What Is This Module About?

Do you still remember the earthquake that happened in July 1990 and the eruption of
Mount Pinatubo in 1991? Do you know how and where volcanoes and mountains are
formed? Do you know why earthquakes occur? This module will help you understand how
volcanoes and mountains are formed and how earthquakes occur. It will also help you
understand the other geologic processes that are changing the earth’s surface. Are you ready
to study this module?
This module contains four lessons. These are:
Lesson 1 – Moving Plates
Lesson 2 – The Earth’s Fault or Ours?
Lesson 3 – Volcano and Mountain
Formation Lesson 4 – Weathering and
Erosion

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:
 explain how heat is transferred by convection;
 explain how convection currents are produced;
 describe how convection cells force the uppermost layer of the earth or the
lithosphere to break into sections;
 simulate how one tectonic plate moves under another;
 explain how and where earthquakes occur;
 explain how volcanoes and mountains are formed;
 show how weathering and erosion occur; and
 describe the effects of weathering and erosion.

1
 Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you begin studying this module, try to answer the following questions to find out
what you already know about changes that happen on the earth’s surface and the causes of
these changes.
Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is the flow of molten rocks due to the rise of warm, less dense rocks and the
sinking of cool, dense rocks.
a. conduction
b. convection
c. radiation
d. evaporation
2. What causes tectonic plates to move?
a. convection currents
b. rotation of the earth
c. revolution of the earth around the sun
d. wind
3. The earth’s lithosphere is made up of .
a. the crust and the core
b. the crust
c. the crust and the upper mantle
d. the mantle
4. A mountain is formed through .
a. folding
b. faulting
c. both a and b
d. none of the above
5. The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions around the
.
a. Pacific Ocean
b. Indian Ocean
c. Atlantic Ocean
d. Antarctic Ocean

2
 6. Divergent plate boundaries are associated with .
a. volcanic action
b. rich sources of magma
c. spreading of seafloor
d. all of the above
7. The is where two tectonic plates collide or move toward
each other.
a. divergent plate boundary
b. convergent plate boundary
c. transform plate boundary
d. both a and d
8. Which results from the collision of two continental plates?
a. mountain range
b. earthquake
c. fold
d. all of the above
9. is molten rock material.
a. Trench
b. Magma
c. Soil
d. Ash
10. This is where subduction takes place.
a. divergent plate boundary
b. convergent plate boundary
c. transform plate boundary
d. none of the above
11. When is water an agent of erosion?
a. When it carries rocks from one place to another.
b. When it breaks rocks to pieces.
c. When it deposits rocks.
d. When it presses rocks to the ground.

3
 12. New ocean crusts are produced on .
a. trenches
b. ridges
c. faults
d. beaches
13. The tectonic plates move over the partly melted region of the mantle, which is called
.
a. hydrosphere
b. lithosphere
c. asthenosphere
d. atmosphere
14. The expansion of water as it freezes in spaces between rock particles breaks
rocks. This is an example of .
a. mechanical weathering
b. chemical weathering
c. erosion
d. siltation
15. Acidic water softens and eventually breaks rocks to pieces. This is an example of
.
a. mechanical weathering
b. chemical weathering
c. erosion
d. siltation
Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in the
Answer Key on page 41 to find out.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much
about the topic. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who
knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It will help
you understand important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study this module
carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

4
 LESSON 1

Moving Plates

The earth’s surface is always changing. Since time immemorial, volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes have been changing the earth’s surface. These changes took place as large
segments of the earth’s outer layer called the lithosphere moved and broke. In this lesson
you will learn what causes this movement. Read this lesson to learn about the moving
lithosphere.

Let’s Study and Analyze

Are you familiar with the map of the world? Do you know how the earth looked about
200 million years ago? Look at the maps below. They show how sections of the earth
moved apart, as reconstructed by scientists.

The earth 150 to 200 million years ago The earth 80 to 120 million years ago

Asia
Europe
North America

Africa

Australia
South America

The earth today

5
 Scientists believe that when the earth first came into existence, its surface was made up
of only one large landmass. About 150 to 200 million years ago, the surface started to break
into large fragments. At present, the earth consists of several landmasses called continents.
Look at the boundaries of Africa and South America. You will notice that if you moved the
two continents toward each other, their boundaries would fit just like the pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle. Look closely at the diagram below showing how the two continents fit.

Europe

North America

Africa

South America

6
 Let’s Read

Actually, it was Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, who proposed in 1912 that in
the past, the earth was made up of only one landmass. This single landmass broke into pieces
called continents. Read the following comic strip to understand what happened to the earth’s
single landmass.
Ron, a second-year high school student, had just arrived from school. That day, his earth sc
Ron could not imagine how Wegener got the idea
That’s a of
goodthe continental
question, Ron.drift. That that
I noticed nightthere
as heis

Sir, what made you think that the continents are moving apart?

Sir, how did these

observations explain that
the continents moved
apart?
If the reptile Mesosauraus, whose fossils
were found in South America and
southern Africa, was able to swim and
cross a wide ocean, its remains should
have been scattered over large areas.
But this was not the case. So, we
could say that South America and Africa
must have been joined at the early
stages of our planet’s life.

7
 That’sveryinteresting,sir. Please explain further.
I was also puzzled by the presence offossilsof
The idea of a land bridge was the most widel

Isthatall,sir?
There are other evidences like:
the type of rock in one continent matched the rock type found in another, and
it was discovered that hundreds of millions of years ago, large sheets of ice or glaciers cover

Thank you very much, sir. I learned a lot from you.

