Regenerative Braking System

Regenerative Braking System
Government College of Engineering and Technology, Jammu
SEMINAR REPORT ON
“Regenerative Braking System”
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
Dr. Sarabjeet Singh Vinay Kumar
GCET/229/17
7th Semester
Department of Mechanical engineering,

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report “REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM” has been
successfully submitted by Vinay Kumar under enrollment no GCET/229/2017 for the partial
fulfillment of award of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical from University of Jammu.
SUBMITTED TO
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
SEMINAR INCHARGE
Dr. Sarabjeet Singh (HOD)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Seminar is never the outcome of a single person’s effort. It is collective effort

and it is my pleasure to acknowledge the person involved directly and indirectly
in the successful completion of my seminar. First and foremost, I express my
sincere and profound gratitude to our seminar incharge Mr. Sarabjeet Singh
(HOD) being a constant source of inspiration.
Finally, I would like to recognize the co- operative and emotional support I
received from my parents. My parents also played a special role here as their
motivation and emotions helped me in proving my worth in this endeavor.
ABSTRACT
As the basic law of Physics says “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can only
be converted from one form to another”. During huge amount of energy is lost to atmosphere
as heat. It will be good if we could store this energy somehow which is otherwise getting
wasted out and reuse it next time we started to accelerate. Regenerative braking refers to a
system in which the kinetic energy of the vehicle is stored temporarily, as an accumulative
energy, during deceleration, and is reused as kinetic energy during acceleration or running.
Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence
from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time
without the need to be plugged into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend the
driving range of fully electric vehicles. Regenerative braking is a way to extend range of the
electric vehicles. In many hybrid vehicles cases, this system is also applied hybrid vehicles to
improve fuel economy. A normal car is only about 20% efficient; meaning some 80% of the
energy it expends is wasted as heat created by friction.
Regenerative braking could reclaim as much as half of that wasted energy, which equates into
more motion produced by the fuel we are paying for instead of using that fuel to create heat
that is being dissipated uselessly into the environment.
CONTENTS Page No
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 TYPES OF BRAKES
2
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAKES

4
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
6
1.4 NEED FOR REGENERATIVE BRAKES
7
CHAPTER 2 BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES
8
2.1 THE MOTOR AS A GENERATOR
9
2.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
SYSTEM
9
2.2.1Energy Storage Unit (ESU):
9
2.2.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):
10
2.2.3 Controller:
10
2.2.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers
11
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
SYSTEM
11
2.3.1 Electric Regenerative braking
11
2.3.2 Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes
13
2.3.3 Fly Wheel Regenerative Braking System
15
CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF REGENERATIVE

BRAKING
19
3.1THERMODYNAMICS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
SYSTEMS
19
3.1.1 KERS Flywheel
19
3.1.2 Regenerative brakes
20
3.2 BRAKING FORCE DISTRIBUTION 21
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING 23
4.1 CARS WITH REGENERATIVE BRAKES 23
4.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN TRAINS 24
CHAPTER 5 PROS AND CONS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING 30
5.1 ADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING OVER
CONVENTIONAL BRAKING 30
5.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKES ARE ASSISTED WITH
FRICTIONAL BRAKE 31
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 33
REFERENCES 34
LIST O FIGURES
Page No
Fig 1.1 Frictional Brakes: Drum & Disc Type
3
Fig 1.2 Pumping Jake Brake
3
Fig 1.3 Electromagnetic Brake
4
Fig 1.4 Graphical Representation of Energy Usage Of Two
Vehicles
7
Fig 2.1: Basic idea of Regenerative brakes
8
Fig 2.2 Components of Electric Regenerative Braking

