1 Ecosystems 2

2 cybon and nytogen 104

3 Air pollution 146
4 Green house Gases 177
5 global_warming 195
6 kyoto 231
 Ecosystems
By Prof. Namrata Agrawal
● An ecosystem is a community of organisms and the
physical environment in which they live.
● An ecosystem is a community, where all living
organisms live and interact with one another and
also with their non-living environment such as land,
soil, air, water etc
● An ecosystem includes all of the living things (trees,
plants, animals, birds , insect ,human and organisms
called biotic components ) in a given area,
interacting with each other, and also with their non-
living environments (weather, earth, sunlight,air ,
soil, climate, atmosphere, water termed as abiotic
components).
● Ecosystems are the foundations of the Biosphere,
and they determine the health of the entire earth
system.
● Ecosystems range in size from the smallest units (Eg:
bark of a tree) that can sustain life to the global
ecosystem or ecosphere. (Eg: Cropland, Pond
ecosystem, Forest ecosystem, Desert ecosystem etc.).
Biosphere harbours all ecosystems on the earth and
sustains life forms including mankind.
Survival of biotic components depends on other biotic and abiotic
components

Example : suppose a jungle surrounded by trees and plants all around

and wildlife roaming in open space

A flower grows by nutrient and water found in soil and gases like co2
in atmosphere and it blossoms by sunlight and gives it energy to
perform photosynthesis

For survival a deer eats the plant, flower and consume the energy and
nutrients which are stored inside them.

At old age , when deer dies , its body is rotting and decomposing.

The microorganisms found in the soil decompose deer body.and

observes all the nutrients and energy it has
These two can not survive with out each
other.
Both are biotic components of nature .
Interaction between among them help
them to survive.
Flower with the
help of water Co2
and sunlight so
that it can grow
and blossom.
With out this
interaction of
flower by water
sunlight and co2 .
flower will not
survive
This interaction of biotic
with biotic and abiotic
components is known as
ecosystem.

This type of ecosystem that

we found on land is known as
terrestrial ecosystem
Ecosystem simply means “Ecological Systems”. Ecology is
the study of ecosystems.

Consider a small puddle at the back of your home. In it, you

may find all sorts of living things, from microorganisms to
insects and plants. These may depend on non-living things
like water, sunlight, turbulence in the puddle, temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and even nutrients in the water for
life.

In Garden we have plants and trees . we have also animals

there like dog, cats , frogs , birds and insects. All these
living organism live in particular temperature . plants are
formed from the soil. Rainfall and wind also affect the
living organisms. So non living constituents like
temperature soil rainfall and wind.

An example of a pond ecosystem

This very complex interaction of living things and their environment has been the
foundation of energy flow and recycling of carbon and nitrogen.

Anytime a ‘stranger’ (living thing(s) or external factor such as rise in temperature)

is introduced to an ecosystem, it can be disastrous to that ecosystem. That is
because the new organism (or factor) can distort the natural balance of the
interaction and potentially harm or destroy the ecosystem.

Usually, biotic members of an ecosystem, together with their abiotic factors

depend on each other. That means the absence of one member or one abiotic
factor can affect all parties of the ecosystem.

Unfortunately, ecosystems have been disrupted, and even destroyed by natural

disasters such as fires, floods, storms, and volcanic eruptions. Human activities
have also contributed to the disturbance of many ecosystems and biomes.
This very complex interaction of living things and their environment has been the foundation of
energy flow and recycling of carbon and nitrogen.

Anytime a ‘stranger’ (living thing(s) or external factor such as rise in temperature) is introduced
to an ecosystem, it can be disastrous to that ecosystem. That is because the new organism (or
factor) can distort the natural balance of the interaction and potentially harm or destroy the
ecosystem.

Usually, biotic members of an ecosystem, together with their abiotic factors depend on each
other. That means the absence of one member or one abiotic factor can affect all parties of the
ecosystem.

Unfortunately, ecosystems have been disrupted, and even destroyed by natural disasters such
as fires, floods, storms, and volcanic eruptions. Human activities have also contributed to the
disturbance of many ecosystems and biomes.
Ecosystem goods and services

It is the extremely vital life-support services

ecosystems provide to human life, its well-being, and
future economic and social development. For
example, the benefits ecosystems provide include
food, water, timber, air purification, soil formation, and
pollination.
 Scales of Ecosystems
Ecosystems come in indefinite sizes. It can exist in a small area such as
underneath a rock, a decaying tree trunk, or a pond in your village, or it can exist in
large forms such as an entire rain forest. Technically, the Earth can be called a huge
ecosystem.

To make things simple, let us classify ecosystems into three main scales.

Micro:It is a small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree trunk, under a rock,
etc.

Messo:It is a medium scale ecosystem such as a forest or a large lake.

Biome:It is a large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and

abiotic factors such as an entire rainforest with millions of animals and trees, with
many different water bodies running through them.

Ecosystem boundaries are not marked (separated) by rigid lines. They are often
separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes, and
rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other.
That is why a lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique
characteristics. Scientists call this blending “ecotone”

Ecosystems can be placed into two groups. If the ecosystem exists in a water body,
like an ocean, freshwater, or puddle, it is called an aquatic ecosystem. Those that
exist outside of water bodies are called terrestrial ecosystems.
A simple tree-trunk ecosystem relationship
Let us see how these five members relate to each other in the tree-trunk ecosystem.
1. Humidity is an abiotic factor. It provides moisture for the tree trunk
to decay. Therefore, the tree-trunk is depending on the right humidity
to help it decay.
2. The decaying trunk provides fertile grounds for tiny green plans to
grow.
3. Tiny green plants become food for bugs and insects that live in and
around the decaying tree-trunk.
4. Bugs and insects become yummy food for small animals like the
frog who hangs around the tree-trunk.
5. And… the frog becomes dinner for the snake hiding under the trunk.

So there you go. You will now notice that if one member of the chain is taken
out, the entire relationship will be affected. For example: if a fire burns out the
tree-trunk, the insects will starve and die, and the frog will have no food, and the
snake will have to go somewhere else to look for food. The ecosystem will be
no more.
Individual
An individual is any living thing or organism.
Population:

A group of individuals of a given

species that live in a specific
geographic area at a given time. (an
example is Gill, her family, friends, and
other fish of Gill’s species) Note that
populations include individuals of the
same species, but may have different
genetic makeup such as hair/eye/skin
color and size between themselves and
other populations.
Community:

It includes all the populations in a specific

area at a given time. A community
includes populations of organisms of
different species. In the diagram above,
note how populations of goldfish,
salmons, crabs, and herrings coexist in a
defined location. A great community
usually includes biodiversity
Ecosystem

As explained in the pages earlier,

ecosystems include more than a
community of living organisms
(biotic) interacting with the
environment (abiotic). At this level,
note how they depend on other abiotic
factors such as rocks, water, air, and
temperature
Biome:

A biome, in simple terms, is a set of ecosystems sharing similar characteristics with their abiotic factors adapted to
their environments.

Biosphere:

When we consider all the different biomes, each blending into the other, with all humans living in many different
geographic areas, we form a huge community of humans, animals and plants, and micro-organisms in their defined
habitats. A biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on planet Earth. It is the living (and decaying)
component of the earth system.
 Types of the ecosystem:
Natural ecosystem: Forest .lake ,ponds

Terrestrial ecosystem:Consists of all the living organisms residing on land and all the non living
things present around them

1. Forest ecosystem
2. Grasslands
3. Desert
4. Weed land

Aquatic ecosystem:Comprising of all the aquatic organisms and their environment

1. Freshwater ecosystem, e.g., pond ecosystem

2. Ocean/marine ecosystem, e.g., Indian ocean ecosystem.

Artificial ecosystem: Gardens , cropfields , aquarium

● Cropland ecosystem
● Fish form ecosystem
Three kinds of organism depending on the manner in which they obtain their
food

1. Producers 2. Consumers 3. decomposer

Lion tiger are tertiary
consumers(large).They
feed on secondary.wolf
dog are secondary
consumers(small)

Parasites takes their food from live animals

while carnivores take food from dead
Decomposer
mainly act on
dead and
decayed
material
Grass is eaten by rabbit. Rabbit is eaten by lion . And when lion dies , its body is
decomposed by microorganism or decomposers present in the environment.
The pond ecosystem
Let’s see the chain of all these organisms in pond
system.

