Pavel Nedkov Parushev

10258

Technology Specialization №1

LED lamps – the lighting of the future.

(Street lighting)

Source: http://www.gemmalighting.com/products/jupiter/

Supervisor: Lars Bækgaard

Table of contents

1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Problem Formulation................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Main Question........................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Secondary questions................................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Delimitations............................................................................................................................................. 4

2 Method of data acquisition............................................................................................................ 5

2.1. Model......................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Research philosophy................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Research strategy..................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4. Methods used in the research .................................................................................................................. 5
2.5. Empirical data............................................................................................................................................ 5

3 Theoretical framework..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1. What is LED?............................................................................................................................................. 6
3.2. History of LEDs.......................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Use of LED lamps for street lighting.......................................................................................................... 8

4 Comparison of LED, HPS and Metal-Halide lamps..............................................................8

4.1. Energy efficiency...................................................................................................................................... 8
4.2. Durability................................................................................................................................................ 10
4.3. Color…................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.4. Life and lumen maintenance................................................................................................................... 11
4.5. Light distribution and glare...................................................................................................................... 12
4.6. Cost……................................................................................................................................................. 12

5 Analysis…........................................................................................................................................... 12
6 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 13
7 Further work...................................................................................................................................... 13
8 List of references............................................................................................................................. 14
 1. Introduction
The human kind has been searching for a way to illuminate the darkness since the very
early stages of the evolution. Fire has been a primary light source for ages and it was not until
recently that the electricity was found and this contributed to finding ways to convert it into
light. There are now many technologies that allow the transformation of electricity into light,
although we refer to all of them by the term “lamps”, mostly not paying attention to the
difference. Some of them are widely used while others have been forgotten to the history.
Today the mankind is not concerned with the questions about how to produce light, the
headline questions are about the energy efficiency, performance and “greenness” of the
technology. The people are facing the negative effects of the pollution supplementing the
generation of electricity, and in addition to finding eco-friendly ways of production, they are
also trying to maximize the efficiency of the electric devices and reduce the use of electricity.
Improved ways of lighting that have better energy efficiency and also offering
equivalent light output are needed. The governments are also trying to prohibit the production
of lamps that have low energy efficiency and stimulate the companies to produce “greener”
lamps. In the recent years the fast evolution of a technology that has been there for a century,
is making it possible to produce light more efficiently. Light Emitting Diode is a simple
technology that produces light with the use of very small amount of electricity. There have
been many problems that prevented this technology from being used for general illumination,
but now it tends to be superior in every aspect compared to all other technologies except when
it comes to price.
This project has the goal to analyze the Light Emitting diode (LED) technology and
compare the key aspects to the other most used technologies when it comes to street lighting.
Are the LED lamps better compared to Metal-halide or High Pressure Sodium lamps? Are
they the light of the future? Please read further to find the answer to these questions!
1.2. Problem formulation
LED has been rapidly developing in the last years, but is this new technology better than the
technologies used now in terms of lighting capabilities, features, life expectancy, energy
efficiency and price? Street lighting is a problem of great importance to communes all over
the world. A lot of energy is spent to bring some light during nighttime. This is needed in
order to prevent car accidents, thefts and in general - ease our life when it is dark.

1.3. Main question

Does LED technology possess the required qualities to substitute the technologies used until
now to illuminate the streets during dark times?

1.4. Secondary questions

Is it affordable (initial cost + maintenance cost)?
What is the reduction of CO2 emissions and energy consumption compared to the lamps used
until now?
What are the features of LED technology? Are they better compared to the features of the
other technologies that are used?
Does it have any downsides?

1.5. Delimitations
Usage of LED lamps only for street lighting (Roadway Lighting, Pathway Lighting, Sidewalk
Lighting, Jogging and Bike Path Lighting)
Technologies to review: Metal-halide (MH), High-pressure sodium (HPS), Light Emitting
Diode (LED) based lamps
 2. Method of data acquisition
2.1. Model – Desk study (Encarta, 2009)
- assessment of existing data: an investigation of the available facts and figures relevant
to a specific issue before starting a new or more detailed study of it
- This research is based on secondary data only or mostly

2.2. Research philosophy – Post positivist (Research design, 2010)

- Absolute truth out of this research can never be found.
- This research is a process of making claims and then testing, refining or abandoning
some of them for other claims more strongly warranted.
- Data, evidence and rational considerations shape knowledge.
- The research seeks to develop relevant, true statements that can serve to explain the
situation that is of concern or that describes the causal relationship of interest.
- Researcher must examine their methods and conclusions and control or limit bias.
- No matter how faithfully the scientist adheres to scientific method, research outcomes
are neither totally objective nor unquestionably certain.