You are welcome, Ron.

8
 Ron, wake up! It’s already 6 o’clock. You’ll be late for school.

Ho-hum! Oh! What a wonderful dream I’ve just had!

That day, Ron went to school excited. He was thinking of their lesson in earth science.
That day his teacher taught the same topic he learned in his dream.

Let’s Learn
What happens to the seafloor (the bottom of the sea or ocean) when the continents move
away from each other? The theory of seafloor spreading by Harry Hess explains this.
According to this theory, the seafloor separates or spreads out as the continents move away
from one another. The gap is then filled with molten rock, called magma, which becomes the
new seafloor. The seafloor spreading and the continental drift theories finally found acceptance
in the scientific community in the late 1960s. These were later combined to form the theory of
plate tectonics. It explains that the earth’s lithosphere is made up of huge sections or tectonic
plates.
In order to understand the theory of plate tectonics and the movement of tectonic
plates, let us first discuss the different parts of the earth. The earth’s interior is made up of
three main layers—the crust, mantle and core.
The crust is the outermost layer of the earth. It is made up of a relatively thin layer of
rocks. It is the part of the earth that is visible to us. On it we find the soil we walk on, the
mountains, hills and volcanoes that we see around us. The crust is thinnest in the continents
and thickest in the oceans.
9
 Mantle

Core

Crust

The three layers of the earth

The mantle is the layer underneath the crust. It is made up of rock materials as well but
part of the upper mantle is a layer of molten material called magma. Magma flows slowly
underneath the crust.
The core is the innermost layer of the earth. The outer core is made up of liquid iron
while the inner core is made up of solid iron.

Continental crust
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere

Rigid upper mantle

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere and asthenosphere

The earth’s lithosphere is made up of the crust and the rigid upper mantle. It is about 100
kilometers thick and floats upon a hot, soft rock layer called asthenosphere.
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere is broken up into large segments
called tectonic plates. These plates are constantly moving in varying directions relative to one
another. Do you notice the plates of the earth moving? Most probably not. That’s because they
move at a speed varying from 2 to 12 centimeters a year!

1
 Eurasian Plate North American Plate

Juan de Fuca Plate Carribean Plate

African Plate

Philippine
PlatePacific Plate South American Plate
Nazca Plate

Indo-Australian Plate

Antarctic Plate

The tectonic plates

It is not yet known exactly what causes the plates to move, but many scientists believe
that the motion is caused by convection. It is known that the deeper you go into the earth, the
higher the temperature. The differences in temperature among the layers of the earth cause
rising and sinking movements in the asthenosphere. These movements are called convection
currents.
Rock heated by the core of the earth moves upward in the form of upwelling molten
material, surrounded by downward-moving cold rocks. Each set of circulating hot and cold
rocks forms a convection cell.

Ocean lithosphere Upper mantle

Trench
Ridge Slab-pull at trench Slab-push at ridge

Mantle Lower mantle

B. Core
A. Core

Convection cells

Let’s Try This

You will need the following materials:

2 empty sardine cans or 2 small plastic bottles of mineral
water soft cardboard (the one that comes with pad paper)

11
 Do the following:
1. Clean the sardine cans or water bottles very well.
2. Remove the lids of the cans/bottles. Make sure that no sharp edges are left.
3. Lay the cans/bottles parallel to each other. They must be spaced such that
the ends of the cardboard will rest on them (see the picture below).

4. Cut the cardboard crosswise into two equal halves.

5. Place the two halves of the cardboard on top of each other, then place them
over the cans/bottles.
6. Then, with a stick in each hand, roll the cans/bottles in the same direction
at the same time.
7. Observe what happens to the cardboard.

Did you see the cardboard move with the cans? Now imagine the cardboard as the earth’s
lithosphere and the two cans as convection cells underneath the lithosphere.

1
 Let’s Learn

As the convection cells move the lithosphere is forced to move. The direction the
cardboard is moved is the same as the direction the cans are moved. If the cans are moved to
the right, the cardboard moves to the right. If the cans are moved to the left the cardboard is
moved to the left.

Let’s Read
Read the following dialogue to understand more the effects of convection cells on the
lithosphere.

Ron’s science teacher invited Dr. Raymundo Punongbayan, the director of the Philippine Instit

Sir, what does the movement

of the convection cells do to Look at the diagram on the
the surface of the earth? board.
If one convection cell A
moves clockwise while
another, B, moves
counterclockwise, the
sections of the rock above
these cells are forced
toward each other. The
rock is compressed. The
rock may also fold.

This is the diagram Dr. Punongbayan was referring to:

Lithosphere

AB

13
 Sir, what will happen if
a third convection cell,
C, moves clockwise?
Look at the diagram below.
Lithosphere
A B
Sir, what will happen if the
lithosphere is stretched and
compressed continuously?
1
If the third convection cell
moves clockwise, the two
convection cells may force the
rock in the lithosphere to be
stretched.
C
If the lithosphere is
stretched continuously, the
plate may weaken and
eventually break. If the
lithosphere is continuously
compressed, the crust may
fold and eventually break.
This has been happening to
the earth since millions of
years ago.
 Let’s Review

Answer the following questions.

1. What causes the movement of the rocks in the lithosphere?

2. What do you call the huge sections of the lithosphere that formed from the
continuous movements of molten rock?

3. Are these huge sections of the lithosphere still moving? What causes their
movement?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 41.