Here the primary producers are the plants which

are growing along the borders of the ponds and
even on the surface of the water that is floating
plants and even some plants which grow under
water that is submerged plants.so these plants
they make their own food so are the producers of
the food chain in pond ecosystem.

These plants are then eaten by herbivorves which

are the plants eating fishes , insects etc they make
the second trophic level of the food chain.

Then these herbivores are in turn eaten by large

fishes or frogs which are the carnivores which
make the next trophic level of food chain.]

And when all the organism both the plants and

animals die , they are decomposed by numerous
bacteria and fungi which are regarded as
decomposers
The forest ecosystem

The forest ecosystem is large area of

land with dense growth of trees . In
forest ecosystem all these trees and
plants ,they consists of producers which
is the first trophic level.
Then the animal which depends on these
producers that is herbivores like deers ,
rabbits , pigeons , parrots and even some
insects like grasshopper , butterfly
etc.’they make the second trophic level.
Then these herbivores are eaten by
carnivores which are the tiger,lion , wolf
, lizards and snakes etc.
They make the third trophic level.
 Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystem refers to all such ecosystems which are mainly

located on land. Although the presence of water in these ecosystems is
measured, they are entirely land-based and exist on land.

More specifically, a low and sufficiently needed amount of water is

located in terrestrial ecosystems. The low amount of water separates
these ecosystems from aquatic ecosystems. Besides, terrestrial
ecosystems typically have temperature fluctuations in both seasonal
and diurnal climates.

It is also a specific factor that makes these ecosystems different from

aquatic ecosystems in similar environments.

Furthermore, the availability of light is somewhat higher in terrestrial

ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems.

The reason for this is that the climate in the land is relatively more
transparent than water.

Due to entirely different light availability and temperature in terrestrial

ecosystems, they have diverse flora and fauna. Terrestrial ecosystems
include various ecosystems distributed around different geological
zones.
 Forest Ecosystems
A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem where many
organisms live together with the environment's abiotic
components. There are much different flora and
fauna in this ecosystem.

This usually means that the forest ecosystem has a

high density of living organisms that live with non-
living abiotic elements. The forest ecosystem usually
includes various plants, microorganisms, animals, and
other species.

Forests are significant carbon sinks and participate in

controlling and balancing the overall temperature of
the Erath. Changes in the forest ecosystem affect the
entire ecological balance, and severe changes or
destruction of forests can also kill the whole
ecosystem.

Forests are generally classified into tropical

deciduous forests, tropical evergreen forests,
temperate deciduous forests, temperate forests, and
Taig.
Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland ecosystems are referred to as those ecosystems where the number of

trees is low.

These ecosystems mainly consist of grasses, shrubs, and herbs. That means grasses
are the primary vegetation in these ecosystems, along with legumes that typically
belong to the composite family.

Shrubs: a large plant with a rounded shape formed from many small
branches growing either directly from the ground or from a hard stem,
grown in gardens

Grassland ecosystems are commonly situated in both the tropical and temperate
regions globally; however, they have distinct variations.

Examples of these ecosystems include the savanna grasslands and temperate

grasslands. They are home to various grazing animals, insectivores, and herbivores.

Vegetation : plants considered collectively, especially those found in a particular area or habitat.
 Mountain Ecosystems

As the name suggests, the mountain ecosystem is

characterized by mountainous regions where the climate is
usually cold, and rainfall is low. Due to these climate changes,
these ecosystems have a wide variety of habitats where
various animal and plant species are found. The high altitude
areas of mountainous regions have a cold and harsh climate.
This is the reason why only treeless alpine vegetation is found
in these ecosystems. Animals found in these ecosystems
usually have thick fur coats to protect them from cold
climates.

Besides, mainly coniferous trees exist on the lower slopes of

the mountains. Examples of mountain ecosystems include
mountain tops in Arctic regions. They are covered with snow
for most of the year.
Desert ecosystems

Desert ecosystems exist worldwide and cover about 17 percent of

desert areas. These are areas where annual rainfall is usually
measured less than 25 mm. Due to fewer trees and land of sand,
sunlight intensifies in these ecosystems. This is why these
ecosystems have incredibly high temperatures and low availability
of water. However, the nights are quite cold.

The Desert ecosystem has unique flora and fauna. Plants grow with
small amounts of water and conserve water's possible amount in
their leaves and stems. For example, the spiny-leafed cactus is a
type of desert plant that has the characteristic of storing water
using a stem. Similarly, animals are also adopted to the condition of
desert ecosystems. Some common animals are camels, reptiles, a
diverse range of insects and birds.
Functions of Ecosystem

● It helps to regulate all basic ecological processes, manages life systems, and ensures
sustainability.
● It participates in maintaining an equilibrium structural process between different trophic levels of
ecosystem components.
● It is responsible for cycling minerals through the biosphere.
● It maintains and regulates nutrient cycling between abiotic and biotic ecosystem components.
● Along with abiotic components, the ecosystem participates in the synthesis of organic components
primarily responsible for transferring energy.
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems refer to all such ecosystems that are primarily located on or inside water bodies.
The nature and characteristics of all living and non-living organisms in the aquatic system are
determined based on the environment surrounding their ecosystem. Organisms in these ecosystems
interact with other organisms in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
Aquatic ecosystem are any water based environments in which plants and animals interact with the
chemical and physical features of the aquatic environment
Aquatic ecosystem are generally divided in two types : Marine Ecosystem and freshwater
Ecosystems
Largest water ecosystem is marine ecosystem covering over 70 percent’s of the earth surface.
Oceans , estuaries , coral reefs and coastal ecosystem are the various kind of ecosystems.
Fresh ecosystem cover less than 1 percent of the earth and subdivided in to lotic , lentic and wetlands
Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is one of the essential ecosystems for humans and other organisms living on
land. This is because this ecosystem is a source of drinking water. Additionally, it also helps in providing
the necessary energy and water for transportation, recreation, etc.
Freshwater ecosystems mainly include lentic, lotic, and wetlands.

Lentic: Water bodies that are moving slowly or are still in some places come under lentic. For example,
ponds, lakes, pools, etc. Lakes are known as large water bodies and are surrounded by land.

Lotic: Water bodies that are moving at a fast pace fall under a lotic. For example, streams and rivers.
Wetlands: Environments characterized by soils saturated with water for a long time fall under wetlands.
The freshwater ecosystem is the smallest type of ecosystem among the major types of ecosystems. There is
usually no salt content in the freshwater ecosystem. Besides, it consists of many insects, small fish,
amphibians, and various plant species. Plants help provide oxygen through photosynthesis and also
provide food for the organisms living in this ecosystem.
 Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are usually characterized by the presence of salt content. These
ecosystems have a higher salt content than the freshwater ecosystem. Moreover, they are
known as the largest type of ecosystem on Earth. It usually includes all the oceans and their
parts. Besides, marine ecosystems have a distinctive flora and fauna, which support
greater biodiversity than freshwater ecosystems. This type of ecosystem is essential for
both marine and terrestrial environments.
In particular, this ecosystem includes salt marshes, lagoons, coral reefs, estuaries,
intertidal zones, mangroves, seafloor, and deep seas. Salt marshes, mangrove forests, and
sea-grass meadows are said to be among the most productive ecosystems. Coral reefs are
known to provide adequate quantities of food and shelter to most marine inhabitants
worldwide.
Estuaries
Coral reef
Coastal Ecosystem
 Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year.
The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.

Tundra ecosystems are characterized as being treeless and snow-

covered. The snow melts in spring and summer, producing shallow
ponds. During this time, lichens and flowering plants typically grow.
Because of the ice covering the land in the tundra, this ecosystem
is important in regulating its temperature. It also serves as a water
reservoir.
Functions of an ecosystem
The living organisms form an interacting set of flora and fauna which are organized into trophic
levels, food chains and food webs.

The functioning of an ecosystem depends on the pattern of the energy flow, as it helps in the
distribution and circulation of the organic and inorganic matter within an ecosystem.