2.3. Research strategy – Inductive (Social research methods, 2006)

Inductive reasoning works moving from the specific observations to broader generalizations
and theories (Figure 1). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and
measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that
we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

Figure 1
Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net

2.4. Methods used in the research

- Comparative analysis – Comparison of the LED technology to HPS and
Metal-halide technologies

2.5. Empirical data

 - Collection from other’s studies and projects, data charts and articles
posted over the Internet.

3. Theoretical framework
3.1. What is LED?
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is solid state
semiconductor device which converts electricity into
light. In general the structure of a LED (picture 1)
consists of anode (positive electrode), cathode
(negative electrode), lead frame, semiconductor
material between the lead frame, and an epoxy
encapsulation to protect the lead frame and disperse
thelight.
The semiconductor material is the most critical part
of the LED. When electricity is applied to it light is
produced in the form of radiation. This happens due
to the fact that on the positive side there is a p-type
semiconductor and on the negative side there is a n-
type semiconductor. The semiconductor material is
doped with impurities to create a p-n junction.
This phenomenon is described in detail (How and
LED works, 2010).

Picture 1 LED structure

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode

What happens as the electricity

jumps across the p-n junction is that
the electrons from the “n-type” side
“fill holes” in the “p-type” side
(picture 2). Through the process, the
electrons change up their state and
jump from the negative side to the
positive and vice versa. During this
state change, a photon is emitted.
More specifically, as electrons move
around orbiting a nucleus of an atom,
electrons with different orbits have
different amounts of energy.
Electrons with orbits that are far
away from the nucleus have greater
energy and ones closer have less
energy.
Picture 2 P-N junction
Source: http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2010/03/how-an-led-works/

In order for an electron to change its orbit, it needs to either lose energy or gain energy. What
we are interested in with LEDs are the electrons going from a higher orbit to a lower orbit,
this loss of energy results in the form of a photon of light. When the electrons from the n-type
side “fill the holes” in the p-type side, they lose energy in the form of these light photons. The
greater the energy release is, the higher the frequency of the light photon that is given off,
leading to color change.
If the frequency is within the human visible spectrum (the range our eyes can see), then we
will see the light being emitted by the LED.  If we see no light (i.e. when the light emitted is
in the invisible infrared spectrum), then we won’t see it. But it can still be useful, such as in
allowing you to change the channel on our TVs (infrared LEDs are used in TV remote
controls and many other places).
In LEDs, the light that is being emitted depends on the material being used and the current
that is run through it.  The light in a standard diode has the atoms arranged so that the electron
drop in energy is very short and the frequency of light given off isn’t visible to our eyes,
rather is in the infrared. So simply explained, LEDs that are produced with the intention to
give off lot of light are made of semiconductor materials that create a bigger drop in the
electron’s orbit so that the frequency of the photon packet comes out in the human visual
spectrum.  They can even be designed so that the amount of electricity flowing through them
will actually change the drop so multi-color LEDs can be produced .

3.2. History of LEDs

The first reports of Light Emitting Diodes date back in 1907, but it wasn’t until 1962 when
the first practical LED was introduced as a low-intensity red LED. The creation of the first
blue indium gallium chip in 1993(Nichia Corporation, 2010) by Nichia Corporation allowed
the production of the first white LEDs by combining red, green and blue LEDs. The further
development of Nichia allowed the development of the first white LED in 1996(Nichia
Corporation, 2010) by adding a phosphor coating to the blue LED to create the wave shift
necessary to produce light that appears white. These first white LEDs didn’t have very good
efficacy. The development of LED technology in the next decade led to the introduction of
the first high-brightness white LED in 2006. Since then many improvements have caused
their efficiency and light output to rise to levels that are nearing the theoretical maximum of
conversion energy into light. There are claims that efficiency of 200lm/watt has been
achieved in laboratory experiments and some even claim efficiency over 300lm/watt (Crystal
coat warms up LED light, 2008).
A drastic change in design is being observed in the recent years since the designers are
striving to find the most effective design to achieve maximum efficiency in producing light.
3.3. Use of LED lamps for street lighting
Lighting the streets during night is not an easy task and governments all over the world spend
millions and even billions of dollars for electricity and maintenance bills every year.
Something more efficient and long lasting is needed. It wasn’t long after the introduction of
the first high brightness white LEDs and the first LED street lamp designs were presented and
even implemented in the beginning of year 2007. Since then many cities all over the world are
making and realizing projects to replace part of the current luminaries with LED ones.
The technology is evolving at fast pace, and many different designs of street lamps are
introduced every month. Some designs include the specifically designed poles, which are
intended to protect the lamp from the bad environmental conditions and the LEDs from
overheating. The lamps are also equipped with a driver because although they are very energy
efficient they tend to be high-powered and some designs use up to 250W.
There are many other issues to consider in outdoor lighting but energy efficiency seems to
have the highest priority because of the long operating hours usually 8+ and the high power
consumption involved. The next section of the project reviews in detail the different factors
that are important when lighting big open space areas. Factors such as energy efficiency, as
well as different issues related to durability, color quality, life and maintenance, light
distribution, glare and last but not least important – COST.

