PH 203 Quantum Mechanics I

Aug Dec 2021

Instructor TAN MOY DAS tnmydas iisc.ae.in

TA Subhadeef Dasgupta subhadeepd iisc.ae in

Priganshi priyanshii iisc.ae in

Refs B H Branden C J Joachen

Claude Cohen Tannondji B Din f Laloe

Engen Merzbacher

R Shankar
L Landau Lifsitz

Grading 6 chapter I introductory chapter

6 1 Homeworks

H.w 251
Midterm 357
End term 407
History For long time much before the modern science
peoper had evidence and wondered about
the most fundamentam quantities and the
quanta discrete nature of atoms and
lights
Greek thinker in 500 Be proposedthat matter is composedof
atoms and the name itself came from the Greek time
In the Egyptian time to Greek time people especially
the Alchemists measure volume of different elements
and they come in multiples of discrete number
some

Boyle propose emperical retain of PY NRT here R Naka

for n mole ideal gas in which N A numberof molecules permole
exists So all ideal gas made of fundamental discrete particle Kelvin

proposed atoms are topological vortices in theether medium

in 1865 With the advent of experimental probes people
were able to visualize whats inside an atom
atom After the discovery of radioactive element Ruttertoldin 194
showed that atoms are mostly empty wilt most of its
mass concentrated at the center It was Bohr who
eventually had the proposal of electrons circulating
the nucleus of positive changes Eventually the spin
of election was discovered in Stern her
experiment finally the ware properties of the elections
was
proposed and measured We will discussthis
 Experiments with light also started long before
But earlier the affabatus did not hone the slit size
small enough to the order of magnitude of the lights
ware length to
probe single ware and hence its particle
like nature Newton infact had a wee red lprofosal
Hat light is made of particles Perhaps he did not
hone the same concept in mind that what we call
photon today But during that time otter experiments
showed interference diffraction pattern
which suggest tight in ware The history
of eithermedium
required for the ware to propagate is knownto everybody
In fact Lord Kelvin thought the knot structure in the
e Her medium produced atom I think Maxwell's equations

proposed in 18 by reconciling electric magnetic

showed that there in
field can be electromagnetic wane

free space this was the key theory which helped abandon
the ether proposal By 18 Kir
made series of experiments black bods radiation
These experiments tag for discrete nature of frequency
ad enemy 1freeness relation
Photoelectric effect discrete energy of list Compton effect
and Raman effects were key for particle malne of light as

He experiments could be arderstoon outs via scatting phenomena

 Recap Classical Mechanics

Newtons This gives us an equation of motion to

solve particles's trajectory nets given know itspast
for a we

immediately before in time to Lt Because here we solve a second

order PDE which solves for nett E given we know Nlt e Nlt
where E is infinitesimally small We solve the eq of motion for
each individual particles ni It by knowing all the forcesacting
on it
Aclionnifoles In the least action forinafle or He stahing
stale solutions we know the ink al and final positions ofitsewes
and we define all possible trajectories defined
by a Lagrangian
L Cn ni and solve for the stationary stale trajectorywhich
minimizes the action S J dt L The n a

stationary state
solution the
gives us

www.nioreaicta.fi
T.fi Noether theorem

tells us that for

every continuous symmetry there is a conserved
quantity Continuous symmetry means under a continuous
transformation the action remains invariant For example
under time translational symmetry the total energy ei
Hamiltonian is conseved for Haace translational symmetry the
 momentum is conserved Under rotational symmetry angular
momentum is conserved For importantly these conserved
only consered the stationary
quantities are on
path So
the particle moves on the
path which consere energy
momentum angular momenta if the
or
corresponding
symmetry is present This actuallyflays an important
role in all branches of physics

The Hamiltonian total energy

Itamar frinafles
is a function of mi d
foi ei its defined in the
phase space Rsf Here we study the dynamics of the
particle in the phase reface constant energy
on a
path

dat HCka dad Pio H o

which gives the Hamiltonian equation of motion one

may
call it
go
Itp bi Itai
for

or
 Poisson Det A B's EC aioIp 8 dodged

DI A A t EAT
when A doest not hare explicit time dependence ri d so

we hone A A H

This gives
Ii tis A I
Jai ni it's o sei
sei Pj's Sis
This vanishing Poission bracket between n fo
non

implies that se I b are no longer independent

variables but becomes related to each other as the

particle follows the equation of motion hast action

principle 103 constant

E const

on a constant 1
space energy n
surface like the red ng
hypershere If we hone
another conserved quantity linear or angular momentum
soy
then An motion is further restricted to the crosssection offhi

too constant surface If it is conserved ed 8 o A AJ

If B is also conserved is B H3 0 Then A By 0 show
 Bohr Sommerfeld introduced aquantization
condition for a closed periodic motion of
particles in the phone space