11
Fig 2.3 Energy consumption from battery.
12
Fig 2.4 Charging of battery when brake applied.
13
Fig. 2.5 Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB) System
14
Fig 2.6 Hydraulic disc brake Components
15
Fig 2.7 Picture showing a flywheel kinetic energy recovery system
16
Fig 2.8 Flywheel regenerative braking system
17
Fig 3.1 Distribution of forces on a moving car
21
Fig 4.1 Picture of a Lamborghini Huracan
23
Fig 4.2 Conventional Electro-Pneumatic Brakes for Trains
24
Fig 4.3 Power Electronic Equipment for Rolling Stock
26
Fig 4.4 Main Converter for AC Powered Trains
26
Fig 4.5 Auxiliary Power Supply for AC powered trains
27
Fig 4.6 Main Converter for DC Powered Trains
27
Fig 4.7 Auxiliary Power Supply for DC powered trains
28
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Brakes are employed to stop or retard the motion of any moving body. Thus, in automobiles
the brakes are having the most important function to perform. In conventional braking
system the motion is retarded or stopped by absorbing kinetic energy by friction, by making
the contact of the moving body with frictional rubber pad (called brake liner) which causes
the absorption of kinetic energy, and this is wasted in form of heat in surroundings. Each time
we brake, the momentum of vehicle is absorbed that it has gained by it and to re-accelerate
the vehicle we have to start from the scratch to redevelop that momentum by using the more
power from an engine. Thus, it will ultimately result in huge waste of energy. It will be good
if we could store this energy somehow which is otherwise getting wasted out and reuse it next
time we started to accelerate. That's the basic concept of regenerative ("regent") brakes,
which provide braking for the system when needed by converting the available energy to
some usable form. These are widely used in electric trains and the latest electric cars.
Regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle by converting

its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until
needed. Thus, the generated electricity during the braking is fed back into the supply system
(in case of electric trains), whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy
is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored by
compressing air or in a rotating flywheel [1].
An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron. This was a
completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by
regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.
Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the
battery pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-
scooter, and the Chevrolet Volt. Before moving on to why we need regenerative brakes we
need to study the different brake types and their characteristics.
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1.1 TYPES OF BRAKES
Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake
may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create
friction:
 Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad"
brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes,
which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically, the term
"friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even
though hydrodynamic brakes friction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating
wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of
a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the
inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations
are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other
brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a
flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a
rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs
with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that
press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating
roadwheel hub.
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A brake disc
(or rotor), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop
the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake
calliperisorced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against
both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
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Fig 1.1 Frictional Brakes: Drum & Disc Type
 Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For
example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then
internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve
override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can
dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir
called a hydraulic accumulator.
Fig 1.2 Pumping Jake Brake
 Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part
of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric
motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some
diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is
then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit
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buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is
effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake
are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically
driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as
well).Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic induction, which
creates resistance and in turn either heat or electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on
two separate objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.
Fig 1.3 Electromagnetic Brake
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAKES
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:
 Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The
peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can
cause a wheel skid.
 Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can
be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation.
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Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of
ambient cooling air.
 Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs
are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.
 Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying
brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and
friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases
maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
 Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force
leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This
notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be
confusing in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake
application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.
 Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as
a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake
and other factors.
 Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design
of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under
braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake
condition.
 Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be
trade-offs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear
quickly.
 Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction
in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional
support structure.
 Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.
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1.3 OBJECTIVE OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Regenerative braking systems are used on most electric and gas-electric hybrid vehicles.
These systems capitalize on the similarities in construction of electric motors and electric
power generators. An electric motor's interior is made up of copper windings. It uses an
electromagnetic energy field to produce torque through its main shaft when power is applied
to it. A generator or dynamo is also comprised of copper windings and makes use of an
electromagnetic field; applying a force to turn its rotor allows it to produce electric power.
Regenerative braking is based on the principle of physics that states that energy cannot be
destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.
In a traditional braking system, pressing on the brake pedal causes a pair of brake pads in
each wheel to come into contact with the surface of a brake rotor. This contact produces
friction, slowing down and eventually stopping the vehicle. The friction itself produces heat
as an energy byproduct. Automotive engineers and designers generally perceive heat as a
loss. This is the reason why, especially in high performance cars, brake cooling systems such
as air dams are employed to dissipate heat from the brakes so that they can quickly regain
their efficiency.
In a regenerative braking system, the objective is to recapture the energy byproduct that
results when the brakes are applied. In electric or hybrid automobiles, the electric motor that
drives the car's wheels plays a major part during braking. When the brake pedal is pressed,
the regenerative braking circuit switches the motor so that it now operates in reverse to
counter the direction of the wheels. This reversal actually makes it perform like a power
generator or dynamo that produces electrical energy. The electricity developed is routed
towards the car's storage batteries to recharge them. At higher speeds, regenerative brakes
still require the assistance of traditional brake systems to be applied as a backup. The
efficiency of regenerative braking systems in use today has improved significantly. Some
existing systems are able to capture and store as much as 70 percent of the energy that would
otherwise have been lost. This recapturing and storing of electrical energy may be likened to
"trickle" charging of the batteries. This is because most of the time, the electric motor runs in
torque producing mode to drive the vehicle. The recommended battery charging method still
has to be performed to charge the batteries fully, although regenerative braking does translate
to an increase in vehicle range.
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1.4 NEED FOR REGENERATIVE BRAKES
The regenerative braking system delivers a number of significant advantages over a car that
only has friction brakes. In low-speed, stop- and-go traffic where little deceleration is
required; the regenerative braking system can provide the majority of the total braking force.
This vastly improves fuel economy with a vehicle, and further enhances the attractiveness of
vehicles using regenerative braking for city driving. At higher speeds, too, regenerative
braking has been shown to contribute to improved fuel economy – by as much as 20%.
Consider a heavy loaded truck having very few stops on the road. It is operated near
maximum engine efficiency. The 80% of the energy produced is utilized to overcome the
rolling and aerodynamic road forces. The energy wasted in applying brake is about 2%. Also
its brake specific fuel consumption is 5%.
Now consider a vehicle, which is operated in the main city where traffic is a major problem
here one has to apply brake frequently. For such vehicles the wastage of energy by
application of brake is about 60% to 65%.
Fig 1.4 Graphical Representation Of Energy Usage Of Two Vehicles
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CHAPTER 2
BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES

Concept of this regenerative brake is better understood from bicycle fitted with Dynamo. If
our bicycle has a dynamo (a small electricity generator) on it for powering the lights, we'll
know it's harder to peddle when the dynamo is engaged than when it's switched off. That's
because some of our peddling energy is being "stolen" by the dynamo and turned into
electrical energy in the lights. If we're going along at speed and we suddenly stop peddling
and turn on the dynamo, it'll bring us to a stop more quickly than we would normally, for the
same reason: it's stealing our kinetic energy. Now imagine a bicycle with a dynamo that's 100
times bigger and more powerful. In theory, it could bring our bike to a halt relatively quickly
by converting our kinetic energy into electricity which we could store in a battery and use
again later. And that's the basic idea behind regenerative brakes[3].
Electric trains, cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected to
batteries. When we're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors, turning
the wheels and providing us with the kinetic energy we need to move. When we stop and hit
the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut the power to the
motors. Now, our kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the motors, so the
motors work like generators and start producing electricity instead of consuming it. Power
flows back from these motor-generators to the batteries, charging them up. So a good
proportion of the energy we lose by braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused
when we start off again. In practice, regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so
most vehicles that use them also have ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also
a good idea in case the regenerative brakes fail).That's one reason why regenerative brakes
don't save 100 percent of our braking energy.
Fig 2.1: Basic idea of Regenerative brakes
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2.1 THE MOTOR AS A GENERATOR
Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative
braking, it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical
load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy
lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the
motor whenever the car is in electric mode [3][5].
2.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
There are four elements required which are necessary for the working of regenerative braking
system, these are:
2.2.1Energy Storage Unit (ESU):
The ESU performs two primary functions
 To recover & store braking energy

 To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation
The selection criteria for effective energy storage include:
 High specific energy storage density

 High energy transfer rate
 Small space requirement
The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three devices:
 An electrochemical battery
 A flywheel
Batteries:
With this system as we know, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator when the brake
pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the car is used to generate electricity that is then used
to recharge the batteries. With this system, traditional friction brakes must also be used to
ensure that the car slows down as much as necessary. Thus, not all of the kinetic energy of
the car can be harnessed for the batteries because some of it is "lost" to waste heat. Some
energy is also lost to resistance as the energy travels from the wheel and axle, through the
drive train and electric motor, and into the battery.
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When the brake pedal is depressed, the battery receives a higher charge, which slows the
vehicle down faster. The further the brake pedal is depressed, the more the conventional
friction brakes are employed [5][7].
The motor/generator produces AC, which is converted into DC, which is then used to charge
the Battery Module. So, the regenerative systems must have an electric controller that
regulates how much charge the battery receives and how much the friction brakes are used.
Fly wheels:
In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy in
the flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle. The benefit
of using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the car can be
captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during relatively short
intervals of braking and acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept
charge at these rapid intervals, and thus more energy is lost to friction [5].
Another advantage of flywheel technology is that the additional power supplied by the
flywheel during acceleration substantially supplements the power output of the small engine
that hybrid vehicles are equipped with.
2.2.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):
A continuously variable transmission (CVT) (also known as a single-speed