4. Comparison of LED, HPS and

Metal - halide lamps
4.1. Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency is defined by the luminous efficacy of the light source the appropriate
power supply in lumens per watt (lm/W), optical efficacy of the luminary (light fixture), and
how well the luminary delivers light to the target area without casting light in unintended
directions. The goal is to provide the necessary luminance in the target area, with appropriate
lighting quality, for the lowest power density. One step in comparing different light source
and luminary options is to examine luminary photometric files. A comprehensive photometry
comparison can be found from qualified independent or qualified manufacturer-based
laboratories. The photometry should be based on an actual working product, not a prototype
or computer model.
High-Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps such as MH and HPS are point sources and the optical
design for these luminaries makes the area directly below the lamp to be much brighter than
the areas farther away from the light source. In comparison LEDs are smaller and also
multiple point-source having really good directional characteristics of the light that is being
given off, which allows better distribution of the light and results in a visible improvement in
lighting large outdoor areas. Using LED based luminaries removes the factor “over lighting”
which may be described as a wasted energy, and also is irritating or even blinding the eyes
since it forces adaption when going from brighter to darker areas.
 Table 1 (next page) provides most of the important data for LED, HPS and MH outdoor area
luminaries, to illustrate the basic features of the different technologies. Lumen output and
efficacy vary greatly across different outdoor area luminaries, so this data should not be used
to generalize the performance of the studied luminaries using the listed lamp types.

Table 1 High Pressure Sodium

Features Metal halide Light – HPS LED Street Light
Photometric Performance Very good Bad Excellent
Electric Shock Easy (High Electric Shock Easy (High
Electric Performance Voltage) Voltage) Safe (Low Voltage)

Quite Long (>50,000

Working Life Medium (15,000 hours) Short (5,000 hours) hours)

Working Voltage Range Wide (±20%) Narrow (±7%) Wide (±20%)

Quite High (200W – Quite Low (60W –
Power Consumption 1000W) Quite High (200W – 750W) 250W)
Quite Slow (Over 10
Start-up Speed Slow (Up to 5 minutes) minutes) Rapid (Instant)

Typical Efficacy 65-115 lm/watt about 100 lm/watt 60-200 lm/watt

Wattage equivalent to
light produced 160W 150W 100W
Good, CRI 65-90 Good, CRI >75
Colour Radiation Index (The Colour Of Object Is Bad, CRI <50 (The Colour Of Object Is
(CRI) / Distinguish Fresh, Veritable And (The Colour Of Object Is Fresh, Veritable And
Feature Comfortable) Faith, Boring, Hypnosis) Comfortable)
Ideal Colour
Colour Temperature Temperature
(in Kelvins) Medium (3000K to 4000K) Low (2000K to 3000K) (2800K – 6500K)

Bad Glare No Harmful Glare Strong Glare (Dazzle) No Harmful Glare

Heating Serious (>300°C) Serious (>300°C) Cold Light (<60°C)
Lamp Aging Turn Yellow No In A Short Time No
Good (No Filament Nor
Shockproof Performance Bad (Fragile) Bad (Fragile) Glass)

Environment Pollution Little Contains Lead Element Etc. No

Bulbs per 100,000 hrs 8,28 4,17 1,7

CO2 per 100,000 hrs
(million kg) 500 450 300
Small (Slim
Product Cubage Big Big Appearance)