p du nh 4

where h is a constant alled

Plads's constant having the dimension of In
C E I Et LI CES et the dimension ofthe

phase space faction

volume Although the above
quantized orbit condition was introduced in an ad hoc

irony
we can try to make sense
of it as follows
The action is
g fde f p ie H
Assume the particle has a periodic motion with a
time period T Since the particle traverse in the
of
least action we can assume 5 0 the minima ofaction
is set to be zero This implies

tiedt false
T E
got dt a

E is assumed
where It a constant of motion
 The frequency V E
YT Then we
get
E n e

cisThis
rays An Bohr Sommerfeld condition suggest the
energy is quantized and it quantized in terms of frequency
It also says that not all orbits in thephase spaceis allowed
but only those orbits which are integer multiple of his
are allowed Considering the care of n L it is obvious
Hunt the phone space volume element Cr afar cannot be
made arbitrarily small but to
the minimum phone Npau
volume grid one can obtain

in
and
bits
conjugate variable 3
4
ie AE At A E AL ete a

This actually leads to the

famous Heisenberg Uncertainly principle that we will
see later

iii att a giren energy corresponding to a rake of n the

area under the curve is conserved and quantized and
one cannot continuously go from one orbit to another
orbit The area is conserved but the shape of the
curve is not One can deform the closed path

continuously as long as the area remains the same as

by the red line

illustrated on n 3 orbit The maximum
deformation allowed is L 2h without changing the
orbit and hmu without violating the quantization
condition Therefore the is allowed to fluctuate
energy
upto A E L 2h It or the time period is allowed to
fluctuate affo T L HAE This is called quantum
fluctuation which is allowed even at the stationary
solution This in another manifestation ofthe
uncertainly principle that we will keep coming in one
future discussions
K
This means the least Sh h

action or stationery fath also I

III hike fadronn

J Or Ho minimum t
action 85 that we set to be zero in
classical mechanics becomes h in quantum mechanics
We however don't study quantum mechanics by an

exlentionof least action principle but rather by an

equation of motion called Schrodinger equation The
action principle of quantum theory is called battu integral
affroach which you will learn in Q M B or QF TJ
A brief prelude to QM

In classical Mechanics we looked into each particles

coordinates and study how nice evolves in time
ni Ct
by solving Newtonto ear involving double time derivative
M on
GM that by
n fer

ex

I
nap
li
t
qq.in
to

In quantum mechanics we change the perspective

Here we look at a general position n at a time t and
ask whats the
probability of a particle to visit that
position at that time t Unlike in Stat physics which
is also a probabilistic affrach here we define the
probability via a complex function 41ms which
we will call wavefunction White nut evolves by a
2nd derivative in time only 4 Crib will evolve by a first
derivative in time but a 2nd iinative in
space
this is true for non relativistic particles This equation
of motion for 4 I called the Schrodinger cop Anything

we measure in QM is an expectation rake average under

this probability distribution
In quantum mechanics we
replace Poisson bracket
with commutator
CM QM
A By A BI

risk Si Exists
i
h hlaA
duet a a 9 did i CHAT
18
Heisenberg's
quantum Mechanics

we call A B H as

operators which
operates on functions
and give another
function
f i

In statistical mechanics we introduceaprobatalistic

approach Although the approach is somewhat different its
worth looking at it Here also instead of looking at
individual particle's position mom in the phone space we
look at a position e momentum and ask how many particle
visits that phase space
point
we call that ensemble ability
density It denotes the of by
d F ITdpi dni
particles da ont of total number
k
N that visits the volume element
da at time it d
SCMb DP
s Prob density

Then since dN N so we get f s da 1

Therefore the total probability inside the entire volume

in 1
Note that the minimum phone space volume in quantum
mechanics is hei her Abd se So de hb where
a total number of particles
att equilibrium Sear does not change in time this
c Seq
means
ft
so Seq HJ
 E
So SeqCH is a
function of energy or have a

Zero Poisson bracket If we hone more conserved

quantities say angular momentum H and Sea

have a vanishing Poisson bracket with all the
conserved quantities

Mathematical treatment of probability averages

density
Let us probability of visiting
seats is a
say
Are
particle in the interval see see doe at t
Then the total probability that the particle lies
between the interval a b is

pabltl fabscx.edu

The total probability of that the particle lies

in the entire space is 1
a

f scat du I Normalization
a condition

we notice that the right hand side does not

hone any time dependence
 Therefore the time dependence of the probability
must follow a proper equation of motion enck Hat
the total probability in the entire space is zero In
otherwords we assuming there is no source or
are

link to create and destroy particle in the entire space

In other words we are assuming the total number of
particle is conserved If there was a source or

sink of particle there would divergence of

be a

probability current 8 coining out1 in to the source sink

the above statement says the evolution of the
Therefore

prob dimity follow the continuity equation

v

the average value of a mealurement Sen

with this probability distribution is

tens a feel Sad dice

Te g fee x Ece energy dimity s put mom density

The variance or standard deviation of the

measurement is
at gfins ht
 In quantum mechanics we are going to
define the forobahity demity by the
amplitude of the ware
function as