transmission, stepless transmission, pulley transmission, or, in case of motorcycles, a twist-
and-go) is an automatic transmission that can change seamlessly through a continuous range
of effective gear ratios. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that offer a fixed
number of gear ratios. The flexibility of a CVT allows the input shaft to maintain a
constant angular velocity allowing a smooth and controlled energy flow to and from vehicle
wheels to energy storage unit [6].
2.2.3 Controller:
An “ON-OFF” engine control system is used. That means that the engine is “ON” until the
energy storage unit has been reached the desired charge capacity and then
is decoupled and stopped until the energy storage unit charge fall below its minimum
requirement.
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2.2.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers
Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding when
braking begins ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. During the braking
operation, the brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor into the batteries
or capacitors. It makes sure that an optimal amount of power is received by the batteries, but
also ensures that the inflow of electricity isn't more than the batteries can handle.
The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding whether the
motor is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the
brake controller turns the job over to the friction brakes. In vehicles that use these types of
brakes, as much as any other piece of electronics on board a hybrid or electric car, the brake
controller makes the entire regenerative braking process possible.
Fig 2.2 Components Of Electric Regenerative Braking
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
Based on the mode of storage of energy some of the system developed can be listed they are:-
2.3.1 Electric Regenerative braking
In an electric system which is driven only by means of electric motor the system consists of
an electric motor which acts both as generator and motor. Initially when the system is
cruising the power is supplied by the motor and when the there is a necessity for braking
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depending upon driver’s applied force on the brake pedal the electronic unit controls the
charge flowing through the motor and due to the resistance offered motor rotates back to act
as a generator and the energy is energy is stored in a battery or bank of twin layer capacitors
for later use [4].
In hybrid system motor will be coupled to another power source normally I.C
Engines as shown in the fig 2.2
The main components of this system
 Engine
 Motor/Generator
 Batteries
 Electronic control system
During acceleration, motor/generator unit acts as electric motor drawing electrical energy
from the batteries to provide extra driving force to move the car (shown in fig 2.3). With this
help from the motor, the car’s internal combustion engine that is smaller and with lower peak
power can achieve high efficiency. During braking electric supply from the battery is cut off
by the electronic system. As the car is still moving forward, the motor/generator unit acts as
electric generator converting kinetic energy into electrical and store in the batteries (shown in
fig 2.4) for later use.
Fig 2.3 Energy consumption from battery.
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Fig 2.4 Charging of battery when brake applied.
2.3.2 Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes
Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system uses electrical/electronic
Components as well as hydraulics to improve vehicle fuel economy. An alternative