Let’s Learn
Plate boundaries are areas at which two tectonic plates meet. There are three types of
plate boundaries based on the movement of the two plates relative to each other. When two
plates move away from each other, they form a divergent plate boundary. When two
plates move toward each other, they form a convergent plate boundary. When two plates
slide past each other, they form a transform plate boundary.

Divergent

Convergent

Transform

Types of plate boundaries

15
 Let’s Think About This

How do you think convection cells are responsible for the movement of divergent plate
boundaries?
Read the following section to find out.

Let’s Learn
When two plates move away from each other, magma from the mantle rises to fill the
void caused by the fracture or rift. This continuous process builds a chain of volcanoes and rift
valleys called a mid-ocean ridge or spreading ridge. As each batch of molten rock erupts at
this ridge, the newly created oceanic plate moves away from the ridge where it was created.

Continental crust Mid-ocean ridge Rift

Oceanic crust

Divergent plates and seafloor spreading

There is strong evidence that divergent plate boundaries are formed above convection
cells in the asthenosphere. Convection currents diverge as they approach the surface of the
earth.
These currents exert a “pull” on the plate above them. Tension and high heat weaken the
floating plate and cause it to break apart. The two sides move away from each other, creating a
divergent plate boundary.

TrenchOcean lithosphere
Ridge

Mantle

A.Core
Slab-pullUpper mantle at trench
Slab-push at ridge

Lower mantle

B. Core

1
Convection cells underneath the crust cause plates to spread apart.

17
 Let’s Study and Analyze

Look at the diagram below. What do you think is happening to the Red Sea?

Saudi Arabia
Africa

Red Sea
Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Madagascar

What you see in the picture above is the formation of a divergent plate boundary. This
young divergent plate boundary is responsible for the formation of the Red Sea. Africa and
Saudi
Arabia were once joined together to form a single continent. However, as you can see, the
plate has broken and the two plates formed are moving in different directions, as indicated by
the white arrows. The rift has caused the formation of the Red Sea. As the two plates
continue to move apart, the Red Sea is widening and will turn into a new ocean as time
passes.

Let’s Learn
When two tectonic plates collide with each other, one of three things may happen. If an
oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser oceanic plate goes under the
continental plate. This process is called subduction.
When the oceanic plate goes down into the mantle, it melts partially because of the
magma. Magma finds an opening through which to come out, hence, a volcano arc (a chain
of volcanoes) is formed.

1
 Oceanic crust
Continental crust

Lithosphere Lithosphere

Asthenosphere Asthenosphere

When an oceanic crust goes under a continental crust, magma

wells up from the asthenosphere and volcanoes are formed.

When two oceanic plates collide, subduction also occurs. An island arc (a chain of
oceanic islands) is formed in this process. Did you know that the Philippines is an island arc?
Trenches are also formed in the process. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor.
Examples of trenches are the Philippine Trench (the deepest part of the Philippines) and the
Marianas Trench (the deepest part of the world).

Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Lithosphere
Lithosphere

Asthenosphere Asthenosphere

When two oceanic plates collide, one goes down under the
other and an island arc is formed.
When two continental plates collide, no subduction occurs because both plates are not
dense enough to go down into the mantle. What is formed is a chain of mountains called a
mountain range. The Himalayas, the famous mountain range that includes the tallest
mountains in the world (including Mount Everest), was formed from the collision of the Indian
Plate with the Eurasian Plate.

Mountain range
High plateau

Continental crust
Continental crust
Lithosphere
Lithosphere

Asthenosphere Asthenosphere

When two continental plates collide, a mountain range is formed.

19
 Let’s Think About This

In the process of subduction, part of the earth’s lithosphere is destroyed as it goes down
into the mantle and melts. Yet studies show that the crust of the earth has not been reduced.
How do you think the earth is able to conserve the lithosphere? Write your answer on the
following lines.

Compare your answer with that in the Answer Key on page 41.

Let’s Learn
Movement along a transform plate boundary is not smooth because of friction between
the rocks of the two plates sliding past each other. Much tension and pressure is built up at
this type of boundary as convection currents continue to drag the plates. When sufficient
pressure has built up, the rocks in the plates break and get jerked apart. This motion leads to
earthquakes.

The San Andreas Fault in California, U.S.A., which is responsible for many earthquakes
in the state, is an example of a transform plate boundary. It is formed from the movement of
the Pacific Plate against the North American Plate.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Fill in the blanks.
1. The theory states that the earth’s lithosphere is made up
of many large segments called plates.
2. In the process of , a tectonic plate moves under another plate.
2
 3. The is the soft rock layer on which the lithosphere floats.
4. are the deepest parts of the ocean floor.
5. Melted rock material that rises from the mantle is called .
6. The is the layer of the earth below the crust.
7. The crust and the upper part of the mantle comprise the .
8. The main cause of the movement of the earth’s lithosphere is the
below it.
9. According to the theory, the ocean floor spreads apart
as tectonic plates move apart.
10. boundaries are where tectonic plates slide past
one another.
B. Enumerate:
Types of plate boundaries
1.
2.
3.
Evidences for the drifting of continents according to Wegener
4.
5.
6.
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 42.

Let’s Remember
 The earth is believed to have been originally made up of a single landmass that
later broke into large segments called tectonic plates.
 Movement of the tectonic plates is believed by many scientists to be
caused by convection in the earth’s mantle.
 There are three types of plate boundaries—divergent, convergent and transform
plate boundaries.
 Mid-ocean ridges are formed along plate boundaries. Volcano arcs, island arcs
and mountain ranges as well as trenches are formed along convergent plate
boundaries.