2
Scn 4 tube I YEAH Yen t

fly cuts1 die l

Then

Lfew J y Cnet tens unit

The normalization
condition again puts a
restriction on the time evolution on 4 Cnet such
that it always normalizes to 1 do we get a
continuity equation of y Yes

Since s n
4 4 is the fLyrical quantity so thephase of

of Y Heid can be arbitrary this is called a

gauge symmetry

AI Gaussian Poisson distributions

frecalpi Eleofn.ci
ydMagnetism

Maxwell's equations F E IT
F B 0

Ex E O ST

Ex B No I
I
2 7
Free space Continuity equation
wave equation
of the electromagnetic

Iz FEI T Ee o fields die from the

si in E
F F
I HI w 2 8 8 o

w k 2 c VX 4
Plane wave solutions

Since both wave egration for light and continuity ear of

particles are derived from the same fundamental equations
so a nature of particles may be conceivable
wave

Schrodinger indeed start with a prediction that 8 4 4

follows eyes while 4 follows an equation such that its
solution when there is no potential freeparticle
follows ear
 But the first hurdle in clearly the plane wane gives
5 Cmt 4 4 e EI WD e KT i Fy go
wt

the probability is constant everywhere This is however or

problem then The flame ware is oscillatory everywhere
and in spread over all time space So we need to
localise the ware within a certain range to be
able to describe a particle So we need
damping
to localize a wave and or

a standing wave condition

confining potential etc

this will be called ware packet o

Htt Derive wave equation and so Intin

Derive continuity equation
Ree i d
ay

2nd order PDE

Linear Algebra
Fourier transformation delta tn blane wave solutions

homogeneous
A second order linear a differential equation has two
combination
linearly independent solutions therefore any linear
of the two solutions is also a solution of the 2ndorder PDE

Fei 8 a dd v Y t b It Y t cud y d Xcx

has two solutions Yi 442

Then Y L Y ex t B YzCx ii alma
solutions p do not
of An ODE as
long as a e

defend on a 1

Therefore classical mechanics has unique

when a

solutions quantum mechanics can infrinnfole hare

infinite number of solutions this is called

snferrosition principles Of course physical there are

boundary conditions and the normalization condition

fy de L which faint restrictions on AR B
 FourierTransformation

Fourier transformation is a special type of expansion of a

continuous differentiable function in set of linearly independent

basis functions vector
space
What is special about the Fourier
transformation is that the basisfunctions we choose is plane ware

basin e
ik F we
wD
So Yin t
if ftp.d n0ckngeikt g
where 0 kin are called Fourier
or Amer mods of
for dimensional
IMMA
reason some books multiply by v the

spatial volume or just ignore it In the latter cane QRY

hare different dimensions
To have the dimension of 4 9 be same we need to divide bythe
dimension of the phase space Pr foreachspace time we divide by a constant

t 421T where h has the phone space dimension called Planck's constant

The inverse Fourier transformation is

9 kin J d r at N my éiÉF wed i

Identifying eitt W
as the solutions of wave equations
we can interpret eq at as an integration over all
possible warerector k or wave length 7 the frequencies
C some books distribute thefactor att between the f T R inverse f T as Ent
on both end I Its just a matter of convention andone needstobe consitent
 we have already seen that the frequency of a ware
is related to its energy as E hD has uiv hw
for a given n So the Fourier transformation in

going from time to frequency domain is equivalent

to going from time to energy which are sort
of congregate variables to each other as we had learned
translational
from Noether's theorem If the system has time
symmetry Item energy is conserved Let us impose a

condition time that fleets

peridic boundary on

Y H where T Time period Then we find

i WT
from the right hand side that e c ei
W T 2AM

on w e
2hpm 27mV

Then
IE h w mh

Similarly heuristically we see Hat the position

variable have been Fourier fanformed to all possible

ware length X f wave vector So we can identify the
wavelength wane vector by the conjugate variable to
the position ie the momentum
fo This analogy
gives us the de Broglie b hypothesis that
p his t k
 One also be able to derive the Bohr Sommerfeld
may
quantization condition but not very rigorously though
Suppose there is a
peridic boundary condition on