regenerative braking system is being developed by the Ford Motor Company and Eaton
Corporation. It's called Hydraulic Power Assist or HPA. With HPA, when the driver
steps on the brake, the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to power a reversible pump,
which sends hydraulic fluid from a low pressure accumulator (a kind of storage tank)
inside the vehicle into a high pressure accumulator. The pressure is created by nitrogen
gas in the accumulator, which is compressed as the fluid is pumped into the space the
gas formerly occupied. This slows the vehicle and helps bring it to a stop. The fluid
remains under pressure in the accumulator until the driver pushes the accelerator again,
at which point the pump is reversed and the pressurized fluid is used to accelerate the
vehicle, effectively translating the kinetic energy that the car had before braking into the
mechanical energy that helps get the vehicle back up to speed. It's predicted that a
system like this could store 80 percent of the momentum lost by a vehicle during
deceleration and use it to get the vehicle moving again. The Hydrostatic Regenerative
Braking (HRB) system is intended for commercial vehicles and mobile equipment. The
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company says that initial measurements show that the HRB system reduces the fuel
consumption in these vehicles by up to 25%.
In the HRB system, braking energy is converted to hydraulic pressure and stored in a high-
pressure hydraulic accumulator. When the vehicle accelerates, the stored hydraulic energy is
applied to the transmission reducing the energy that the combustion engine has to provide.
An electronic controller and a hydraulic valve manifold control the process.
At present, these hydraulic regenerative brakes are noisy and prone to leaks; however, once
all of the details are ironed out, such systems will probably be most useful in large trucks.
Fig. 2.5 Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB) System
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Fig 2.6 Hydraulic disc brake Components
2.3.3 Fly Wheel Regenerative Braking System
The basic idea is that the rotating part of the engine incorporates a wheel with a very heavy
metal rim, and this drives whatever machine or device the engine is connected to. It takes
much more time to get a flywheel-engine turning but, once it's up to speed, the flywheel
stores a huge amount of rotational energy. A heavy spinning flywheel is a bit like a truck
going at speed: it has huge momentum so it takes a great deal of stopping and changing its
speed takes a lot of effort. That may sound like a drawback, but it's actually very useful. If an
engine supplies power erratically, the flywheel compensates, absorbing extra power and
making up for temporary lulls, so the machine or equipment it's connected to is driven more
smoothly [5].
It's easy to see how a flywheel could be used for regenerative braking. In something like a
bus or a truck, you could have a heavy flywheel that could be engaged or disengaged from
the transmission at different times. You could engage the flywheel every time you want to
brake so it soaked up some of your kinetic energy and brought you to a halt. Next time you
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started off, you'd use the flywheel to return the energy and get you moving again, before
disengaging it during normal driving. The main drawback of using flywheels in moving
vehicles is, of course, their extra weight. They save you energy by storing power you'd
otherwise squander in brakes, but they also cost you energy because you have to carry them
around all the time.
Fig 2.7 Picture showing a flywheel kinetic energy recovery system
The transfer of energy in both directions (captured from the driveline during coasting and
braking, and released to the driveline for boost) is managed through a CVT (Continuously
Variable Transmission) gear box. Packaged inside a single housing is a shaft mounted
flywheel that is connected via a chain/gear or belt/pulley drive to a series of discs and rollers
(the CVT). During braking and coasting, the flywheel spools-up (accelerates as it spins) and
absorbs a storehouse of otherwise wasted energy (heat from friction brakes). During power
delivery, as the vehicle begins to accelerate, the pent-up energy in the flywheel is released
and it turns the shaft. The rollers within the CVT can change position across the discs and
either retard or augment the torque of the spinning flywheel shaft much like a conventional
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step-up or step-down gear box. This “gearing” is necessary, because unlike aircraft, and to a
certain extent watercraft, which travel at a relatively constant load and speed, earth-bound
vehicles travel at regularly and greatly varying speeds and loads as they negotiate traffic and
topography. It is this variable output velocity that allows for smooth power transmission from
the flywheel to the driveline as the vehicle travels over the roadway.
Fig 2.8 Flywheel regenerative braking system
Advanced transmissions that incorporate hi-tech flywheels are now being used as
regenerative systems in such things as formula-1 cars, where they're typically referred to as
Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS).
Pros of flywheel systems
1) Compact weight and size- The entire system (the CVT, the flywheel and the housing) is
roughly half the weight and packaging of a battery hybrid system.
2) Twice as efficient - Battery-electric structures lose kinetic potential during the conversion
of energy from mechanical to electrical to chemical, and then back again. It’s a fundamental
of the Second Law of Thermodynamics: transforming energy from one form to another
introduces losses. Battery electrics are approximately 34 percent efficient. Flywheel drives
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are all mechanical and suffer no conversion losses. Most of the energy loss that does occur
comes from normal friction between moving parts. These systems are about 70 percent
efficient.
3) Lower cost - Smaller size and weight and reduced complexity make these arrangements
about one quarter the cost of a battery-electric system[8].
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CHAPTER 3
MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