21
 LESSON 2

The Earth’s Fault or Ours?

July 16, 1990 started out pretty much as a normal day. In the afternoon of that day,
many students were in their classrooms; people from all walks of life were busy working.
Others were at home. Suddenly, the ground began to shake violently. Many buildings and
other structures collapsed. Others were badly damaged. Many people were trapped inside
collapsed buildings. Many people died; thousands were injured.
That particular event may have been an unforgettable experience for many Filipinos.
However, for the earth’s lithosphere, an earthquake is just one of the many adjustments that
have to be made—and which have been taking place regularly ever since the earth came into
being— due to forces in the interior of the earth. Many earthquakes have already been felt
and recorded in all parts of the world. Read on to find out more about earthquakes.

Let’s Try This

You will need the following:
small basin half-filled with water
Here’s what you will do:
1. Place the basin of water on a table.
2. Tap one side of the basin. Observe what happens to the water.
3. Wait for the water to become still.
4. Ask two friends or members of your family to hold the basin. One will hold
the rim of the basin on one side while the other will hold the rim on the
opposite side.
5. Tap the bottom of the basin. Observe what happens to the water.
Record your observations here:

2
 Let’s Think About This

1. Did you observe any movement on the water surface when you tapped the basin?

2. Look closely at the water surface. Did you see alternating light and dark circular
bands that moved outward on the water surface?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 42.

Let’s Learn
The alternating light and dark bands that you saw are similar to the ripples that form on
the surface of a pond when raindrops fall on the water. These series of alternating dark and
light circular bands are waves. Water waves are produced when you disturb still water by
dipping your finger or throwing a stone in it. When you do this, you transfer energy from
yourself to the water.
The earth’s lithosphere could also be disturbed. What can cause this disturbance?
Faults are narrow zones that separate blocks of crust. Faults resist the forces that try to
move the pieces of crust apart. This puts stress on the fault in the form of elastic energy. When
the stress buildup reaches its limit, the fault breaks and energy is released as the pieces of crust
move apart. The vibrations caused by this release of energy are what we experience as an
earthquake.
Seismic waves are the form of energy by which an earthquake travels. These waves are
similar to the ripples we discussed earlier. They travel outward in all directions from the
focus, the particular spot where the fault began to break. (The spot on the crust directly
above the focus is the epicenter.)
Aside from stress along a fault, other events such as huge explosions and volcanic
eruptions may also cause earthquakes.
Some parts of the earth experience earthquakes often; others do not. What could be the
reason for this? To find out, do the next activity.

23
 Let’s Study and Analyze

Below is the map of the Philippines showing the areas where earthquakes usually take
place.
Study the map very well.

Philippine Sea

South China Sea

Sulu Sea

Celebes Sea

2
 Did you notice the presence of trenches and faults in the Philippines? What do you
think this signifies? How would you relate the presence of trenches and faults to the frequent
occurrence of earthquakes in the Philippines?

Is your answer the same as this?

Earthquakes occur frequently in the Philippines because of the presence of trenches and
fault lines in our country. The presence of many trenches indicate that our country is located
in an area where subduction is taking place. Subduction areas or zones are where the strongest
earthquakes occur because of the constant pushing together of rocks on the crust.
Earthquakes occur along fault lines because these are where stress builds up and is released.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Fill in the blank with the word or words that will complete the sentence.
1. are the form of energy in which an earthquake travels through the earth.
2. The shaking of the earth’s surface due to the release of energy along a
fault is called .
3. is transferred as a wave propagates or travels outward.
4. The area directly above the focus of an earthquake is called .
5. Earthquakes occur frequently in the Philippines because of the presence of
and .
B. Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following is not a cause of earthquakes?
a. explosion
b. movement along a fault
c. storm
d. volcanic eruption

25
 2. Where is an earthquake most likely to occur?
a. convergent plate boundary
b. stream
c. riverbank
d. mantle
3. Which of the following is not an earthquake generator?
a. trench
b. fault line
c. subduction zone
d. storm
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 43. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the
lesson that you did not understand very well before you proceed to Lesson 3.

Let’s Remember
 An earthquake is the sudden movement of the earth’s crust that results when
pressure on a fault is released.
 Earthquakes travel as seismic waves.
 The focus of an earthquake is the particular spot in the earth where the fault
began to break. The epicenter is the spot on the earth’s crust directly above the
focus.

2
 LESSON 3

Volcano and Mountain Formation

Go outdoors and look around you. You will find that the earth’s surface is not flat.
There are highlands or elevations, such as mountains and volcanoes. A large part of the earth’s
surface is covered with mountains. There are mountains under the sea too. Did you know that
the highest mountain is Mount Everest? It is part of the Himalayas. This lesson will help you
understand how and where mountains and volcanoes are formed. You will also learn how
these are associated with plate boundaries.

Let’s Try This

How are volcanoes and mountains formed? To find out, do the following
activity. You will need the following materials:
50 sheets of paper
pencil
Here’s what you will do:
1. Place the sheets of paper in a pile on a table.
2. Ask a fellow learner to place the pencil on top of the middle of the pile of
paper. Ask him/her to hold the pencil in place.

3. Predict what will be formed when the ends of the pile of paper are
pushed toward the pencil. Draw what you think will happen to the pile.

27
 4. Ask another fellow learner to push one end of the pile as you push the other
end toward the pencil.