mE
iheir
PCF Thenwant Y to return
we

to its initial value after a peridio

motion This is when
possible

I
piers def if Feb
F
dE
e e I

firs
ftp.ds
de 2nA nh

Notice that we did not talk about 91k n therefore

this abore discussion is not rigorous More careful
calculation requires putting periotic boundary condition
on
9 Chi w
J
Ear it actually gives hint
a on how to confine
a plane ware solntoin into a finite length volume
This can be done choosing a functional form of
by
Q Ch w inch that it freaks sharply at a particular
 wornvector 1momentumboard the
decay as

waverector momenta deviates from this value This

reduces the contributions from those plane waves which
are
far from ko So Q K w carries the weight
or contributions
of each plane wanes with different
wavelength 1 wave rector momentum which is no
distribution in
longer equal So 191 gives the probability
the momentum space while XP gives the probability
distr bution
in the real space
y u

oT mXmEE a

suppose we want to confine the wavefunction kid

within the limit of 42 to 42 Then from ear iet
clear that those plane waves with shorter ware length
X K L will have lesser contributions like the red wand
while the larger ware lengths AS L will have much
higher contributions Became for confinement you want to
reduce the beating1 oscillations this is how Peking will be
distributed
among all possible wavelengths For example if
if he is completely localized at a position no ei yay kn ng
then we hone
 i k In no
8 cu no Ik e
H
D
in which Q K I therefore all wavelengths contribute

equally Therefore if the position of 4 in completely known

its wavelength and hence momentum is completely unknown
On the otherhand if the function Yin is completely spread
out over the entire space then it can be described by
eikon and hence only 9 ko 8CA KI Therefore its
momentum is completely known Therefore both positions

and momentum cannot be known comfoeletly in this warefunction

description of quantum theory This is related to Heisenberg

uncertainty finagle

Can we get a bound on the uncertainty in both positions

and momentum and similarly on energy time or
between
any variable and its conjugal or Fourier
variable 2

Recall a Gaussian probability distribution

SCD
1
e
K Mo
Far

This distribution is normalized

I see die I
 The
arergay Ln In see da No

The standard deviation variance1 uncertainly in the

e
measured value is
of no

1
An FLEET o no n

so
aneV distribution
Sf we want to obtain a of particle's position inspace
centering arond no 0 as an example we choose Ite

ware function to be
set To
e
Yad Iffy
we set the complex phone of this function to be
uniform and set it to be zero This is another
approximation here
Theprobability distribution in real spaceis sent Hx
the fourier transformation ofthe probability density in
the momentum space PCB from eq a is
ihr
P K
J die say e Gf
Mo i kn
Fai f e da
 Fo e E k
tag
014 k
e

So we get a Gaussian probability centering around

k o and variance ok II Ia aftereggrngalizing

IT to

Go Lk 0 Ik ok If

So from ear we get

a a Ak IT
f to t k

fax.tthlz.J Th
o

Recalling the Heisenberg uncertainty foroneifles

that an A lol 42 which we hone not yet
discussed find that a harveian
we

crane packet corresponds to equal uncertainly

in both
position and and momentum space
The Gaussian ware packet has the least and
equal uncertainly in both position and momentum

space On the contrary He f function wave packet

has uncertainly in position but infinite

non

uncertainly in momentum the plane wave

 solution has no uncertainly in the momentum
but infinite uncertainty in the position space

heneraliting Are above analyeis to any variable

o t and its conjugate variable L E we can

obtain the uncertainty relation

AE It 7 h12
I A G Y h Iz

T 2hm also the fact that p CH OT hare

a Poisson bracket which we will convert to commutation
as we will
go to QM Then the uncertainty
relatrois
is evidently related to the Poisson Bracket
A fan 2,12 KH iz LEADS J

e
leg and find
HW coneider See a

LM h In
 eclwyoaumd
To be discussed before introducing matrix
quantum mechanics Heisenberg Representation
 HistoryooExperimentaleridenceofQuantization

A is particles
light
Ba Atom have discrete orbits
Particles Electrons are

wave LA
daBodyRad ation
Bransden l l
A bada body is defined
by a body Weinberg
which absorbs all the radiant energy falling upon it
ie its absorption coefficient is unity at all wavelength
Its emissive
power 1power emitted per unit area at a given
wavelength is same as if absorption power ri unity
The back body radiation is an universal but idealized
property G R Kirchhoff studiedthis property between
and gave the 185 1862
black body radiation
same