Energy flow generally takes place in a hierarchical order in an ecosystem through various levels.
These levels are called trophic levels.

The chain of transformation of energy from one group of organisms to another, through various
trophic levels is called a food chain. A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains is
called a food web.
What are the four domains of earth
The massive universe formed millions of years ago.
It has infinite undiscovered spaces, trillions of stars,millions of galaxies and
the nine planet in our solar system.
But the universe blessed the planet earth with living beings.And to make life
possible three different component meet. So that human can survive and
thrive.
These are the elements of land , water and air.
These are nothing but domains of the earth.
Namely the lithosphere , Hydrosphere and atmosphere which give rise to
biosphere.
Earth is made up of
various layers
Spheres
Our planet is a system and it has some
interconnected parts these are spheres.

The portion which is common in these spheres is

biosphere.these four spheres are enclosed with is
boundry and this is called ecosystem.Because these
three spheres are closely interconnected with each
other so a change in one sphere will definitely
result in change in another sphere

•These changes are known as events

•Events can be natural like earthquake ,
cyclone, or it can be man made like oil spill ,
air pollution. These events are caused by
humans once these events have occurred they
become cause and this cause will have effect on
one or two spheres. Effect will again become
cause for mre event . This cycle keep going.
•These three spheres continuously interacting
with each other in form of energy transform
and nutrient reclying . This is done by common
area which is bio sphere
INTERATIONS BETWEEN THE 4 SPHERES
Although the four systems have their individual identities, there is
important interaction between them.

Environmental scientists study the effects of events in one sphere on

the other spheres.

There are ten possible types of interactions that could occur within
the earth system. Four of these interactions are between the event
and each of the earth's spheres.

The double-headed arrows indicate that the cause and effect

relationships of these interactions go in both directions.

These four types of interactions can be illustrated in Figure #1.

The "event < > hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the event on the
hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the event.
For example, a volcanic eruption in the geosphere may cause
profound direct and indirect effects on the hydrosphere, atmosphere
and biosphere as follows
Example: (Volcano) On May 18, 1980, Mount Saint Helens, in the state of
Washington, erupted. This event altered the surrounding environment, and
provided scientists with an opportunity to study the effects of volcanic eruptions
on the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Such studies are
important because volcanic eruptions will continue to occur, and will have
increasing impact on humans as people continue to settle lands closer to
dormant volcanoes.
In addition to the above four eventsphere
interactions, there are six interactions that
occur among the spheres themselves. Figure 2
illustrates a few of the many interactions
resulting from a volcanic eruption.
The ten types of interactions that can occur
within the earth system often occur as a series
of chain reactions.
This means one interaction leads to another
interaction, which leads to yet another
interaction--it is a ripple effect through the
earth's spheres.
Volcano >> lithosphere >> atmosphere >> hydrosphere >> biosphere
Volcanoes (an event in the lithosphere) release a large amount of particulate matter into the
atmosphere. These particles serve as nuclei for the formation of water droplets (hydrosphere). Rainfall
(hydrosphere) often increases following an eruption, stimulating plant growth (biosphere). Particulate
matter in the air (atmosphere) falls out, initially smothering plants (biosphere), but ultimately enriching
the soil (lithosphere) and thereby stimulating plant growth (biosphere).
Volcano >> lithosphere >> hydrosphere >> biosphere
Volcanoes (events in the lithosphere) may release a substantial amount of hot lava (lithosphere), which
causes mountain glaciers (hydrosphere) to melt. Mudflows (lithosphere) and flooding may occur
downstream from volcanoes and may inundate streamside communities (biosphere).
Volcano >> lithosphere >> atmosphere >> biosphere >> lithosphere
Volcanoes (events of the lithosphere) release a large amount of carbon dioxide (atmosphere), the raw
material for sugar production in plants (biosphere). This may increase photosynthetic production and
eventually increase the amount of biomass, which, after a very long time, forms coal and oil deposits
(lithosphere).
THE LITHOSPHERE -

It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The lithosphere refers to the solid, rocky
crust that covers the entire planet. This solid, rocky crust is composed of a number of different rocks that
have been grouped into three categories based on how they are formed. These three groups include:

● Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from pre-existing
rocks.
● Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also known as magma.
When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had fully cooled it create what is
known to be an igneous rock.
● Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When rocks erode and
mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix together to form a sedimentary rock.
● The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as
mountains, valleys, rocks, minerals and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing
due to forces and pressures such as the sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.
● The earth’s surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as
the oceanic and continental lithospheres.
● The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped
with a thin yet heavy oceanic crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere
meet.
● The continental lithosphere include the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped
with a thick yet light continental crust. This is where the atmosphere, biosphere and
hydrosphere meet the lithosphere.
● Continental crust is found beneath the continents .On continents we will find
mountains , huge plains and volcanoes.
● Yellow potion of the figure is continental crust which is found below the
continents. Thickness of continental crust is higher than oceanic crust.
● Continental crust extends up to 40 KM below the earth surface.
● Below portion is ocean and yellow layer below ocean is oceanic crust. Oceanic
crust is thinner.
● Below the ocean , this type of crust extends up to10 KM
● Lithosphere is topmost layer of interior of the earth where we live . so it is in rigid state.
THE HYDROSPHERE

● The hydrosphere refers to the most important

resource which is water.
● The hydrosphere includes all forms of water in the
Earth’s environment. The forms of water include
things such as the ocean, lakes, rivers, snow and
glaciers, water underneath the earth’s surface and
even the water vapour that is found in the
atmosphere.
● The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through
the movement and flow of water in rivers, streams
and the ocean (beach).
● Plant and animal organisms rely on the hydrosphere
for their survival as water is essential. The
hydrosphere is also home to many plants and
animals and it believed that the hydrosphere covers
approximately 70% of the earth’s surface
 The Hydrosphere --

It contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet.

Hydrosphere includes oceans, lakes , rivers , waterfalls , water vapour, under ground water and some ice in the mountains.

Oceans: Most of the water on our planet is salt water, and the vast majority of this saltwater is present in the oceans.

Freshwater: Freshwater is much less abundant than saltwater, and is present in a variety of different places.

Surface water: Surface sources of freshwater consist of lakes, rivers, and streams.

Groundwater: Freshwater stored beneath ground makes up a small portion of the fresh water on Earth.

Glacial water: Water that melts off of glaciers.

It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in thickness.

The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the
atmosphere.

A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty).

This water flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as
groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty.
The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface. These large
collections of salty water are referred to as oceans.
The image above depicts the different temperatures one would find on oceans'
surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while water near the equator is very
warm. The differences in temperature cause water to change physical states.
Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze
into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high
temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into a gas.
Human Impacts on Hydrosphere
● As we know humans are having a great impact on the environment, the same is the case with the
hydrosphere. It has changed drastically because of water pollution, river damming, wetland drainage,
climate change and irrigation.
● Further, when we release fertilizers and sewage into water storage areas, it results in eutrophication which
causes aquatic environments to be artificially enriched with nutrients.

Eutrophication :Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plentiful growth of simple
plant life. The excessive growth (or bloom) of algae and plankton in a water body are indicators of this process. Eutrophication is considered to be a
serious environmental concern since it often results in the deterioration of water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Eutrophic
waters can eventually become “dead zones” that are incapable of supporting life.

Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water (or air) that are unable to propel themselves against a current (or wind)

● Excessive algal blooms can cause harmful hypoxic conditions in the water. Acid rain from SOx and NOx
emissions from fossil fuel combustion has caused the acidification of components of the hydrosphere,
which harms the surrounding ecosystems.
Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply

● Finally, our activities also change the natural flow of water in the hydrosphere when we divert and dam
rivers. In other words, it harms surrounding ecosystems which are reliant on the water source.
Hydrosphere Facts

● The amount of water on the Earth’s surface remains constant over time. This signifies that
the amount of water available on the Earth today is the same as it was when dinosaurs were
roaming the Earth.
● 68.7% of the freshwater exists in the form of permanent snow.
● The total amount of water on Earth is about 333 million cubic miles or 1,386 million cubic
kilometres.
● Helps to maintain the hydrological cycle.
● Good means of transport of water
● Plays a vital role in the earth’s climate
 Water Cycle
Water does not disappear . it only change from one state
to another state.