Product Weight Heavy Heavy Light

Cost-Effective Medium Low High

Cost $27 $12 $9-$320

4.2. Durability
Outdoor lights often become resting points for birds and collect all the dirt that is being
brought according to (Naomi Miller, 2008). The luminary should be made in a way that does
not collect and retain dirt or water on the top side, and the optical compartment should remain
clean for the LED luminary to reduce maintenance and keep the illuminating characteristics.
Ingress Protection (IP) ratings are introduced to measure the luminaries’ resistance to dust and
moisture. The IP rating should be taken in consideration according to the conditions in which
the luminary will be used.
The luminaries are often exposed to extreme weather conditions like wind, rain, snow, hail,
frost, heat that may influence the lighting capabilities or even destroy the installation if not
properly protected. The durability characteristics of LED technology seem to be much better
than that of the HID luminaries (because there is no filament or glass) with the only exception
that LEDs are not very resistant to high-temperatures and thus must not be installed in places
where the temperatures go over 35º - 40º degrees Celsius or they must possess a good design
to dissipate the heat that protects the LED from overheating.

4.3. Color
The most efficient white LEDs have color temperature from 4500K to 6500K, which means
they emit light that appears to be white to bluish-white which makes the objects that are
enlightened to appear bright and impress with their real colors. Some LED lamp
manufacturers mix LEDs with various color temperatures to reach desired color temperature
of the luminary that is most pleasant and gives appropriate coloring of the area that is
supposed to be lit. The color rendering varies according to manufacturer and model but in
general it is better than HPS (less than 50CRI) and the most common MH (around 65CRI).
Usually LED luminaries have CRI over 75. The Color Rendering Index measures the
adequacy of the light to make the objects color identification possible. CRI of 50 or more is
usually enough to make clear distinction between do colors, but the more CRI the better.
LEDs score another point in this feature competition (Picture 3).
 Picture 3 Comparative spectral power distributions for HPS, MH, and LE
Source: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/alliances/outdoor_area_lighting.pdf

4.4. Life and lumen depreciation

The estimation of LED life is really problematic because of the long predicted lifetimes make
it impossible and impractical to test since the technology continues to evolve at fast pace,
outperforming previous test results. Most LED manufacturers define useful life based on the
estimated time at which LED light output will decline to 70% of its initial specifications,
often the declared life of the luminaries is 50,000 hours but some lamps are designed and
expected to have longer useful life and are claimed to last 100,000 and even 150,000 hours
(Naomi Miller, 2008). The manufacturers typically determine the maximum current and
junction temperature below which the LEDs are expected to have their useful life (produce
more than 70% of their initial light) for at least the claimed lifetime in hours. If the LEDs are
operated at lower current and/or exposed/maintained at lower temperatures, their useful life
may be greatly increased. In general, LEDs in well designed lamps are less likely to fail or not
meet their expected life while on the opposition the poorly designed LED luminaries may
experience early failure or very fast decrease in lumen output. As previously mentioned the
thermal management of this technology is very crucial to the long-term performance of the
luminary since heat tends to degrade or destroy the diodes and this leads to decrease in the
light output. The temperature of the junction in the diode determines its performance, that’s
why heat dissipation and air flow must be designed to maintain a favorable operating
temperature for both the LEDs and the driver. Some manufacturers provide the operating
temperature specifications and charts explaining how temperature is related to the expected
light output and lumen decrease for the specific LED luminaries.
All light sources experience a decrease in light output (lumen depreciation) over their
operating life. Lighting designers use mean lumens to make some base for comparison and
this is usually defined as luminous flux at 40% of the rated life, instead of the specified
lumens. For HPS lamps mean lumens are about 90% of initial lumens while MH lamps mean
lumens are about 75% of initial lumens (Naomi Miller, 2008). See Picture 4 for typical lumen
decline curves for these HID light sources and two sample curves for LEDs: one designed for
50,000-hour useful life (LED example 1) and one designed for longer life (LED example 2).
 Picture 4 Typical lumen maintenance curves for HID sources, and estimated curves for LED.
Source: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/alliances/outdoor_area_lighting.pdf

4.5. Light distribution and glare

Some LED luminaries need different optics than MH or HPS lamps because each LED is an
individual point source (Naomi Miller, 2008). Effective luminary design takes advantages of
the directional nature of the light that LED produces and this may lead to lower optical losses
of the light, higher luminary efficacy, better light distribution over the intended area. Better
surface enlightenment and higher levels of vertical luminescence are possible using LEDs and
specially designed optics, in comparison to HID technologies. Photometric reports present the
pattern of light that is being emitted through the 90° (horizontal) plane and the 0° (vertical)
plane. In general the LED show a reduction in luminous intensity in the 70° to 90° vertical
angles which does not cause discomfort and disability glare to the people passing by. This is
one of the most important qualities of LED lighting over the HID sources which blind the
drivers for example and may lead to incidents.

