceman, effective on the date the hoist is placed back in service. Inspection
records and reports of repairs and modifications shall be available and accessible for two
years after the hoist is sent in for a periodic inspection. These records should include, but
not be limited to, hoist model and serial number, name and employer of repair/technician,
date and description of repair, and functional test reports.
Heavy Usage – Applies to those hoists that are used for more than 50 hours per month.
Hoists in this category could go up to 24 months between teardown inspections, if
serviced under a good preventive maintenance program that includes semi-annual oil
sample analysis. Oil in these hoists should be changed on an annual basis. Hoists not
subject to recommended oil sample analyses should undergo a teardown inspection on a
12-month basis.
Infrequent-to-Moderate Use – Applies to those hoists that are used for 50 hours or less
per month and normally operate at considerably less than the hoist rated capacity (based
on the average use over a month). Hoists in this category shall have a means of
determining the average number of hours used monthly. Hoists in this category could go
up to 36 months between teardown inspections, if serviced under a good preventive
maintenance program that includes annual oil sample analyses. Oil in these hoists should
be changed on an annual basis as a minimum. Hoists not subject to recommended oil
sample analyses should undergo a teardown inspection on a 12-month basis.
When Back in Service – The rebuilt hoist assembly must be line pull tested to the rated
load. The hoist drum must be rotated several times in both hoisting and lowering
directions under full-rated load while checking for smooth operation.
74

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OSHA T R A I N I N G M A T E R I A L S

O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH A DMINISTRATION

Tower Fall Prevention

Funded through OSHA Susan Harwood Training Grant Program

Published September 2004

Foreman Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________________

Foreman Signature: __________________________________ Date: ___________

Foreman Signature: ______________________________ Date: ________________

Foreman Signature: __________________________________ Date: ___________

Inspecting Wire Rope Slings

Foreman Signature: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Inspections for Webbing Slings

Foreman Signature: ___________________________ Date: __________________

Foreman Signature: ____________________________ Date: ________________

13/16 – 1 – 1/8 + 3/64

2 – 5/16 & UP + 1/8

Foreman Signature: _________________________________ Date: ___________

9. Demonstrate the ability to compute safety factors.

Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: _____________

Safe Working Load

10. Demonstrate the ability to compute a safe working load.

Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: _____________

Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: ____________

Sling Angle Computations & SF

1. 60° leg angle causes a loss in lifting capacity of 15%.

2. 45° leg angle causes a loss in lifting capacity of 30%.

3. 30° leg angle causes a loss in lifting capacity of 50%.

60° 45° 30° 10°

1.155 1.414 2.0 6.7

90° 60° 45° 30°

500 lbs. 575 lbs. 575 lbs.

705 lbs. 705 lbs. 1000 lbs.

12. Demonstrate your ability to perform sling angle computations.

Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: _____________

Wire Rope Terminations

Rope Minimum Amount Rope Torque in

(13.24.2) We want a 5/1 design factor (SF).

(13.24.5) The guy angle is 45°.

3500 X 1.4 = 4900

Foreman Signature: _____________________________________ Date: ________

Foreman: ______________________________________ Date: _________________

15. Recommended by foreman through official evaluation to take advancement

Foreman Signature: ________________________________ Date: _____________

Successfully passed written examination with a score of ________________________

(Printed Name) (Signature)

1. Decreasing the load on the rope

(3.29) The radial contact pressure can be calculated as follows:

Rope Construction Contact Pressure (PSI) Limits for

Rope Drum Diameter (inches) for Various Types of Ropes

INDEX FOR TOWER WORKERS

USEFUL MATH FORMULAS 3

Design (Safety) Factor – Working Load Limit 10

TOWER INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY 11

A/B Block PCS Licensee – Base Insulator 12

BASIC TOWER SECTIONS 23

Column Splice & Tower Face 24

Antenna Names & Dimensions 30

Abrasion – Closing Line 35

TERMS, DEFINITIONS & INTERPRETATIONS 41

Basket Choker (Sling) – Rooster Head 42

HOIST USAGE TERMS & DEFINITIONS 44

After Inspections – When Back in Service 45

Foreman Signature: ___________ Date:

Foreman Signature: ________________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ______________ Date:

Foreman Signature: ________________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ____________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: _________ Date:

Foreman Signature: ____________ Date:

Foreman Signature: _______________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ____________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ____________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ____________________ Date:

Foreman Signature: ____________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: _____________________________ Date:

Foreman: ______________________ Date: _

Foreman Signature: ____________________ Date: _