5. Compare what you observed in the activity with the diagram below.

force
force force

Let’s Learn
Are there mountains in your area? Do you know what mountains are and why they form?
Mountains are landforms that have irregular surfaces and are noticeably above their
surroundings. Why are there mountains?
Mountains are formed from rocks that are folded, tilted or domed, or built up from
volcanic materials. They are commonly formed due to the movement of the earth’s tectonic
plates.
Do you recall what you learned about convergent plate boundaries? What happens
when two continental plates collide with each other? When two continental plates collide, a
mountain range is formed. How does this happen?
There are generally two types of mountains—block mountains and folded mountains.
Block mountains form as a result of faulting. Faulting occurs when a movement occurs
along a crack in the earth’s crust. When faulting occurs, a block of the earth’s crust may
move up while another moves down. This movement results in the formation of a mountain.
Look at the following picture. It shows the typical structure of a block mountain.

2
 Block mountain

Folded mountains, as their name implies, form as a result of folding. Recall the activity
that you did on pages 26 and 27. What did you do to the pile of paper? You pushed it from
both sides, right? The same thing happens when a folded mountain forms. When stress is
applied to rocks, the rocks are deformed. When compressional stress is applied, the rocks are
pushed together, just like what you did to the pile of paper. In this case, the rocks deform to
produce folds. This leads to the formation of anticlines or upfolds and synclines or
downfolds. Look at the diagram below to see the difference between an anticline and a
syncline.

Folds caused by bending of the earth’s lithosphere

Do you know what the tallest mountain in the Philippines is? It is Mount Apo, which is
located in Davao. It is 2,958 meters high.(Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain, is
8,850 meters high.) The second highest mountain in our country is Mount Pulog in Benguet,
around 2,931 meters high. There are also mountain ranges or groups of mountains in our
country. The longest of these is the Sierra Madre in Luzon. This mountain range starts from
Cagayan and ends in Quezon.

29
 Let’s Review

What are the two general types of mountains and how are they formed?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 43.

Let’s Think About This

Have you ever seen a volcano? Do you see any similarities between a volcano and a
mountain? How will you be able to distinguish one from the other? Read on to find out.

Let’s Learn
It is said that the volcanoes of the Philippines are among the deadliest in the world.
Eruptions of Taal Volcano and Mount Mayon have killed many people and that of Mount
Pinatubo in 1991 caused a lot of damage on infrastructure and agriculture. Do you recall the
Pinatubo series of eruptions? Mount Pinatubo is located in Zambales and is part of a chain of
volcanoes along the western part of Luzon. It erupted in June 1991 after 460 years of
inactivity. It brought extensive damage to infrastructure and agriculture.
Why are there many volcanoes in the Philippines? What is a volcano and how is it
formed?
A volcano is actually a mountain or hill too. The only difference is that it is formed
around a vent or opening in the earth’s crust through which hot materials are expelled.
If you recall from Lesson 1, flowing beneath the earth’s crust is a molten material called
magma. Magma, along with hot gases, pushes against the earth’s crust. There are some
cracks or faults, as you will recall, in the earth’s crust. If the molten rock and the hot gases
press hard enough against the crust, they burst through a fault. The hot gases help push the
magma through the fault. When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. Lava is so hot
that it is able to burn everything in its path as it flows.
Lava becomes hard as it cools. Over many years, the layers of lava pile up and form a
cone.
At the peak of the cone is an opening or vent called crater through which the lava can flow.
Thus, a volcano is formed.

3
 Look at the picture below. It is a map of the Ring of Fire. Do you know the Ring of
Fire? The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions around the
Pacific Ocean. Our country is included in this zone. The ring stretches from the tip of South
America, up the west side of South, Central and North America, down to Japan, the Marianas
Islands, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and ends at New Zealand.

Aleutian trench
Kurile trench
Japan trench

Ryukyu trench Izu Bonin trench Puerto Rico trench

Philippine trench
Marianas trench
Middle America
Challenger Deep trench
Bougainville trench Equator

Java (Sunda) trench

Tonga trench Peru-Chile trench
Kermadec trench

South Sandwich trench

The Ring of Fire is found around the Pacific Ocean. Did you notice that there are
plenty of trenches in this zone?
The countries found in the Ring of Fire all have plenty of deadly active volcanoes. Notice
that the Ring of Fire has plenty of trenches, which means subduction is taking place in these
areas. Therefore, you can say that plenty of volcanoes are formed along convergent plate
boundaries.

31
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

Answer the following questions.

1. How are mountains formed?

2. How are volcanoes formed?

3. What is the difference between a mountain and a volcano?

4. Why are there plenty of volcanoes in the Philippines?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 43. Did you get a
perfect score? If you did, that’s very good! If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the
parts of this lesson that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may move on
to Lesson 4.

Let’s Remember
 A mountain is a landform that has an irregular surface and is noticeably above its
surroundings. It may be formed from rocks that are folded, tilted or domed or
built up from volcanic materials.
 There are generally two types of mountains—block mountains and folded
mountains. Block mountains are formed as a result of faulting while folded
mountains are formed as a result of folding.
 A volcano is a mountain or hill formed around a vent in the earth’s crust through
which hot materials are expelled.
 There are plenty of deadly volcanoes in the Philippines because it is located in the
Ring of Fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions around the
Pacific Ocean.

3
 LESSON 4

Weathering and Erosion

As you walk on the ground, you will notice that the earth’s surface is not fully covered
by solid rocks. Loose, broken-up rocks, dirt and soil are also found on the surface of the
earth. Without these materials, plants would not be able to grow and animals in turn would
not survive.
This lesson focuses on the changes that happen to surface rocks. In this lesson you will
learn how broken rocks are moved from one place and deposited in another place. You will
also find out how these changes affect the earth and the living things on it. Read on to find
out more!