3.1THERMODYNAMICS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEMS
3.1.1 KERS Flywheel
The energy of a flywheel can be described by this general energy equation, assuming the
flywheel is the system:
Ein – Eout = ∆ Esystem
Where:
 Ein is the energy into the flywheel.
 Eout is the energy out of the flywheel.
 ∆ Esystem is the change in energy of the flywheel.
An assumption is made that during braking there is no change in the potential energy,
enthalpy of the flywheel, pressure or volume of the flywheel, so only kinetic energy will be
considered. As the car is braking, no energy is dispersed by the flywheel, and the only energy
into the flywheel is the initial kinetic energy of the car. The equation can be simplified to:
1/2Mv2 =∆EFLY
Where:
 is the mass of the car.
 is the initial velocity of the car just before braking.
The flywheel collects a percentage of the initial kinetic energy of the car, and this percentage
can be represented by . The flywheel stores the energy as rotational kinetic energy.
Because the energy is kept as kinetic energy and not transformed into another type of energy
this process is efficient. The flywheel can only store so much energy, however, and this is
limited by its maximum amount of rotational kinetic energy. This is determined based upon
the inertia of the flywheel and its angular velocity. As the car sits idle, little rotational kinetic
energy is lost over time so the initial amount of energy in the flywheel can be assumed to
equal the final amount of energy distributed by the flywheel. The amount of kinetic energy
distributed by the flywheel is therefore:
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KEfly =nflymv2/2
3.1.2 Regenerative brakes
Regenerative braking has a similar energy equation to the equation for the mechanical
flywheel. Regenerative braking is a two-step process involving the motor/generator and the
battery. The initial kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator and is
then converted into chemical energy by the battery. This process is less efficient than the
flywheel. The efficiency of the generator can be represented by:
Ngen = Wout/Win
Where:
 Win is the work into the generator.
 Wout is the work produced by the generator.
The only work into the generator is the initial kinetic energy of the car and the only work
produced by the generator is the electrical energy. Rearranging this equation to solve for the
power produced by the generator gives this equation:
Pgen = (Ngenmv2)/2∆t
where:
 ∆t is the amount of time the car brakes.
 is the mass of the car.
 is the initial velocity of the car just before braking.
The efficiency of the battery can be described as:
Nbatt = Pout / Pin
where:
 Pin = Pgen
 Pout = Wout/∆t
The work out of the battery represents the amount of energy produced by the regenerative
brakes. This can be represented by:
Wout =Nbatt Ngen mv2/2
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3.2 BRAKING FORCE DISTRIBUTION
Fig 3.1 Distribution of forces on a moving car
Figure 3.1 shows the principle of braking force distribution between front and rear wheels,
which occurs when brake operations are performed while running on flat roads. The braking
force Fcar can be estimated from Equation (1) using the vehicle acceleration α car. The
relationship between the vehicle braking force Fcar and the front wheel braking force Ff and
the rear wheel braking force Fr can be represented as:
Fcar = M.acar = Ff + Fr (1)
The load will be shifted from the rear wheel to the front wheel side when the brake pedal is
stepped on, which will affect the distribution of braking force between front and rear wheels.
To estimate the influence of load movement on braking, brake strength z is defined as
z = acar/g (2)
Accordingly, the maximum braking forces Ff and Fr which can be generated for the front and
rear wheels are given by Equations (3)–(5):
Ff = Φ.Fz1 = Φ.G(b+z.hg)/L (3)
Fr = Φ.Fz2 = Φ.G(a-z.hg)/L (4)
Ff + Fr = Φ.G (5)
where Fz1 and Fz2 are the normal force in front wheels and rear wheels, respectively, G is
vehicle total load; φ represents the friction coefficient between the tire and the road surface.
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The ideal distribution curve gives the maximum braking force which can make the front and
rear wheels lock simultaneously for each friction coefficient. When the braking force is
distributed to the front and rear wheels on the operating curve, safe braking is secured. It can
be represented as:
As shown in Equation (3) and Equation (4), braking forces F f and Fr vary with the friction
coefficient φ. Thus, in order to distribute braking force we need to obtain the friction
coefficient in real time, but it is difficult to measure the changing friction coefficient directly.
However, it can be found that the distribution ratio R f and Rr of the front and rear wheels,
does not depend on the friction coefficient [9].
Rf = Ff / (Ff + Fr) = (b + z.hg)/(a + b) (7)
Rr = 1-Rf(8)
If an acceleration sensor is installed at the center of gravity of the body, the ideal braking
force distribution can be performed and Fcar can be determined using equation (1).
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CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

According to researches, the companies that operate long rail system lines are the major
customers of the energy market. Therefore, most of the transportation companies are
integrating regenerative braking technologies into railway operation systems. There has also
been a desire for improved fuel economy for road vehicles.
Also there has been increased interest in Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicle (HHV) technology. The
inherent power density of HHV makes significant benefits from regenerative braking possible
in higher- mass vehicles. [8].
Some of the applications of regenerative braking have been discussed below.
4.1 CARS WITH REGENERATIVE BRAKES
We talked about the electric regenerative braking system employed in cars under chapter 2
(2.3.1)
The following cars have electric regen brakes employed in their system
 Toyota Prius
 Aston Martin DB7 & DB9
 F1 racing cars
 Lamborghini Huracan
 Porsche Cayman 911
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Fig 4.1 Picture of a Lamborghini Huracan
4.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN TRAINS
Employing regenerative braking in trains can lead to substantial CO 2 emission reductions,