Quantum mechanics had it segiing in the study of

black body radiation Consider an enclosure whose walls
are kept at a temp T and suppose that the energy volume
of radiation lying in the wavelength range 7 to a e da is
s ca T da The measured distributors of Scott in the

wavelength space is shown in the picture

 planddysum theorot

open
I

LEE

visible 1R
UV

classicalestatirh.cat ctromagnetie heory

John W Strutt followed by Lord taxes between

Moo 1905 wrote series of loafer to reproducethe chore distributor

curve The idea was that we have the ware equations
that we saw before with plane ware solutions eid't wt

where all warenumber k and frequencies w are allowed

in general But now as we confinethe electromagnetic radiation
in a
cavity lets consider a
of hight L forbimfecify
cube
the flaw wares form standing waves Now only those
waves are allowed which follows the feridic boundary
 i k Cn14
condition that eikse e along all three
directions This gives ei Kl i k 2AM L where
M is t.ve integer This gives a discrete spectrum of harelenghi

X Yn and hence frequency v 4 a EML

But we akume L b n that the spectrum is almost
continuous Then we just
need to know how many heh
modes lie in the range x to a di in the density of
stales NCD na
4thdm
NCD di 2x ga n'dn
2 fossiblepolarization
n
got dt
that nEnitneeny
h3
8ALB
DX ED Since the modes are
µ
excited equalbalong
So N X EE all three directions
Her unit volume D
Now each mode carries enemy as obtained
from the equipartition principles knot each for K A
potential energy

T
8
KBT
XT
IIe
i
therefore

the Rayleigh Jeans R 5 result gives a goodfitting

to the experimental data at long wavelength limit
 which we refer to An classical limit But
will
experiment shows a maximum peak in the visible
frequency range for studied temperature and then
it drops to zero in the UV region and this herring
no radiation But the R J formula rather diverses
at X s o which is known as the Ultraviolet
cats trope

Planck's quantum theory

While R T obtained quantized wavelength frequency
although the above calculation and its continuum limit but
the same result can be obtained
by assuming drierete ware length

frequencies But they assumed continuous energy spectrum

Although gave a hand waving argument from the least

we

action forinufle Hunt frequency energy can be relatedto

each other via a multiplicative factor ofth dimension of
the action but during that time encha relation
did not exist Planck was the first person in 1900to
propose that for every discrete radiation nude the

energy is also quantized The energy vs frequency

relatroin was proposed
by Planck was

E
 where h universal constant called Planck's constant
and has the dimension of the action Cei 1h3
E3CES CPICD CBE The value of h that we

know now is h G 62618 x 10 34 J S

Then the average can be deduced is

energy for mode
BE
Enzo En e
p I KBT
E PEn E
Nao
En hug n n Eo

Ip log E to E
E I E Partition ten
I e PnEo
Nao
I
e BEOI
men went

µn T i

This formula in ear matches very well with the experiments

in all wavelength region

Note that the R T classical theory matches well at

long wavelength limit Show that the Planck's quantum
theory reaches to classical limit as a d In fact
Bohr proposed that whatever quantum theory one
obtains should reproduce the classicaltheory as h so

This is called the Correspondanceprincifole

The physical reason behind it as follows The

energy separation
between the discrete energy line is
hell h4x Therefore as h o or a a one

approachestowards the continuum of energy levels and

one affraches towards the classical regime

att a given temperature T the affroximate thermal

energy is k BT Therefore a quantum regime is reached
when KBT L Kla such that the thermal fluctuation
is less than the discrete energy buds As KBT 77 hehe
the thermal fluctuation smeares out the distinct energy
turds and one obtains classical limit The peak in
SCX.tl Corresponding to the transition from quantum to
classical regime is roughly obtained at

HI Compile Radiation pressure

a specific heat of the
Black body Radiation
Planck's proposal of quantization of energy was
ad hoc and was not accepted easily But the
idea was correct and with the development of modern
quantum theory we hare verified the quantization of

energy

In the above black body radiation theory the source

of quantization of the radiation was the peridic boundary
condition dueto confinement in a cavity Then Planck
proposed a linear relation between energy freeway
Since quantized due to periodic
wavelength in frequency is

boundary condition and hence energy is quantized

In contrast Einstein proposed in 1905 to explain

photoelectric effect that light ei the plane wave
solutions equation is always quantized
of the wane
even in a
free space without confinement Therefore
even plane wore solutions of light does not take
a

continuous values
of k v but discrete values of k v
and hence energy He did not derive any relations
but only used Planck's proposal of E hV but
wed discrete values of v in free space to
even

explain the photoelectric effect The minimum

value of V denoting as No in the most
fund mental
frequency Theycalled in co s or quanta
of light which was later renamed as photon
This is like a fundamental 1 elementary relativistic
particle of energy E huo but no rut mass

George hamon later remarked that radiation a like

butter because even though butter itself comes in
any
quantity but it can be bought or sold only in multiples
of one quarter found
LAB defect
Fisa

Reg2b
Fisk

Hertz in the setup shown in

1887 and Lenard in caoo used

fig a They found that charge particles which we

later know to be electrons are emitted from metal surface
when radiated with high frequency ranges lights
Uv