Let’s Try This

You will need the following materials:
kalamansi/kamias extract or vinegar
seashell/small piece of chalk
plastic lid of peanut butter jar or any other similar
lid Do the following:
1. Put the seashell/small piece of chalk on the plastic lid. Add a few drops of
the kalamansi/kamias extract or vinegar on the seashell/piece of chalk.
2. Observe what happens to the shell/chalk as you drop the extract/vinegar on it.

Let’s Think About This

1. What do you think the kalamansi/kamias extract or vinegar represents?

2. Did you notice the formation of bubbles around the shell/chalk when you added
the extract or vinegar to it? What does this indicate?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 43.

33
 Let’s Learn

Kalamansi/kamias juice and vinegar are acids. Do you know what acids are? Acids
normally taste sour. They are also able to combine with materials such as the seashell or chalk.
When an acid combines with chalk, both the chalk and the acid are converted into different
substances and a gas is released. The bubbles that formed around the shell or chalk indicated
that a gas was being released. When substances react with each other and form new
substances, a chemical change is said to occur. When the chalk undergoes a chemical change
due to the addition of the acid, it softens and breaks easily.
The same thing happens to rocks. Rain becomes acidic when it combines with carbon
dioxide, a gas found in the air. When acidic rain falls on a rock, the rock softens and breaks
into small particles. The process in which rocks break into smaller pieces is called weathering.
There are two kinds of weathering—chemical weathering and mechanical weathering.
These two processes work hand in hand in breaking down rocks. Chemical weathering takes
place when rocks disintegrate and change in composition. For example, feldspar, a type of
rock, reacts with acidic water and breaks down into clay and sand.
There are different types of chemical weathering, depending on the substance with which
the rock reacts. When the mineral in a rock reacts with carbonic acid (the acid formed when
water mixes with carbon dioxide), the process is called carbonation.
One of the most susceptible rock minerals is calcite, which is found in limestone and
marble.
The seashell or piece of chalk that you tested in the preceding activity contains this mineral.
Calcite is found in most rocks, so when carbonic acid falls on these rocks, the calcite is
stripped away, exposing the other minerals in the rocks to more kinds of weathering.
The process that occurs when oxygen dissolved in water reacts with minerals in the
rocks is called oxidation. Iron-bearing minerals in rocks are susceptible to this process.
When you see reddish-brown rocks, these rocks have been most likely altered by oxidation.
Water itself also reacts with some minerals in the process called hydration. But the
weathering effects of water on rocks are mostly mechanical. Mechanical weathering occurs
when rocks are broken down into pieces without any change in their chemical composition.
Water, for instance, is able to dissolve minerals from the rocks, transferring them from the
upper layers of the soil to the lower parts.
Another important means of mechanical weathering is temperature. What happens when
water freezes? Does it contract or expand? Water expands when it freezes. When water
inside the crevices of a rock freezes, its expansion causes the rock to crack and break. This
process is called frost wedging.
Constant temperature changes also cause thin flakes or curved scales to peel off the
exposed layers of rocks. This process is called exfoliation.
Plants can also cause weathering. The small roots of plants penetrate the small
spaces between rocks. When the plants grow, the roots also grow, causing the rocks to
crack and break. Animals that burrow into rocks can also cause rocks to weather.

3
 Let’s Think About This

Answer the following questions.

1. If you let drops of kamias or kalamansi fall for a long time on a shell or piece of
chalk, how would the shell or chalk change?

2. What might happen to a marble floor if exposed to rainfall for a long time?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 44.

Let’s Study and Analyze

Look at the picture below.

Identify the causes of the breaking of rocks in the picture.

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 44.

35
 Let’s Review

1. Name the two kinds of weathering and differentiate between the two.

2. What are the types of mechanical weathering? chemical weathering?

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 44.

Let’s Try This

You will need the following materials:
shoe box with one shorter end removed
fine sand
electric fan
cardboard
marking pen or crayon
ruler
Do the following:
1. Place and smoothen a layer of sand in the shoe box.
2. Test at what distance from the shoe box you should place the electric fan to make
the sand in the box move.
3. Draw a line to mark this point.
4. Mark the top of the sand layer around the inside of the box.
5. Turn on the electric fan to make the sand move from the open end of the box
toward the opposite end. If an electric fan is not available, use an abaniko
instead to fan the sand.

3
 Let’s Think About This

1. What happened to the level of the sand near the open end of the box?

2. What happened to the level of the sand near the opposite end of the box?

See if your observations are the same as mine:

The level of sand near the open end of the box became lower while the level of sand
near the opposite end of the box became higher. This is because the sand near the open end
of the box was blown toward the opposite end of the box.

Let’s Learn
After a rock is reduced to small particles by weathering, it is moved to other locations
by erosion. There are different agents of erosion. One agent of erosion is the wind. This is
a most effective agent of erosion in dry climates. The wind picks up the rock particles and
moves them through great distances. The rock grains carried by the wind also tend to
abrade the surfaces of rocks. Thus, the wind can be an agent of weathering as well.
In most other climates, the most common agent of erosion is water. Waves and
currents are effective erosion agents along shores of oceans and lakes. Streams of water also
erode products of rock weathering and rock particles in running water may further wear
away the solid rock.
Gravity or the downward pull toward the center of the earth is also an agent of
erosion. When rock fragments are separated from a mass of solid rock by weathering, they
fall to the lowest part of the surrounding surface due to the pull of gravity. Gravity also
causes the downward motion of the soil and rocks covering the slope of a mountain or hill.