especially when applied to full stop service commuter trains (8 – 17%) and to very dense
suburban network trains (~ 30%). Regenerative braking applied to freight trains can also lead
to CO2 emission reductions, albeit considerably lower than for full stop service trains (~5%).
When regenerative braking is employed, the current in the electric motors is reversed,
slowing down the train. At the same time, the electro motors generate electricity to be
returned to the power distribution system. Regenerative breaking is a mature technology. It
can be more easily applied to AC powered trains than to DC powered systems. In DC
powered railway systems usually higher investment costs are needed.
Fig 4.2 Conventional Electro-Pneumatic Brakes for Trains
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A conventional electric train braking system uses dynamic braking, where the kinetic energy
of the train is dissipated as waste, mainly in the form of heat. When regenerative braking is
employed, the current in the electric motors is reversed, slowing down the train and at the
same time, the electro motors generate electricity to be returned to the power distribution
system. This generated electricity can be used to power other trains within the network or
can be used to offset power demands of other loads such as lighting in stations.
The technique of regenerative braking is most effective in full stop passenger trains and
subway trains (metro), because they stop often enough to make recovery worthwhile.
Conventional freight trains only have a limited potential to recover power with the help of
regenerative braking.
Electric railway systems can be either DC or AC powered. It is much easier to implement

regenerative braking for AC powered systems. For DC powered systems, there are two main
barriers: (1) Most DC powered systems use relatively low voltages and (2) often the
generated electricity cannot be fed back into the public electricity grid. In very dense
suburban DC powered networks, however, regenerative breaking can be an effective way to
reduce the electricity demand. In all other cases, the effectiveness of regenerative braking is
rather low but may be enhanced by technological upgrades of vehicles and/or substations.
These upgrades are associated with relatively high investment costs.
From census of 2009, use of regenerative braking in the New Delhi's metro cut back on
energy use of the trains by about 30%.
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) rolling stock propulsion system for regeneration of
power on its network from braking in trains. DMRC consists of two units, each comprising a
Driving Trailer (DT) and a Motor (M) Car. Propulsion system consists of Transformer,
Converter Inverter and ac three phase traction motors. Converter Inverter is the key
equipment, which extracts the kinetic energy from vehicle during braking and reconverts into
electricity. Initially, three phase power at variable frequency at traction motor-converter
inverter interface is converted to single phase by CI at power frequency synchronized to the
grid and within permissible harmonics level. Then, it is fed back to internal grid of DMRC.
Regenerated electricity is used by Auxiliary System of the train regenerating as well as other
Rolling Stocks operating at that time in powering mode on the network. Traction motors on
DMRC trains are VVVF vector control, 220 KW, 1450V, 3 phase squirrel cage Induction
motors[4].
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Fig 4.3 Power Electronic Equipment for Rolling Stock
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Fig 4.4 Main Converter for AC Powered Trains
Fig 4.5 Auxiliary Power Supply for AC powered trains
27 | P a g e
Fig 4.6 Main Converter for DC Powered Trains
Fig 4.7 Auxiliary Power Supply for DC powered trains
DMRC on its various lines have employed Automatic Train Protection System (ATP). Over
and above ATP System, DMRC has employed Automatic Train Operation (ATO) System on
its Line-2, where trains automatically flip flops between powering and braking. In line-3
operation, DMRC has employed automatic control of train braking by way of using a Train
Interface Computer (TIC) Control, whereby braking requirements of train are automatically
controlled. On its line-1 operation, DMRC employed a system where train operators are
trained to effect optimal performance of train on regenerative braking front.
Line wise performance of DMRC trains on regenerative braking [11]
28 | P a g e
Locomotive feeding Voltages in different parts of world [9]
29 | P a g e
CHAPTER 5
PROS AND CONS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

5.1 ADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING OVER
CONVENTIONAL BRAKING
 Energy Conservation:
The flywheel absorbs energy when braking via a clutch system slowing the car down and
speeding up the wheel. To accelerate, another clutch system connects the flywheel to the
drive train, speeding up the car and slowing down the flywheel. Energy is therefore
conserved rather than wasted, what normally happens in the contemporary shoe/disc system.
[6]
 Wear Reduction:
In regenerative braking, when the motor is not receiving power from the battery pack, it
resists the turning of the wheels, capturing some of the energy of motion as if it were a
generator and returning that energy to the battery pack. In mechanical brakes; lessening wear
and extending brake life is not possible.[6]
 Reduction in fuel Consumption:
It has been proved the regenerative braking is very fuel-efficient. The Delhi Metro saved
around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere by
regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking
systems between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000
tons of CO2 from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of
regenerative braking. The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent,
with the remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The
miraculous thing about regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half
of that wasted energy and put it back to work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to
25 percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking systems could provide even more impressive
gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45 percent.[11]
30 | P a g e
 Braking is not total loss:
Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat. In energy
terms, once heat is generated, it is very difficult to reuse. The regenerative braking system,
however, slows a vehicle down in a different way. During braking electric supply from the
battery is cut off by the electronic system. As the car is still moving forward, the
motor/generator unit acts as electric generator converting kinetic energy into electrical and
store in the batteries.[9]
5.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKES ARE ASSISTED WITH FRICTIONAL