Water continously dispersed from various water bodies

like ocean, streams, lake, rivers etc during the day to
form water vapour.

So the process where water changes from liquid state to

gaseous state is called as evaporation.

Evaporation is not limited to these water bodies itself.

Evan plants and animals contribute to some amount of

water vapour in the air.

When plants and animals respair they release some

amount of vapour in the air.

When plants release water in the air in form of vapour

through small opening in the leave, we call this process
as transpiration.

The two process combinedly called Evapo-transpiration,

contributes to the total amount of moisture in the air.
Now lets see what happens to the water vapour in
the air.

These vapour are so light that they travel high up

in the air and combined with dust and smog to
form cloud droplets and crystal of water. So cloud
are nothing but visible mass of liquid droplets.

But these droplets are so tiny and light so it can

not fall so they remain in the cloud.

So the water in the vapour form is converted to

liquid droplets so we call this process as
condensation.

The same process can be observed when we boil

water with closed lid.

The steam condenses to give us water droplet on

the lid.
The cloud formation continuously occurs
until it reaches a point where it can not
hold any more water droplet. In other
words, it has reached its saturation.
Here the tiny light droplets combining
with each other to form larger droplets.
These droplets are so heavy that it starts
falling.
And this atmospheric water finally
reaches to land either in the form of rain
or snow.We call this process as
precipitation
On reaching the land surface, water is
distributed in different parts.
Water either directly flows off in ocean, river
and lake.This process is called surface runoff
Some amount of water seeps down or diffuses in
to the ground to give us ground water. So this is
how ground water is formed . This process is
called percolation/infilteration.
So water has actually return from where it
earlier came.
This continuous cycle of Evaporation,
condensation and precipitation is called
Hydrologcal cycle or water cycle.
 THE BIOSPHERE -

The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants

and animals.

It is believed that all life exists in the biosphere.

Most of the living organisms are found from up to three meters

below ground to thirty meters above it and also in the to 200 meters
of the ocean and seas.

The biosphere could not survive if it wasn't for the other spheres as
all organisms need water from the hydrosphere, minerals for the
lithosphere and gases from the atmosphere.

Energy flow is essential to maintain the structure of organisms by

the splitting of phosphate bonds.
This Atmosphere act as a
blanket because it keeps the
average temperature of the
earth nearly constant
THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere referrers to the air that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere is always in motion and
constantly changing. It’s believed that there are about 14 different gases that make up the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is also responsible for the weather as the weather occurs within the lower atmosphere.

The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where the weather
happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from the earth’s surface but it
becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the next by what is known as tropopause. The
tropopause is the point in which temperatures will begin to change due to the increase of altitude.

Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there large concentration of ozone
gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large percent of radiant solar energy,
protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also known as UV.

The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water vapor often freezes to create
clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the thermosphere by the
mesopause.

The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the earth. Due to the
thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere tend to rapidly increase and
decrease
Important Points:

● The elastic, invisible and tasteless mixture of gases that surrounds the earth form what is
termed as air.

● The atmosphere denotes all the air surrounding the earth.

The environment is the general term with major constituents as biotic and abiotic environments
and it also includes atmosphere having major constituents of N2, O2, and other gases.

● Weather is the general condition of atmosphere at a particulat time and the place.

● Weather can be described by various meterological phenomenon such as rain fall, atmospheric
pressure, cloudiness, wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity etc.

● The average weather conditions of a place or a region throughout the season is called climate,
which is governed by latitude position in relation to oceans or continents, local geographical
conditions etc.

● Climate can be described by a number of terms like rate of evaporation, wind speed and
direction, temperature, lightening and thunder storms, solar radiation, incidences of fog,
visibility etc.
CARBON CYCLE
AND NITROGEN
CYCLE
B Y N A M R ATA A G R A W A L
When these organisms die,
it enters in to soil.
AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution Definition

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological

molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the
environment.”
 What Is Air Pollution?
• Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants which are
detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole.
• Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is
the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants,
animals and humans drastically.
• According to the World Health Organization (WHO), each year air pollution is
responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe.
• Nine out of ten human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s
guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income
countries suffering the most.
• There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or
decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This
imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s
temperature, which is known as global warming.
Types of Pollutants

• Air pollution can be classified into two sections – invisible and visible air pollution.
• Visible air pollution, as the name suggests, can be visible. The smog you see over a
city is an example of visible pollution.
• Invisible air pollutants are less noticeable, but they can be more deadly. Good
examples of invisible air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides.
• It can be further divided into Primarily and Secondary air pollutants if we go deep.
• Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources.
The pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary
pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide
emitted from factories.
• Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the intermingling and
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several
primary pollutants is known as a secondary pollutant.
Two types of sources: Natural sources and
Man-made sources.
• Natural Sources
Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from locations with very
little or no green cover, gases released from the body processes of living beings
(Carbon dioxide from humans during respiration, Methane from cattle during
digestion, Oxygen from plants during Photosynthesis).
• Smoke from the combustion of various inflammable objects, volcanic eruptions,
etc. along with the emission of polluted gases also makes it to the list of
natural sources of pollution
Man-made Sources
• It can be further divided into:
1. Outdoor pollution sources
2. Indoor pollution sources
• Outdoor Pollution Sources: The major outdoor pollution sources include power
generation, vehicles, agriculture/waste incineration, industry and building heating
systems. Smoke features as a prominent component. The smoke emitted from
various forms of combustion, like in biomass, factories, vehicles, furnaces, etc.
• Waste dumped in landfills generates methane, which is harmful in several ways.
The reactions of certain gases and chemicals also form harmful fumes that can be
dangerous to the well-being of living creatures
Indoor Pollution Sources

• In low- and middle-income countries, mostly burning fuels such as dung, coal and
wood in inefficient stoves or open hearths produces a variety of health-damaging
pollutants. These include carbon monoxide, methane, particulate matter (PM),
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and volatile organic compounds (VOC).
• Even burning kerosene in simple wick lamps also produces significant emissions of
fine particles and other pollutants. Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.8
million premature deaths each year.
 Main Causes of Air Pollution
• 1. The Burning of Fossil Fuels
• Most of the air pollution takes place due to the burning of fossil fuels such as
coal, oil, gasoline to produce energy for electricity or transportation. The release
of carbon monoxide in high level indicates how much fossil fuel is burned. This
also emits other toxic pollutants in the air. Inhaling air induced with pollutants
due to the burning of natural gas and fossil fuel reduces heart’s ability to
pump enough oxygen causing one to suffer respiratory illness.
• Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum for energy
in power plants, and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
• Billions of vehicles run on roads are powered by gasoline and diesel engines that burn
petroleum for releasing energy. Petroleum is made up of hydrocarbons, and engines
don’t burn them cleanly
• As a result, pollutants such as PM, nitric oxide and NO2 (together referred to as NOx),
carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and lead emit from vehicles including trucks, jeeps,
cars, trains, airplanes, causing a high level of pollution. These modes of transportation form
part of our daily basic needs, so we rely on them heavily.
• But, their overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are polluting the
atmosphere. Carbon Monoxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and
generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that
is produced from both natural and man-made processes.
• As per the World Health Organization (WHO), exposure to outdoor air pollution contributes
to as much as 0.6 to 1.4 percent of the burden of disease and 4.2 million deaths every year.
2. Industrial Emission

• Industrial activities emit several pollutants in the air that affects the air quality more
than we can even imagine. Particulate matter 2.5 and 10, Nitrogen dioxide, Sulfur
dioxide, and carbon monoxide are key pollutants that are emitted from industries
that use coal and wood as their primary energy source for production of their
goods. Industrial pollution effects associated with your health can range from
irritation in your eyes and throat to breathing issues, at times can even lead to
chronic illness.
• Manufacturing industries release a large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
organic compounds, and chemicals into the air, thereby depleting the quality of air.
• Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the earth, and there is no area
that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and
various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution
 3. Indoor Air Pollution
• Use of toxic products also called as Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs), inadequate ventilation, uneven
temperature, and humidity level can cause indoor air pollution,
whether you are in office, school or at your comfortable home.
House air pollution can take place due to ignorant factors, for
instance, smoking tobacco inside a room or leaving mold
infected wall untreated. Use of wood stove or space heaters is
capable to increase the humidity level which can directly affect
the health a person in no time
• Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever
noticed that once you paint the walls of your house, it creates
some sort of smell that makes it literally impossible for you to
breathe?
• Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is
another cause of pollution. Referring to the particles afloat in
the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion, etc.
• Around seven million premature deaths caused every year due
to the combined effects of ambient (outdoor) and household
air pollution cause, WHO says.
Wildfires