Let’s Think About This

Erosion is a natural process. However, some human activities can hasten the
process of erosion. Can you name at least one of these activities?

Is your answer the same as this?

Some human activities that can cause hasten erosion include the indiscriminate cutting
of trees. When trees are cut down, the soil and rock particles no longer have any protection
from the erosive action of wind and water. Hence the particles are easily carried away.

37
 Let’s Learn

What are the effects of weathering and erosion on humans and other living things?
Weathering causes the formation of soil, thus providing a place in which plants can grow.
Weathering also causes changes on landforms; it can cause the formation of caves, plains and
valleys as well as change the width of a stream or river. Any changes on landforms will of
course cause changes in the activities of the living things in those areas.
Erosion, on the other hand, can deplete plants of nutrients when the top layer of the
soil is removed. Erosion can also remove large blocks of land, thus causing living things in
those blocks of land to move somewhere else. Too much erosion can also cause siltation or
deposition of soil in bodies of water, which in turn may deprive the organisms in the water of
food and oxygen supply.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Identify what is being described in each of the following.
1. The process of breaking down rocks into smaller particles
2. A process of breaking down rocks that results in a change in the composition of
the rocks
3. The deposition of soil in bodies of water
4. The movement of rock particles from one location to another
5. The most effective agent of erosion in dry climates
6. What occurs when water reacts with minerals in rocks
7. What occurs when carbonic acid reacts with minerals in rocks
8. A type of mineral found in limestone
9. The process responsible for the reddish-brown appearance of some rocks
10. The downward pull toward the center of the earth, which is also an agent of
erosion Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 44. Did you
get everything
right? If you did, that’s very good! If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the parts of this
lesson that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may move on to the next part of
this module.

3
 Let’s Remember

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces. There are
two kinds of weathering—chemical weathering and mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering occurs when a rock breaks into smaller particles and
changes in composition as well. Among the processes that bring about chemical
weathering are carbonation, oxidation and hydration.
 Mechanical weathering does not involve any change in the composition of the rock.
Water, temperature and living things such as plants bring about mechanical
weathering.
 Erosion takes place when rock particles are moved from one location to
another. Among the agents of erosion are the wind, water and gravity.
 Weathering and erosion bring about changes on the earth’s surface which in turn
affect living things.
Well, this is the end of the module. Congratulations for finishing it. Did you learn a lot
from it? Did you enjoy studying it? The following is a summary of its main points to help
you remember them better.

Let’s Sum Up
 The earth is believed to have been originally a single landmass that later broke
into large segments called continents.
 Movement of the tectonic plates is believed to be caused by convection in the
earth’s mantle.
 There are three types of plate boundaries—divergent, convergent and transform
plate boundaries.
 An earthquake is the sudden movement of the earth’s crust that results when
pressure on a fault is released.
 A mountain is a landform that has an irregular surface and is noticeably above its
surroundings while a volcano is a mountain or hill formed around a vent in the
earth’s crust through which hot materials are expelled.
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces. There are
two kinds of weathering—chemical and mechanical weathering.
 Erosion is the process in which rock particles are moved from one place
and deposited in another.

39
 What Have You Learned?

A. Match the items in Column A with those in Column B. Write only the letters
of the correct answers.
A
B
1. Huge segments into which
a. magma
the earth’s lithosphere is
split b. asthenosphere
2. Rising and sinking c. frost wedging
movements in the
asthenosphere d. tectonic plates

3. A zone of frequent e. oxidation

earthquakes and volcanic f. Mount Everest
eruptions found around
the Pacific Ocean g. Ring of Fire

4. Occurs when oxygen h. convection currents

dissolved in water reacts
i. volcano arc
with minerals in rocks
j. island arc
5. The tallest mountain in the
world k. water
6. A process of mechanical l. convergent plate boundary
weathering that occurs
when water inside the
crevices of rocks freezes
and expands, causing the
rocks to crack
7. A plate boundary formed
when two tectonic
plates collide with each
other
8. Formed when an oceanic
plate collides with
a continental plate
9. Can cause both chemical
and
mechanical weathering
10. Molten rock found in the
mantle of the earth

4
 B. Differentiate the following:
1. weathering and erosion

2. chemical weathering and mechanical weathering

3. crust, mantle and core

4. faulting and folding

5. hydration, carbonation and oxidation

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 44 and 45. Did you get
a perfect score? If you did, congratulations! You learned a lot from this module. If you did
not, that’s okay. Review the parts of the module that you did not understand very well before
you move on to the next module.

41
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–4)

1. b
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. a
6. d
7. b
8. a
9. b
10. b
11. a
12. b
13. c
14. a
15. b

B. Lesson 1
Let’s Review (page 15)
1. The movement of the rocks in the lithosphere is caused by convection
currents below the lithosphere.
2. The huge sections of the lithosphere resulting from the breaking of the
lithosphere are called tectonic plates.
3. Yes, they are still moving. Continuous movement of the molten rock or
magma below the lithosphere causes tectonic plate movements.
Let’s Think About This (page 19)
The earth is able to conserve the lithosphere through the creation of new crust
at divergent plate boundaries. When two plates break apart, magma wells up from
the mantle to fill the gap and thus form a new crust. In this manner, the lithosphere is
conserved.

