36 chapter 2 A "Methodical" History of Language Teaching chapter 2 A "Methodical" History of Language Teaching 37

Table 2.1. An overview of methods (adapted from Nunan, 1989a)

Theory of Language
Language is a system of
rule-governed structures
hierarchically arranged.
Theory of Learning Objectives Syllabus Activity Types Learner Roles Teacher Roles Roles of Materials
Habit formation; skills Control of structures of Graded syllabus of Dialogues and drills, rep- Organisms that can be Central and active Primarily teacher-oriented.
are learned more effec­ sound, form, and order; phonology, morphology, etition and memorization, directed by skilled teacher-dominated Tapes and visuals, lan­
tively if oral precedes mastery over symbols of and syntax. Contrastive pattern practice. training techniques to method. Provides model, guage lab often used.
written; analogy, not the language; goal: analysis. produce correct controls direction and
analysis. native-speaker mastery. responses. pace.

Basically a structuralist,
grammar-based view of
language.
L2 learning is the same as Teach oral proficiency to Sentence-based syllabus Imperative drills to elicit Listener and performer, Active and direct role; No basic text; materials
L1 learning; comprehen­ produce learners who with grammatical and physical actions. little influence over the "the director of a stage and media have an
sion before production is can communicate unin­ lexical criteria being pri­ content of learning. play" with students as important role later.
"imprinted" through car­ hibitedly and intelligibly mary, but focus on actors. Initially voice, action, and
rying out commands with native speakers. meaning, not form. gestures are sufficient.
(right-brain functioning);
reduction of stress.

Each language is com­
posed of elements that
give it a unique rhythm
and spirit. Functional
vocabulary and core
structure are key to the
spirit of the language.
Processes of learning a Near-native fluency, cor­ Basically structural Learner responses to Learning is a process of Teachers must (a) teach Unique materials: col­
second language are fun­ rect pronunciation, basic lessons planned around commands, questions, personal growth. Learners (b) test (c) get out of the ored rods, color-coded
damentally different from practical knowledge of grammatical items and and visual cues. Activi­ are responsible for their way. Remain impassive. pronunciation and vocab­
L1 learning. L2 learning the grammar of the L2. related vocabulary. Items ties encourage and shape own learning and must Resist temptation to ulary charts.
is an intellectual, cogni­ Learner learns how to are introduced according oral responses without develop independence, model, remodel, assist,
tive process. Surrender to learn a language. to their grammatical grammatical explanation autonomy, and responsi­ direct, exhort.
the music of the lan­ complexity. or modeling by teacher. bility.
guage, silent awareness,
then active trial.

Language is more than a
system for communica­
tion. It involves the whole
person; culture; educa­
tional; developmental;
and communicative
processes.
Learning involves the No specific objectives. No set syllabus. Course Combination of innova­ Learners are members of Counseling/parental No textbook, which
whole person. It is a Near-native mastery is progression is topic­ tive and conventional. a community. Learning is analogy. Teacher pro­ would inhibit growth.
social process of growth the goal. based; learners provide Translation, group work, not viewed as an indi­ vides a safe environment Materials are developed
from childlike depen­ the topics. Syllabus recording, transcription, vidual accomplishment, in which students can as course progresses.
dence to self-direction emerges from learners' reflection and observa­ but something that is learn and grow.
and independence. intention and the tion, listening, free achieved collaboratively.
teacher's reformulations. conversation.

The essence of language
is meaning. Vocabulary,
not grammar, is the heart
of language.
There are two ways of L2 Designed to give begin­
language development: ners and intermediate
"acquisition"—a natural learners basic commu­
subconscious process, nicative skills. Four broad
and "learning"—a con­ areas: basic personal
scious process. Learning communicative skills
cannot lead to acquisi­ (oral/written); academic
tion. learning skills
(oral/written).
Based on selection of
communicative activities
and topics derived from
learner needs.
Activities allowing com­
prehensible input, about
things in the here-and-
now. Focus on meaning,
not form.
Should not try to learn
language in the usual
sense, but should try to
lose themselves in activi­
ties involving meaningful
communication.
The teacher is the pri­
mary source of compre­
hensible input. Must
create positive low-
anxiety climate. Must
choose and orchestrate a
rich mixture of classroom
activities.
Materials come from
realia rather than text­
books. Primary aim is to
promote comprehension
and communication.

Rather conventional,
although memorization
of whole meaningful
texts is recommended.
Learning occurs through To deliver advanced con­
suggestion, when learners versational competence
are in a deeply relaxed quickly. Learners are
state. Baroque music is required to master prodi­
used to induce this state. gious lists of vocabulary
pairs, although the goal is
understanding, not
memorization.
Ten unit courses con­
sisting of 1,200-word
dialogues graded by
vocabulary and grammar.
Initiatives, question and
answer, role play, lis­
tening exercises under
deep relaxation.
Must maintain a passive
state and allow the mate­
rials to work on them
(rather than vice versa).
To create situations in
which the learner is most
suggestible and present
material in a way most
likely to encourage posi­
tive reception and reten­
tion. Must exude author­
ity and confidence.
Consists of texts, tapes,
classroom fixtures, and
music. Texts should have
force, literary quality, and
interesting characters.

Language is a system for
the expression of
meaning; primary func­
tion—interaction and
communication.
Doing activities that Objectives will reflect the Will include some/all of Engage learners in com­ Learner as negotiator, Facilitator of the commu­ Primary role in promoting
involve real communica­ needs of the learner; they the following: structures, munication; involve interactor, giving as well nication process, partici­ communicative language
tion, carrying out mean­ will include functional functions, notions, processes such as as taking. pants' tasks, and texts; use; task-based materials;
ingful tasks, and using skills as well as linguistic themes, tasks. Ordering information sharing, needs analyst, counselor, authentic.
language which is mean­ objectives. will be guided by learner negotiation of meaning, process manager.
ingful to the learner pro­ needs. and interaction.
mote learning.