• Climate change is not just increasing wildfire but also spiking air
pollution. Burning stubble and farm residue is also a major contribution to
wildfire. It causes increased PM2.5 in the air which collides with other
harmful substances like chemical gas and pollen creating smog. Smog
makes the air hazy and people find it difficult to breathe
Microbial Decaying Process

• Manufacturing, chemical, and textiles industries release a large number of

carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, chemicals and organic compounds which
contaminate our environment. Bacteria and fungi play a fundamental role in
the biogeochemical cycles in nature. They are the key indicators of abnormal
environmental conditions. Decaying of these microorganisms present in the
surrounding releases methane gas which is highly toxic. Breathing toxic gas
like methane may lead to death.
 Transportation
There is no denying that vehicle pollution is the major
contributor to air pollution, especially in urban cities.
When the car burns gasoline, it emits pollutants in the air
which is as harmful as smoking 10 cigarettes a day. Your
vehicle emits carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxide, and particulate matter. When the vehicle pollution
is high in the atmosphere, it creates a hole in the ozone
layer contributing to smog and causing various health
issues
Open Burning of Garbage Waste

• Open burning of garbage is much more harmful to your health and the
environment than one may think. As per Engage EPW, Delhi Air Pollution
is choking public health. Delhi generates a whopping 9500 tons of waste
every day, which makes it India’s second waste dumping city. Exposure to
open burning of garbage waste can pose serious health risk including
cancer, liver issues, impairment of immune system, reproductive functions;
can also affect the developing nervous system
• Landfills are land areas in which waste is deposited or buried. These deposited or
buried wastes generate methane. Methane is a major greenhouse gas that is highly
flammable and very hazardous.
• E-waste is another grave concern involving a lot of unscientific dismantlings such as
chemical leaching, burning wires and others.
Construction and Demolition

• During clean air act movement, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
registered the highest number of air pollution complaints in the Delhi NCR
due to construction pollution and demolition activities. With the rise of
population in the city, construction and demolition is a part of the ever
going development phase of the national capital. Several construction sites
and raw materials such as bricks and concrete cause haze and foul air which
is hazardous for the people especially, children and elderly citizens.
 Agricultural Activities
• Agricultural activities have had a serious impact on the
decreasing air quality. To begin with pesticides and
fertilizers are the main source to contaminate the
surrounding air.
• Nowadays, pesticides and fertilizers are mixed with new
invasive species which are not found in nature, for quick
growth of the crops and vegetation. Once they are sprayed
over, the smell and the effect of the pesticides are left in the
air. Some mix with water and some seeps into the ground
which not only destroys the crops but also causes numerous
health-related issues.
• Ammonia is a very common byproduct of agriculture-related
activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the
atmosphere. The use of insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers in
agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful
chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.
• Farmers also set the field and old crops on fire in order to keep
them clean for the next round of sowing. The burning to clean
fields is said to cause pollution by releasing harmful gases in the
air.
 Use of chemical and synthetic products
• Talking about air pollution, we always consider outdoor air pollution dangerous
for our lives but never talk about indoor air pollution. Household products cause
indoor air pollution which is 10 times more harmful than outdoor air pollution.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) found in paints, cleaners and personal care
products such as perfume and deodorants are a reason for common heath issues.
Risks like asthma or other respiratory issues and lung disease are other issues
cause by inhaling poor house air quality.
Mining Operations

• Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipment. During the process, dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution.
• This is one of the reasons which is responsible for the deteriorating health
conditions of workers and nearby residents.
Disastrous Effects of Air pollution
• 1. Respiratory and Heart Problems
The effects of air pollution are alarming. They are known to create several
respiratory and heart conditions like asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, heart
attacks and strokes along with cancer, among other threats to the body. Several
million are known to have died due to the direct or indirect effects of Air pollution.
•
Child Health Problems
• Air pollution is detrimental to your health even before you take your first breath.
Exposure to high air pollution levels during pregnancy causes miscarriages as well
as premature birth, autism, asthma and spectrum disorder in young children.
• It also has the potential to damage early brain development in a child and cause
pneumonia that kills almost a million children below 5 years. Children are at a
greater risk of short term respiratory infections and pulmonary diseases in areas
exposed to air pollutants.
Global Warming

• Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is witnessing due
to global warming.
• With increased temperatures worldwide, an increase in sea levels and melting of
ice from colder regions and icebergs, displacement, and loss of habitat have
already signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and
normalization aren’t undertaken soon.
Acid Rain

• Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets
combine with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in
the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to humans, animals, and
crops.
•
Eutrophication

• Eutrophication is a condition where a high amount of nitrogen present in some

pollutants gets developed on the sea surface and turns itself into algae and
adversely affects fish, plants, and animal species.
• The green-colored algae that are present on lakes and ponds are due to the
presence of this chemical only.
Effect on Wildlife

• Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects of air pollution. Toxic
chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to a new place and
change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and
can also affect sea animals.
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
• Ozone exists in the Earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for protecting humans
from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting due to the
presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.
• As the ozone layer becomes thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can
cause skin and eye-related problems. UV rays also have the capability to affect
crops
Impressive Solutions To Air Pollution