This phenomena in called the photo electriceflect the

emitted electrons from the photocathode is collected at the
anode plate and a circuit is completed to measure the
currentLII In addition a battery is added to maintain
 a voltage difference between the cathode and anode The
voltage difference in direction to repel
siren in reverse

the election ejected from photocathode so that only

elections with higher kinetic energy can reach the
anode Therefore only those electrons whose K E in higher
than ell e charge
of electron will reach the anode
Its is increased in magnitude less and less
V Lo

electron reach the anode and then it stops at a voltage

Vo This is called the
stoffing voltage Csa fig 2b
So the maximum K E of the emitted election is
F may E Iz mo moi ex 4

Observations
It surprisingly found that the slobbing energy is
was

indefoendendent of the intensity of light from

classical wave theory we expect that the energy of
light is proportional to its intensity and more energy of

light means more K E of ejected electron But the

result says the K E of photoelectron is independent of
the intensity of
light Higher light inteneity only ejects more
electrons we are only focussing on
of sameeener gm

highest K E electron which presumably resided on the surface

The other lower energy elections come from inside the material
 On the contrary as shown in fig 2C as the frequency

of the light is changed with the same intensity the

stopping potential f Vo changes linearly with 0 but the
saturated current remains the same therein a thread

frequency Vt below which no photoelectron is ejected irrespective

of intercity long time exposure oflight
So
V freeroflimb
Thefhighest K B of Vo electron Ema
The of photoelectron Intensity of light

According to classical ware theory is photoelectric

effect should occur for any frequency of light provided
its intensity is large enough and the exposure time is
long
enough to provide sufficient energy to eject an electron
j

Einstein generalized Planck's idea of energy quantization

in a black body cavity to Hae quantization
of energy of
electromagnetic plane waves even in free space i

F her he X

where the discrete frequencies V are integer

multiple of some minimum as
frequency o

V E h Vo
 The origin of the minimum energy Vo and the other
quantum number n not provided by Einstein but
was

he argued that
lightis made of particles with each
particle carries an energy Wo These particles
hone no rest mass There farticles are called photo

attthough the photoelectric effect provides

compelling a

evidence of the corpuscular theory of light it must

not be forgotten that 16 existence
of diffraction
interference phenomena demonstrate the ware nature of
light This dual nature of light which we shall
see soon for electron also is incompatible with classical

theory
LAI Effect

After the discovery X W K Rontgen in 1895

of ray by
a revolution's in the interaction between lightRelation in matter
Ao sameorder atomic
become possible Became X ray wavelength n
of
radius
figs
Figs or

Unlike the photoelectric effect of light in electron ont Compton

made a measurement setup to Lone light in and light
out after scattering with atoms 1election in Graphite The
incident light has a fixed wavelength of X the outgoing light
has two peaks one at 7 and another at X da The

splitting between the two peaks become sharp with increasing

detector angle as shown in fig 2b

Accordingto classical weeteory of light the incident

flare wave willbe incident on rest electrons The electron will

then start oscillating with the same frequency and therefore

radiate back the electromagnetic wave at the same frequency
So the wave theory will explain the presenceof a
feat at
 the incident wavelength 7 The secondfreak cannot be
explained by the wave theory

Taking clue from Itu fact that the wavelength

ofthe
second peak defends an angle it Compton thought
about the similarity with scattering
between
two particles
Bythis time Einsteinb two loafers on tightas photon and
particle at the speed of light follows relativistic relation were

already published Compton considered photon as relativistic

particle whose
energy is E Eternia with its rest
So E too Then the
mass
energy is quantized
m o

to E his so f h a

which gives a relation between wavelength with the momentum

will be equivalent to the de Broglie

of particle which
a

wavelength x of a particle like electron Then wrings

momentum
and energy conservation at the scattering
between photon and electron one easily obtain the
relation
hzftwso
The existence
ofthe unmodified wavelength X is duetothe
scattering of the light with core
elections tightly bound to atoms

ft W I Derive ear
 Heisenberg Microscope Hypothetical and an invitation to
his uncertainly fringole

The Compton effect was possible due to the discovery of

X
ray
became
ray has high frequency and wavelength
X
which are in the same orderof magnitude of electrons
energy in atom and the radium of atoms or interatomic
distance in solid rr Ao Visible light has frequency
smaller than the booby board electrons and thus only
even
shows one warehryth feats at x On the otherhand 8
ray
only show the shifted peak at x became its energy is
electron's
very large compared to the core
energy