4
 Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 19–20)
A. 1. plate tectonics
2. subduction
3. asthenosphere
4. Trenches
5. magma
6. mantle
7. lithosphere
8. convection currents
9. seafloor spreading
10. transform plate
B. 1. convergent plate boundary
2. divergent plate boundary
3. transform plate boundary
4. The fossils of very big seeds of certain plants were found scattered in
certain places in South America and Africa. It was impossible that these
seeds were blown by the wind to very far places like from America to
South America, or vice versa, because of their size.
5. The rock type in one continent matched that in another continent.
6. There were deposits of glaciers found to cover large areas in Antarctica,
southern South America, Africa, India and Australia. This could have
happened if these landmasses were once joined around the south polar
region of the earth.

C. Lesson 2
Let’s Think About This (page 22)
(The following are the expected answers.)
1. Yes, there was movement on the surface of the water.
2. Yes, there were alternating light and circular bands that moved outward on
the water surface as the basin was moved.

43
 Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 24–25)
A. 1. Waves
2. earthquake
3. Energy
4. epicenter
5. trenches; fault lines
B. 1. (c) All are considered causes of earthquakes except a storm.
2. (a) An earthquake is most likely to occur on a convergent plate boundary.
3. (d) However strong a storm is, it cannot cause an earthquake.

D. Lesson 3
Let’s Review (page 29)
The two general types of mountains are block mountains and folded
mountains. Block mountains are formed as a result of faulting that causes a block
of the earth’s crust to move up and another block to move down. Folded
mountains form as a result of folding or the pushing together of the earth’s rocks,
causing upfolds or synclines and downfolds or anticlines.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 31)
1. Mountains are formed through processes such as folding and faulting.
2. Volcanoes are formed when magma wells up from the mantle through an
opening or fault in the earth’s crust. When magma comes out of the mantle, it
is called lava. The accumulation of layers of lava results in the formation of a
cone at the peak of which is an opening or crater through which lava can
flow. Thus, a volcano is formed.
3. A mountain is a landform that is noticeably higher than its surroundings
while a volcano is a mountain or hill with an opening through which lava
can flow.
4. There are plenty of volcanoes in the Philippines because the Philippines is
part of the Ring of Fire.

E. Lesson 4
Let’s Think About This (page 32)
(The following are possible answers.)
1. The kalamansi/kamias extract represents the acids that act on rocks.
2. Yes, bubbles formed around the shell/chalk when vinegar was poured on it.
The bubbles indicate that a gas is being released in the reaction between the
acid and the substances inside the shell/chalk.

4
 Let’s Think About This (page 34)
1. The shell/chalk would most likely crumble to pieces.
2. If exposed to rain for a long time, the marble floor’s outer layers would
peel because marble contains calcite, which reacts with carbonic acid in
the rain.
Let’s Study and Analyze (page 34)
The rocks in the picture broke because of the action of the roots of the plants
and of freezing water.
Let’s Review (page 35)
1. The two kinds of weathering are mechanical weathering and chemical
weathering. Mechanical weathering is the breaking of rocks into smaller
pieces without any change in their mineral composition. Chemical
weathering, on the other hand, results in changes in the mineral
composition of rocks.
2. The types of mechanical weathering include frost wedging (the expansion of
water as it freezes), exfoliation (brought on by constant temperature changes)
and the action of plants and animals. Chemical weathering includes carbonation,
oxidation and hydration.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 37)
1. weathering
2. chemical weathering
3. siltation
4. erosion
5. wind
6. hydration
7. carbonation
8. calcite
9. oxidation
10. gravity

F. What Have You Learned? (pages 39–40)

A. 1. d
2. h
3. g
4. e
5. f
45
 6. c
7. l
8. i
9. k
10. a
B. 1. Weathering is the process in which rocks are broken into smaller particles
while erosion is the transfer of these smaller rock particles from one
place to another.
2. Chemical weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller
particles that results in changes in the composition of the rocks, while
mechanical weathering does not result in any changes in the
composition of the rocks.
3. The crust is the outermost layer of the earth; the mantle is the layer
beneath the crust; the core is the innermost layer of the earth.
4. Faulting occurs as a result of movement along a crack in the earth’s
crust, while folding occurs when blocks of the earth’s crust are pushed
together.
5. Hydration is the reaction of water with the minerals in a rock;
carbonation is the reaction of carbonic acid with minerals in a rock; and
oxidation is the reaction of oxygen dissolved in water with the minerals
in a rock.

Glossary
Calcite Calcium carbonate; a component of seashells, limestone and marble.
Carbonic acid An acid formed from the reaction between carbon dioxide and water.
Clockwise Moving in a curve from left to right, in the same direction as the hands of a
clock.
Compress To squeeze together to force into less space.
Continent Any of the main landmasses of the earth, namely Europe, North America,
South America, Asia, Australia, Africa and Antarctica.
Counterclockwise Anti-clockwise.
Dome To change into a round shape with a circular base.
Fault A fracture in a rock surface.
Feldspar A type of mineral made of aluminum silicate; widely used in making
porcelain, glazes and enamel.
Fossil The remains of a prehistoric animal or plant once buried in earth and now

4
 hardened in rock.
Glacier A river of ice moving very slowly, formed by an accumulation of snow.

47
Limestone A rock that is made mostly of calcite.
Mineral An inorganic substance that occurs naturally on earth.
Seafloor The surface on the bottom of a sea or ocean.
Stress Force acting on a body of rock.
Subduction The process in which one tectonic plate slides down underneath another.

Reference
Ramsey, William L., and Raymond A. Buckley. Modern Earth Science. U.S.A.: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966.