• Use the Public Mode of Transportation

• Encourage people to use more and more public modes of transportation to reduce
pollution. Also, try to make use of carpooling. If you and your colleagues come
from the same locality and have the same timings, you can explore this option
to save energy and money.
• Better Household Practices
• Discard fireplaces and/or wooden stoves used for heating homes. Use gas logs in
place of wood. Also, eliminate the use of gas-powered lawn and gardening
equipment. Avoid setting fire to garbage, dry leaves, or other materials in your
yard, and lighting bonfires in the open. Try to mulch or compost your yard waste.
Use cleaning products and paints that are environmentally friendly.
• Conserve Energy
• Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. A large number of fossil fuels are
burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from degradation by
reducing the number of fossil fuels to be burned.
• Understand the Concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
• Do not throw away items that are of no use to you. Instead, reuse them for some
other purpose. For example, you can use old jars to store cereals or pulses.
• Emphasis on Clean Energy Resources
• Use of Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and geothermal is on the rise these
days. Governments of various countries have been providing grants to consumers who
are interested in installing solar panels for their homes. Undoubtedly, this can go a long
way to curb air pollution.
• Use Energy-Efficient Devices
• CFL lights consume less electricity than their counterparts. They live longer, consume less
electricity, lead to lower electricity bills, and also help you to reduce pollution by
consuming less energy.
• Several attempts are being made worldwide on personal, industrial, and governmental
levels to curb the intensity at which air pollution is rising and regain a balance as far as
the proportions of the foundation gases are concerned.
• This is a direct attempt at slacking Global warming. We are seeing a series of innovations
and experiments aimed at creating alternate and unconventional options to reduce
pollutants. Air pollution is one of the larger mirrors of man’s follies, and a challenge we
need to overcome to see a better tomorrow
Green house Gases
 Greenhouse gases’ are crucial to keeping our planet at a
suitable temperature for life. Without the natural
greenhouse effect, the heat emitted by the Earth would
simply pass outwards from the Earth’s surface into space
and the Earth would have an average temperature of
about -20°C.
The greenhouse effect: some of the infrared radiation from the
Sun passes through the atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-
emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules and clouds.
The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere.
 The greenhouse effect is a good thing. It warms the planet to
its comfortable average of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15
degrees Celsius) and keeps life on earth, well, livable.
Without it the world would be a frozen, uninhabitable place,
more like Mars. The problem is, mankind’s voracious burning
of fossil fuels for energy is artificially amping up the natural
greenhouse effect. The result? An increase in global
warming that is altering the planet’s climate systems in
countless ways. Here’s a look at what the greenhouse effect
is, what causes it, and how we can temper its contributions to
our changing climate
 What Is the Greenhouse Effect?
 Identified by scientists as far back as 1896, the greenhouse
effect is the natural warming of the earth that results when
gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun that would
otherwise escape into space.
  Sunlight makes the earth habitable. While 30 percent of the
What solar energy that reaches our world is reflected back to
Causes space, approximately 70 percent passes through the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface, where it is absorbed by the
the land, oceans, and atmosphere, and heats the planet. This
heat is then radiated back up in the form of invisible infrared
Greenhouse light. While some of this infrared light continues on into
space, the vast majority—indeed, some 90 percent—gets
Effect? absorbed by atmospheric gases, known as greenhouse
gases, and redirected back toward the earth, causing further
warming.
 For most of the past 800,000 years—much longer than
human civilization has existed—the concentration of
greenhouse gases in our atmosphere was between about
200 and 280 parts per million. (In other words, there were 200
to 280 molecules of the gases per million molecules of air.)
But in the past century, that concentration has jumped to
more than 400 parts per million, driven up by human activities
such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. The higher
concentrations of greenhouse gases—and carbon dioxide in
particular—is causing extra heat to be trapped and global
temperatures to rise.
  Earth’s greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and
warm the planet.
 The main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect include
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor
(which all occur naturally), and fluorinated gases (which are
What Are synthetic).
 Greenhouse gases have different chemical properties and
Greenhouse are removed from the atmosphere, over time, by different
processes. Carbon dioxide, for example, is absorbed by so-
Gases? called carbon sinks such as plants, soil, and the ocean.
Fluorinated gases are destroyed only by sunlight in the far
upper atmosphere
 How much any one greenhouse gas influences global warming depends
on three key factors.
 The first is how much of it exists in the atmosphere.
 Concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm), parts per billion
(ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt); 1 ppm for a given gas means, for
example, that there is one molecule of that gas in every 1 million
molecules of air.
 The second is its lifetime—how long it remains in the atmosphere
 The third is how effective it is at trapping heat. This is referred to as
its global warming potential, or GWP, and is a measure of the total
energy that a gas absorbs over a given period of time (usually 100
years) relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide.
 Radiative forcing (RF) is another way to measure greenhouse gases
(and other climate drivers, such as the sun’s brightness and large
volcanic eruptions). Also known as climate forcing, RF quantifies the
difference between how much of the sun’s energy gets absorbed by the
earth and how much is released into space as a result of any one
climate driver. A climate driver with a positive RF value indicates that it
has a warming effect on the planet; a negative value represents cooling.
  Since the start of the Industrial Revolution and the advent of
coal-powered steam engines, human activities have vastly
increased the volume of greenhouse gases emitted into the
atmosphere.
 It is estimated that between 1750 and 2011, atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide increased by 40 percent,
methane by 150 percent, and nitrous oxide by 20 percent.
What Are  In the late 1920s, we started adding man-made fluorinated
gases like chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, to the mix.
Greenhouse  In recent decades we’ve only picked up the pace. Of all the man-
made emissions of carbon dioxide—the most abundant
Gas Emissions? greenhouse gas released by human activities, and one of the
longest-lasting—from 1750 to 2010, approximately half were
generated in the last 40 years alone, in large part due to fossil
fuel combustion and industrial processes.
 And while global greenhouse gas emissions have
occasionally plateaued or dropped from year to year (most
recently between 2014 and 2016), they’re accelerating once
again. In 2017, carbon emissions rose by 1.6 percent; in 2018
they increased by an estimated 2.7 percent.
  The most significant gases that cause global warming via the
greenhouse effect are the following:
 CarbonDioxide
Five Major Accounting for about 76 percent of global human-caused
emissions, carbon dioxide (CO2) sticks around for quite a while.
Greenhouse Once it’s emitted into the atmosphere, 40 percent still remains
after 100 years, 20 percent after 1,000 years, and 10 percent
Gases as long as 10,000 years later.
 Methane
Although methane (CH4) persists in the atmosphere for far less
time than carbon dioxide (about a decade), it is much more
potent in terms of the greenhouse effect. In fact, pound for
pound, its global warming impact is 25 times greater than that
of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period. Globally it accounts
for approximately 16 percent of human-generated greenhouse
gas emissions.
 Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas:
 It has a GWP 300 times that of carbon dioxide on a 100-year
time scale, and it remains in the atmosphere, on average, a
little more than a century. It accounts for about 6 percent of
human-caused greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.
  Emitted from a variety of manufacturing and industrial
processes, fluorinated gases are man-made. There are four
main categories: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and
nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
 Although fluorinated gases are emitted in smaller quantities
than other greenhouse gases (they account for just 2
percent of man-made global greenhouse gas emissions),
Fluorinated they trap substantially more heat. Indeed, the GWP for these
gases can be in the thousands to tens of thousands, and they
Gases have long atmospheric lifetimes, in some cases lasting tens
of thousands of years.
 HFCs are used as a replacement for ozone-
depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), usually in air conditioners
and refrigerators, but some are being phased out because of
their high GWP. Replacing these HFCs and properly
disposing of them is considered to be one of the most
important climate actions the world can take.
  The most abundant greenhouse gas overall, water vapor
differs from other greenhouse gases in that changes in its
atmospheric concentrations are linked not to human activities
directly, but rather to the warming that results from the other
Water Vapor greenhouse gases we emit. Warmer air holds more water.
And since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, more water
absorbs more heat, inducing even greater warming and
perpetuating a positive feedback loop.
  Population size, economic activity, lifestyle, energy use, land
use patterns, technology, and climate policy: According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these
are the broad forcings that drive nearly all human-caused
Where Do greenhouse gas emissions. Here’s a closer look at
greenhouse gas emissions by source.
Greenhouse
 Electricity and Heat Production
Gases Come The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas to produce electricity
and heat accounts for one-quarter of worldwide human-driven
From? emissions, making it the largest single source. In the United
States it’s the second-largest (behind transportation),
responsible for about 27.5 percent of U.S. emissions in 2017,
with carbon dioxide the primary gas released (along with
small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide), mainly from
coal combustion.
  About another quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions stem
from agriculture and other land-use activities (such as
deforestation).
 In the United States, agricultural activities—primarily the raising of
livestock and crops for food—accounted for 8.4 percent of
greenhouse gas emissions in 2017.
 Of those, the vast majority were methane (which is produced as
manure decomposes and as beef and dairy cows belch and pass
gas) and nitrous oxide (often released with the use of nitrogen-
Agriculture heavy fertilizers).
 Trees, plants, and soil absorb carbon dioxide from the air. The
and Land plants and trees do it via photosynthesis (a process by which they
turn carbon dioxide into glucose); the soil houses microbes
Use that carbon binds to.
 So nonagricultural land-use changes such as deforestation,
Changes reforestation (replanting in existing forested areas), and
afforestation (creating new forested areas) can either increase the
amount of carbon in the atmosphere (as in the case of
deforestation) or decrease it via absorption, removing more carbon
dioxide from the air than they emit. (When trees or plants are cut
down, they no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and when they are
burned or decompose, they release carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.)
 In the United States, land-use activities currently represent a net
carbon sink, absorbing more carbon dioxide from the air than they
emit.
 
About one-fifth of global human-driven emissions come from the industrial
sector, which includes the manufacturing of goods and raw materials (like
cement and steel), food processing, and construction. In 2017, industry
accounted for 22.4 percent of U.S. man-made emissions, of which the
majority was carbon dioxide, though methane, nitrous oxide, and
fluorinated gases were also released.
 Transportation

The burning of petroleum-based fuels, namely gasoline and diesel, to power

the world’s transportation systems accounts for 14 percent of global
Industry greenhouse gas emissions.
 In the United States, with Americans buying larger cars and taking more
flights and with low gas prices encouraging drivers to use their cars more,
transportation is the largest contributor of greenhouse gases. (It
accounted for 28.7 percent of U.S. emissions in 2017.)
 Carbon dioxide is the primary gas emitted, though fuel combustion also
releases small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide, and vehicle air
conditioning and refrigerated transport release fluorinated gases too.
 Nationwide, cars and trucks are responsible for more than 80 percent of
transportation-related carbon emissions
  Buildings
Operating buildings around the world generates 6.4
percent of global greenhouse gases. In the United States,
homes and businesses accounted for about 11 percent of
warming emissions. These emissions, made up mostly of
carbon dioxide and methane, stem primarily from burning
natural gas and oil for heating and cooking, though other
sources include managing waste and wastewater and leaking
refrigerants from air-conditioning and refrigeration systems.
 OtherSources
This category includes emissions from energy-related
activities other than fossil fuel combustion, such as the
extraction, refining, processing, and transportation of oil, gas,
and coal. Globally, this sector accounts for 9.6 percent of
emissions.
Global warming & ozone
layer depletion
Global Warming Definition

“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally

due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,
CFCs, and other pollutants. “
What is Global Warming?

 Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the temperature near

the earth’s surface. This phenomenon has been observed over the past one or
two centuries. This change has disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth.
However, the concept of global warming is quite controversial but the scientists
have provided relevant data in support of the fact that the temperature of the
earth is rising constantly.
 There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect on
humans, plants and animals. These causes may be natural or might be the
outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is very important to
understand the negative impacts of global warming.
 Causes of Global Warming

 Man-made Causes of Global Warming

 Deforestation
 Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby
maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and
commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global
warming.
 Use of Vehicles
 The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles
burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere
resulting in a temperature increase.
 Chlorofluorocarbon
 With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been
adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The
ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by
the sun. The CFCs has led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet
rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.
 Industrial Development
 With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been
increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing
temperature of the earth.
 Agriculture
 Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the
earth.
 Overpopulation
 Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in
the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the
atmosphere.
Natural Causes of Global Warming

 Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke emitted
during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.
 Water Vapour
 Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature more water gets
evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.
 Melting Permafrost
 Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in
it for several years. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere increasing
the earth’s temperature.
 Forest Blazes
 Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are released
into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming
Effects of Global Warming

 Rise in Temperature
 Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880,
the earth’s temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase
in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could
have devastating effects on coastal regions.
 Threats to the Ecosystem
 Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to a loss of plant and animal
lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.
 Climate Change
 Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some
places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.
 Spread of Diseases
 Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to
the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.
 High Mortality Rates
 Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death
toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that
can hamper human life.
 Loss of Natural Habitat
 A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals.
In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them
even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming
on biodiversity.
 What is Acid Rain?

 Acid rain is a result of air pollution. When any type of fuel is burnt, lots of different chemicals are produced.
 The smoke that comes from a fire or the fumes that come out of a car exhaust don't just contain the sooty
grey particles that you can see - they also contains lots of invisible gases that can be even more harmful to
our environment.

 Power stations, factories and cars all burn fuels and therefore they all produce polluting gases. Some of these
gases (especially nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide) react with the tiny droplets of water in clouds to form
sulphuric and nitric acids.
 The rain from these clouds then falls as very weak acid - which is why it is known as "acid rain".
 Acid Rain, as the name suggests, can be said to be the precipitation of acid in the form of rain in the simplest manner.
When atmospheric pollutants like oxides of nitrogen and sulphur react with rainwater and come down with the rain,
then this results in Acid Rain.
 The acidic deposition takes place in two ways: wet, and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation which removes
acids from the atmosphere and places them on the surface of the earth. In the absence of precipitation, dry deposition
of polluting particles and gases sticks to the ground through dust and smoke.
 How acidic is acid rain?

 Acidity is measured using a scale called the pH scale. This scale goes from 0 to 14. 0 is the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline (opposite of acidic).
Something with a pH value of 7, we call neutral, this means that it is neither acidic nor alkaline.

 Very strong acids will burn if they touch your skin and can even destroy metals. Acid rain is much, much weaker than this, never acidic enough to burn
your skin.

 Rain is always slightly acidic because it mixes with naturally occurring oxides in the air. Unpolluted rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6.
When the air becomes more polluted with nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide the acidity can increase to a pH value of 4. Some rain has even been
recorded as being pH2.

 Vinegar has a pH value of 2.2 and lemon juice has a value of pH2.3. Even the strongest recorded acid rain is only about as acidic as lemon juice or
vinegar and we know that these don't harm us - so why do we worry about acid rain?
 The regular clean rain we experience, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide react together to form weak carbonic acid which essentially by itself is
not extremely harmful. The reaction occurring is :
 H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
 The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature.
 Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water resulting in the formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid, respectively. The
following reaction will clarify the acid formation reaction:
 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
The Effects of Acid Rain

 Acid rain can be carried great distances in the atmosphere, not just between
countries but also from continent to continent.
 The acid can also take the form of snow, mists and dry dusts. The rain
sometimes falls many miles from the source of pollution but wherever it falls it
can have a serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.

 Forests all over the world are dying, fish are dying. In Scandinavia there are
dead lakes, which are crystal clear and contain no living creatures or plant life.
 Many of Britain's freshwater fish are threatened, there have been reports of
deformed fish being hatched. This leads to fish-eating birds and animals being
affected also. Is acid rain responsible for all this? Scientists have been doing a
lot of research into how acid rain affects the environment
Forests

 It is thought that acid rain can cause trees to grow more slowly or even to die
but scientists have found that it is not the only cause. The same amount of acid
rain seems to have more effect in some areas than it does in others.

 As acid rain falls on a forest it trickles through the leaves of the trees and runs
down into the soil below. Some of it finds its way into streams and then on into
rivers and lakes. Some types of soil can help to neutralise the acid - they have
what is called a "buffering capacity".

 Other soils are already slightly acidic and these are particularly susceptible to
the effects of acid rain.
Acid rain can effect trees in several different ways, it may:

 dissolve and wash away the nutrients and minerals in the soil
 which help the trees to grow.

 cause the release of harmful substances such as aluminium into the soil.

 wear away the waxy protective coating of leaves, damaging them

 and preventing them from being able to photosynthesise properly.
 Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It washes away all nutrients which are required for the
growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way it alters the composition of the soil.

 A combination of these effects weakens the trees which means that they can be more easily attacked by diseases and insects or
injured by bad weather. It is not just trees that are affected by acid rain, other plants may also suffer .
Lakes and Rivers

 It is in aquatic habitats that the effects of acid rain are most obvious. Acid rain
runs off the land and ends up in streams, lakes and marshes - the rain also falls
directly on these areas.

 As the acidity of a lake increases, the water becomes clearer and the numbers
of fish and other water animals decline.
 Some species of plant and animal are better able to survive in acidic water
than others.
 Freshwater shrimps, snails, mussels are the most quickly affected by
acidification followed by fish such as minnows, salmon and roach. The roe and
fry (eggs and young) of the fish are the worst affected, the acidity of the water
can cause deformity in young fish and can prevent eggs from hatching
properly.
 The acidity of the water does not just affect species directly, it also causes
toxic substances like aluminium to be released into the water from the soil,
harming fish and other aquatic animals.
 It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.
 Lakes, rivers and marshes each have their own fragile ecosystem with
many different species of plants and animals all depending on one
another to survive. If a species of fish disappears, the animals which feed
on it will gradually disappear too. If the extinct fish used to feed on a
particular species of large insect, that insect population will start to grow,
this in turn will affect the smaller insects or plankton on which the larger
insect feeds.
Buildings

 Every type of material will become eroded sooner or later by the effects of
the climate. Water, wind, ice and snow all help in the erosion process but
unfortunately, acid rain can help to make this natural process even
quicker.
 Statues, buildings, vehicles, pipes and cables can all suffer. The worst
affected are things made from limestone or sandstone as these types of
rock are particularly susceptible and can be affected by air pollution in
gaseous form as well as by acid rain.
• Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further results in
leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
• It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones and metals
Where is it coming from?