BRAKE
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative

braking for the following reasons:
 Brings the vehicle to complete halt
The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is
still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor
is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
 Backup during failure condition
The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake.
Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a
two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in
order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads)
friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels.
 Absorbs excess energy
The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of
the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or
capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on
the same supply system is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are
already charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to
absorb the excess energy.
31 | P a g e
 Provides maximum emergency braking force
Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum
allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the
entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force
available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme
high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking
system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power
which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power
may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept
charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy
in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.
For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the
friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output.
32 | P a g e
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which internal
combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving toward
alternative energy carriers, such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even compressed air.
Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence
from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time
without the need to be plugged into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend the
driving range of fully electric vehicles. In fact, this technology has already helped bring us
cars like the Tesla Roadster, which runs entirely on battery power.[2] Sure, these cars may
use fossil fuels at the recharging stage that is, if the source of the electricity comes from a
fossil fuel such as coal but when they're out there on the road, they can operate with no use of
fossil fuels at all, and that's a big step forward. When you think about the energy losses
incurred by battery-electric hybrid systems, it seems plausible to reason that efficient
flywheel hybrids would soon become the norm. But of course it’s not quite so black and
white, and further analysis shows that a combination of battery-electric and flywheel energy
storage is probably the ideal solution for hybrid vehicles. The energy-saving, powertrain
efficiency and braking stability performance of electric vehicles depends to a large extent on
their regenerative braking strategy. The article has analyzed the braking effectiveness and
braking stability, and presented a fuzzy RBS to improve the braking performance. The fuzzy
RBS effectively solves the braking force distribution between front and rear wheels, and the
distribution between friction braking force and regenerative braking force. What’s more, the
fuzzy RBS is applied and tested on a LF620 prototype EV on the road. Experimental results
show that it can realize maximum recovery vehicle braking energy while meeting braking
safety requirements. The powertrain and component efficiency are evidently improved and
the maximum driving range per charge of the EV can be extended. They are the most
convincing evidence to verify the effectiveness of the regenerative braking method in
recycling braking energy which otherwise is wasted as heat through friction. As designers
and engineers perfect regenerative braking systems, they will become more and more
common. All vehicles in motion can benefit from utilizing regeneration to recapture energy
that would otherwise be lost [7][8].
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REFERENCES
1. Cibulka, J. Kinetic energy recovery system by means of flywheel energy storage Advanced
engineering 3(2009)1, ISSN 1846-5900
2. Howstuffworks.com/Regenerative_Brakingg
3. Hewko L. O; “Automotive traction drive CVTs – An overview”; SAE paper
861355;
4. Juan W. Dixon, Micah Ortúzar and Eduardo Wiechmann*, “Regenerative Brakingfor an

Electric Vehicle Using Ultracapacitors and a Buck-Boost Converter”
5. Chris Brockbankg, BSc (Hons) “Development of Full-Toroidal Traction Drives in

Flywheel Based Mechanical Hybrids”
6. Scribd.com/regen_braking_system
7. Ziqiang CHEN, Jiaxi QIANG, Jianhui HE, Lin YANG “Intelligent Regenerative Braking
Control of Hybrid Buses”
8. VGao, Y.M.; Chen, L.P.; Ehsani, M. Investigation of the effectiveness of regenerative

braking for EV and HEV. SAE Trans. 1999, 108, 3184–3190.
9. Zhang, C.W.; Bai, Z.F.; Cao, B.G.; Li, J.C. Study on Regenerative Braking of Electric
Vehicle. In Proceedings of the 4th International Power Electronics and Motion Control
Conference, Xi’an, China, 14–16 August 2004; Volume 2, pp. 836–839.
10. Zhang, J.M.; Song, B.Y.; Cui, S.M. Fuzzy Logic Approach to Regenerative Braking
System. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Human-Machine
Systems and Cybernetics, Hangzhou, China, 26–27 August 2009; pp. 451–454
11. Ye, M.; Bai, Z.F.; Cao, B.G. Robust Sliding Model Control for Regenerative Braking of
Electric Vehicle. In Proceedings of the IEEE 5th International Power Electronics and Motion
Control Conference, Shanghai, China, 14–16 August 2006; Volume 3, pp. 1–4.
34 | P a g e

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Government College of Engineering and Technology, Jammu