4.6. Cost
As a comparatively new technology used for lighting, LED luminaries currently cost more
than the traditional HPS or MH light sources. The reduction in re-lamping cost and potential
power savings over time with LEDs may reduce the overall lifecycle cost and may happen to
be even cheaper. Economic evaluation of LED outdoor luminaries is a hard task highly
specific to the area that is to be lit, dependant on variables including electric demand (kW)
and consumption (kWh) rates, maintenance costs, real usable life of the luminary, need for
specific optics and poles. LED outdoor lighting experiments documented by different
associations have shown estimated payback from 3 years to more than 10 years. LED
technology is the perfect answer to some new requirements put by the governments over the
world. Some jurisdictions have implemented some steps to reduce the energy consumption
during night. LEDs are not only energy efficient but they possess one very important feature –
they can be designed to reduce the illumination of the luminary whenever light is not needed
thus greatly improving the power savings.
5. Analysis
On the basis of the collected data outdoor area lighting appears to be a promising application
for LED technology in addition new better products are being introduced on a regular basis.
All LED and HID luminaries need careful information gathering and research in order to
assess quality, performance, and overall value. The features of the LED luminaries vary
greatly from design, and type of the LEDs used, manufacturer, and also the offered warranty
over the products. The provided data is too general and is intended to give only slight
overview on the outdoor lighting picture. In summary LED technology offers better power
efficiency, reduced CO2 emissions, longer life, better Color Temperature and Color Radiation
(it gives better perception and does not irritate the eye), the produced light is spread over the
ground more even then MH and HPS (there are no brighter spots that may blind you for a
moment when you are driving), LED technology posses the feature to be turned on instantly
and is more durable in many aspects over the competition. One of the main problems at this
point is the cost of the products which is few times higher than the competitive products, but
this difference is being compensated over time due to the longer useful life, and the energy
savings. There are a lot more considerations that come to mind when considering changing
the current luminaries with LED ones. Some of the lamps are designed to be compatible with
the currently used poles, so a simple replacement of the lamp with LED one is all that has to
be done in order to enjoy the benefits of it, but since LED produce directional light some
specifically designed poles may be implemented along with the lamps itself for even better
results. The optics used to spread the light around is also important and may greatly improve
the lighting and color rendering features of LED.

6. Conclusion
The comparison of the different features and specifications of the street lighting technologies
in this report made it unquestionably clear who is the clear winner out of the competition
when it comes to street lighting and although there are a lot of considerations that bother the
lighting experts LED technology definitely wins over HPS and MH. LED is one of the fastest
developing technologies in the recent years and is finding implementation in many areas of
the human life. With the increasing effectiveness and light capabilities claiming to have
achieved 300lm/watt in laboratory settings LED luminaries are expected to start dominating
the luminary market in the next few years. These figures are nearing the theoretical maximum
in efficiency of converting electricity into light and unless some revolutionary and innovative
way to produce light without the use of electricity LED technology are going to be the most
desired one in Street lighting for a long time.

7. Future work
More detailed research may be conducted with concrete specifications and comparison of
particular products and features. Practical experimentation and testing with real products
preferably the newest LED lamps available on the market is recommended. There is a serious
concern about the life expectancy of the whole LED luminary, because it is claimed to last at
least 50,000 hours which is quite a long time to test it in practice and manufacturers usually
provide 3-5 years of warranty on their LED products while they are expected to have life
nearing 10 years. This is an interesting aspect to be taken into account and tested if possible.
If a laboratory setting is available to provide the opportunity to test and experiment in new
better and more effective designs of LED and LED lamps this could be a possible
continuation of the following research. At the current point this project is just a brief
introduction of the outdoor lighting and a research on the benefits and the features of LED
technology. Another point of interest may be to study how the poles design influences the
longevity of the luminary and also the light distribution, although the LED lamps are
compatible with the current poles.

8. List of references
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