The relation between

ft x in eyes and the inability to
scatter the free election at wavelength gives an
any
hypothetical intuition to the inability to measure both lol
position of a
particle simultaneously with arbitraryfrecision
Although the uncertainty principle is more fundamental to
the discussed briefly above and has
quantum theory as
measurement is done with a
nothing to do whether the
certain wavelength of light or not but many books
discuss it as if An measurement indone with light
Some people also refer to it as Heisenberg Microscope
 The relation to htx seems to impose a restriction on

the simultaneous measurement to a n of a particle atleast

light The argumentis
if the measurement is done with
as follows To measure particle at a position a with
the
its In we need a light of wavelength as Aa
accuracy
But the photon at this wavelength X carries momenta f th
measurement is transferred to the particle
which
during the
So now the f article's momentum has changed by Alon Hase
So the order of magnitude calculation gives
A n Ap n h the lower board on
uncertainly
Aa RamanESSect 1928 whilecomfton scattering
is elastic scattering between photon and electron Raman
also obsered the presence of inelastic scattering with reduced
intensity ofoutgoing light In Raman scattering mechanics
the outgoing light has different energy than the incident
light in which the photon gains or books energy to the
atom f molecule It was explained subsequu.ly that the
balanced energy and also momentum in some cases

are absorbed emitted by the vibration of the atom

molecule This means not only electromagnet waves

but the vibrational waves like sound ward is also

called phonons
quantized We will solve this foroblem in great
details that the atomic vibrations which are like
balls attached by spring have discrete set of
frequencies and energy and this in one of tht easiest
but most fundamental block
building of quantum
mechanics

w Assuming E 112 V for vibrational spectrum

obtain the SH T vs x relation and the specific heat
of this system
B Atomic Spectra and the Bohr model of Hydrogen
atom
As early as 1725 T Melvill and subsequently others
many
showed that the emission and absorption line Yoedra of
atoms are sane and discrete They are called emission
lines By the workof Balmer in 1885 followedby Rydberg in
1889 and so on it was realized these emission 1 absorption
lines have a regular pattern as seen in fig 4 a

Figa

All those lines can be reproduced by Balmer Rydberg

formulae
I I
A as RafIn a hb as
where Rit Rydberg constant 109677.58 Cmi
h e
I I 2

M b 2 B
and Vab is the wavenumber of either emission or absorption

lines
 The existence of atomic line spectra as shown in Agfa
which exhibit regularities cannot be explained by models of
atomic structure classical fhgues Neils Bohr in
based on

1993 proposed the idea of quantized circular orbit with

quantized energy in hydrogen atoms to explain the above
fhero mean is considered an introduction to quantumtheory
for electrons

model of Nucleaus During this time Rutherford in 1911

showed by atoms through abbhaparticle Htt
faltering of
that atom is mostly empty Its all thepositive charge and almost
all its mass is concentrated in the nucleus or 10 m
which is much smaller than the atomic size for co m
n 1911 heiger Marsden reproduced this observatory then
the electrons circulating around the nucleus like a
are

planetary motion by virtue offte Coulombattraction But

unlike stable planetary motion of neutral particle the
rotation
of charge particle in a closed hoof a accelerating
and the produced magnetic field at the center
hence

is time dependent from Maxwell's equation we saw that

Hui will produce electromagnetic wars which will
take the energy will energyand
Therefore electron
away
eventually fell back to the nucleus So atom will not be
stable
 Bohr's model of Hydrogen Atom

To explain the ahore discrete atomic spectrum and Rutherford's

of orbital motion of election Bohr in 1913 used the

observation

idea Planck's Einstein's model of quantized energy.in

of
each orbit Bohr proposed that the energy of electrons in anorbit
is quantized Unlike Planck Einstein Bohr did not start
with an
assumption that energy is quantized but rather
he start with an assumption than orbital angular motionin
a circular motion is quantized from there the derived how
energy is quantized
rederine the Bohr's quantization formula starting
We can

from the classical mechanics b least action forinufle and

the Bohr Sommerfeld b quantization condition Recall from
the Noether b theorem that if
the system is rotationally
invariant then the orbital angular momentum he is
conserved We just have to show that the angular momentum
value but only discrete values of
is conserved not to any
h As we often write an action in n p phone space
a ordinates which are conjugal to each other and lo is the
assured quantity of translational symmetry for the same
argument one can as well write the theory in the
foolwe coordinates and its conjugate variables outshining
 that the motion is fixed circle ie we can assume the
motion is fixed on a armfant radius in any dimension
Then in 3D the motion is described described by three
Euler angles Ox Oy Oz for rotations w r f x y t axes

The variables are Lx 4 Lz

consered conjugate
corresponding
Gn reality having the motion constraint on a constantradius
sphere the three independent rariables reduces to a two