 Until relatively recently air pollution has been seen as a local issue. It was in southern
Scandinavia in the late 1950's that the problems of acid rain were first observed and
it was then that people began to realise that the origins of this pollution were far
away in Britain and Northern Europe.
 One early answer to industrial air pollution was to build very tall chimneys.
Unfortunately all this does is push the polluting gases up into the clouds allowing
emissions to float away on the wind. The wind carries the pollution many hundreds of
miles away where it eventually falls as acid rain.
 In this way Britain has contributed at least 16% of the acid deposition in Norway.
Over ninety percent of Norway's acid pollution comes from other countries. The worst
European polluters are Germany, UK, Poland and Spain, each of them producing over
a million tons of sulphur emissions in 1994.
 Governments are now beginning to admit that acid rain is a serious environmental
problem and many countries are now taking steps to reduce the amount of sulphur
and nitrogen emissions.
 Real-Life Examples

• Taj Mahal, one of the 7 wonders of the world, is largely affected by acid rain. The city of Agra has many
industries which emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. People continue to use low-
quality coal and firewood as a domestic fuel, adding to this problem. Acid rain has the following reaction
with the marble (calcium carbonate): The formation of calcium sulphate results in the corrosion of this
beautiful monument.
 CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
 Statue of Liberty which is made of copper has also been damaged by the
cumulative action of acid rain and oxidation for over 30 years and is, therefore,
becoming green.
What can be done?

 Reduce emissions:

 • Burning fossil fuels is still one of the cheapest ways to produce electricity so people are now
researching new ways to burn fuel which don't produce so much pollution.

 • Governments need to spend more money on pollution control even if it does mean an
increase in the price of electricity.

 • Sulphur can also be 'washed' out of smoke by spraying a mixture of water and powdered
limestone into the smokestack.

 • Cars are now fitted with catalytic converters which remove three dangerous chemicals from
exhaust gases.
Find alternative sources of energy

 • Governments need to invest in researching different ways to produce

energy.

 • Two other sources that are currently used are hydroelectric and nuclear
power. These are 'clean' as far as acid rain goes but what other impact do
they have on our environment?

 • Other sources could be solar energy or windmills but how reliable would
these be in places where it is not very windy or sunny?

 • All energy sources have different benefits and costs and all theses have to be
weighed up before any government decides which of them it is going to use.
Conserving Resources

 • Greater subsidies of public transport by the government to encourage

people to use public transport rather than always travelling by car.

 • Every individual can make an effort to save energy by switching off lights
when they are not being used and using energy-saving appliances - when
less electricity is being used, pollution from power plants decreases.

 • Walking, cycling and sharing cars all reduce the pollution from vehicles
Restoring the Damage done by Acid Rain

 Lakes and rivers can have powdered limestone added to them to

neutralise the water - this is called "liming". Liming, however, is
expensive and its effects are only temporary - it needs to be continued
until the acid rain stops. The people of Norway and Sweden have
successfully used liming to help restore lakes and streams in their
countries. A major liming programme is currently taking place in Wales.
Ozone Layer Definition

 The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high
concentrations of ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet
radiations of the sun.”
What is Ozone Layer?

 The ozone layer is found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It has the
potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming
from the sun that can damage life on earth.
 If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would develop skin diseases and
may have weakened immune systems.
 However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctica.
This has focussed their concern on various environmental issues and steps to
control them.
 The main reasons for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon
tetrachloride, methyl bromide and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Ozone Layer Depletion

 Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.”
What is Ozone Layer Depletion?

 Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone and
destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is destroyed
more quickly than it is created.
 Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which then
contributes to the ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS).
 The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting
substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.
 Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the chlorine
atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.
 Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-depleting
substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the
earth.
Vienna convention

 Protection of Ozone
 Not legally binding
 Action to protect the ozone layer

The Montreal Protocol

 In 1987, to address the destruction of the ozone layer, the international community established
the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances. It was the first international treaty to be signed
by all countries of the world and is considered the greatest environmental success story in the history
of the United Nations.
 The Montreal Protocol’s objective is to cut down the production and consumption of ozone-depleting
substances, in order to reduce their presence in the atmosphere and thus protect the Earth's ozone
layer.
EU regulation

 EU legislation on ozone-depleting substances is among the strictest and most advanced in the
world. Through a series of regulations, the EU has not only implemented the Montreal Protocol but
has often phased out dangerous substances faster than required.
 The current EU ‘Ozone Regulation’ contains a number of measures to ensure a higher level of
ambition. While the Montreal Protocol regulates the production of these substances and
their trade in bulk, the Ozone Regulation prohibits their use in most cases (certain uses are still
permitted in the EU). Moreover, it regulates not only substances in bulk, but also those contained in
products and equipment.
 The EU Ozone Regulation also sets licensing requirements for all exports and imports of ozone-
depleting substances and regulates and monitors not only substances covered by the Montreal
Protocol (over 90 chemicals), but also some that are not covered (five additional chemicals called
'new substances').
 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

 The ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main causes responsible for the
depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
 Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released by solvents, spray aerosols,
refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by the ultraviolet radiations and release chlorine
atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
 Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets result in much more depletion of ozone layer than the CFCs do. If
not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.
 Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But
it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
 The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

 Ozone depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer.
 Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
 Effects on Human Health
The humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun due to the depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in
serious health issues among humans, such as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
 Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
 Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants. The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet rays.
 Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are
destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain are also affected.
 Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion
The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been launched by the government of various countries to prevent
it. However, steps should be taken at the individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
 Avoid Using ODS
Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air conditioners, replacing the
halon based fire extinguishers, etc.

 Minimise the Use of Vehicles

The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as ozone depletion. Therefore,
the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.

 Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way into the atmosphere and
affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural products to protect the environment.

 Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited

The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is adversely affecting the ozone
layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use
is minimised at the individual level as well.
KY KYOTO
PROTOCOL
KYOTO PROTOCOL

• The Kyoto Protocol was an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The essential tenet of the
Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions.
• The protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening
our climate, life on the earth, and the planet.
• In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and
reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The
Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to
report periodically.
KEY POINTS

• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to reduce
their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
• Other accords, like the Doha Amendment and the Paris Climate Agreement, have also tried to curb
the global-warming crisis.
• Talks begun by the Kyoto Protocol continue in 2021 and are extremely complicated, involving
politics, money, and lack of consensus.
• The U.S. withdrew from the agreement on the grounds that the mandate was unfair and would hurt
the U.S. economy.
• The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015, which replaced the Kyoto Protocol, includes commitments
from all major GHG-emitting countries to reduce their climate-altering pollution.
BACKGROUND
• 1992 Rio earth summit: It was realized that pollution reason for global warming and disturb nature.
• 1994 : UNFCCC→ All most all parties are part of this convention
• CoP: conference of parties → highest decision making body. It is scheduled every year.
• 3rd CoP: Kyoto 1997
• But came in force in 2005
• The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a
time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly.
• The Protocol was linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on December 11, 1997, and became international law on
February 16, 2005.
• Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for
specific periods and participated in carbon credit trading.
• If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would be penalized by receiving a lower
emissions limit in the following period.
 MAJOR TENETS
• Developed, industrialized countries made a
promise under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce their
annual hydrocarbon emissions by an average of
5.2% by the year 2012. This number would
represent about 29% of the world's total
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Targets depended on the individual country.
As a result, each nation had a different
target to meet by that year.
• Members of the European Union (EU)
pledged to cut emissions by 8%, while the
U.S. and Canada promised to reduce their
emissions by 7% and 6%, respectively, by
2012
KYOTO: COMMON BUT DIFFERENTIATED RESPONSIBILITY
The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997,
commits 37 industrialized countries and the European
Union to the so-called Kyoto target of reducing
their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5% against
1990 levels, over the 2008-2012 period. At the 2012 United
Nations Climate Change Conference there was an agreement
to extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol until 2020.

Annex-I is the list of countries those are developed or those

who are emerging economies who are heading to developed
countries. So because they are responsible for pollution . So
they need to have binding target.

Annex-II is the list of countries which are from annex-I So

because they are also developed countries so they need to
financially help developing countries and provide them
technologies.

Annex B are those developed and emerging countries who

are forced to follow binding targets
NON- ANNEX COUNTRIES

• Developing countries
• No binding targets: because otherwise they will remain developing.
• India , China and Brazil
MECHANISMS IN KYOTO
• Emission trading/carbon trading: it occurs between two Annex B countries
• Clean development mechanism: it occurs between annex B and non Annex countries
• Joint implementation: like CDM only , but it occurs between two Annex B countries