This also makes among Lx Lg Lz only

in dysendent angles

two are related to each other Their relation is denoted

by a commutator in QM Ln I it and its
cydia relation We will here ignore this complication
and only assume a 3D circular motion denoted by 0
and the corresponding angular momentum in L
Then via analogy we can write the action
as
L E H lo D Ey
S Jdt
and the Bohr Sommerfeld quantization in the corresponding

phone space of CL AJ as

I do n h

Compare with E dtc pie Hcn D d fof da nh

 Then Hd l being conserved ie I As if 0
assuming
we obtain
Hdt c bolt e doe n h
si L foDD I 2A I n h

nh.TL
h te hlosa

H dt HT nh where t ti.mefaeriod

We now need to compute T

T Sina Coulombforce
is the only force gireng the centripetal
accelerator

vYr we obtain E et
MRI
Fore
Fromear Lemur Nk

Using ear we ont v EEE In sr 4I mhtn

2

then the time period is T BE It th t n

Then from eg we get

tE hrg n 12 3 a

Remember that the integer n in the Bohrb theory has a

proper justification Dts the orbital angular momentum of

qaeh orbit This is called
the principle
quantum number
For reproduces the Balmer Rutherford formula and gives a

very good estimate ofthe Rutherford constant kit The correction

from circular to elliptic orbit save a better agreementto the

value of Rit

TheBohrlorrespondenaPrinaft Bohr proposed that

a quantum theory can be considered a valid theory is
one can take it tothe classical limit by Elaine h 20

and for the energy separation between the discrete levels

is small compared to some other energy scale like RBI
which should reproduce the classical result

H W By taking me a limit show Hat the Borhb

result reproduces the result of a classical orbit
IBohr
SommerfeldQuanthoinondition
It actually sommerfeld in 1916 derived the quantization
was

condition in which he generalized the Bohr's quantitative condition

for circular orbit to an elliptic orbit in which the energies are
quantized Sommerfeld's condition was that in a system
described by a Hamiltonian H Cf ie with several
coordinates n i cannonical conjugates bi satisfying the
0 10 no
Hamilton's equations Ii 040ki ti all
of
ni e ti have periodic time dependence
a as
form closed
orbits then for each e we hone

ki d ni hi h with Mi E Z Cintegers
The integral is taken over one period of the motion
This relation generalizes to coordinate e.g
any general Oi
and its conjugate variable Li as

Li do i e ni h

As also argued that the beast action principle dictates

we

that the energy time quantization condition is hence

obtained as

tacni pi dt nh

this approach in limited and only applies to peridic

motion whereas quantum theory in general to all trajectories
ression to Laser Weinberg book
1 s.fr tegrqExz weheasurementhfofenergy

Caltwd

Vf
h

In 1914 T Franck and h Hertz directly measured the

energy quantization of
atoms without light Therefore
using
it was proved that the quantization of atomic orbits has nothing
to do with the quantization of light
In an evacuated tube electrons are ejected from a heated
cathode and accelerated towards a wine grid maintained at a

positive potential V w r to the cathode The electron gain K E

I mu k e
f The electrons are then collected by a flat causing a
current maintained at
I The collecting
flat is a potential Va
Vakuf the accelerating voltage A Vs
re ra The tubein
then filled with mercury gas The accelerated electron
collide elastically with the mercury atom became mercury
is heavy But when the elections
energy Av matches

exactly with an orbital energy of the Hg atom it can

looseits energyto the Agatomdueto inelastic scattering The
observed current vs voltage profile shows dips at the

energy intervals which matches with the atomic energy

levels predicted by Bohr for
Hg
 T
stmmiitwimmimmt.im
mmTE

O Stern W herlack in 1922 made an experimental setup to

verify the quantization of angular momentum that Bohr

proposed The orbital angular momentum of electron is like a

magnetic dipole magnet became its the charge particle which

is rotating in a circle
producing a magnetic field at thecenter
The ohrid magnetic moment
MT a Em I I Tx ft
when
If a magnetic dipole it is placed under a magnetic field
the potential
B energy due to the infraction is U it B

The torque F
e Ix Bi
and net force is F Fu
Due to variation of the magnetic field the Force is acquired
to be fi MT ddi i n n t For an uniform imagnetii
field there is however no face since IT is uniform Thenthe
magnetic dipole processes with a constant angular frequency
we Mfd B called Larmor angular frequency With inhomogenous
magnetic field the atoms can be defeated dueto its magnetic
moment and hence we can measure it

Withthis principle Stern herlack in 1921 build It

above setup to pass beams of atoms through an cinhomogeneous
magnetic field In the incident beam the direction of the
magnetic moment NT ofthe atom is random and alongthe
2 direction onewould obtain value in the range MEMHM
So in the detecting plate the atoms would spread over

continuously The surprising result that

Stern 4 Gerlach
obtained as shown in fig above that twodistint separate
and sy mmetrio around aero deflection line are
observed

The same result was obtained in elements

many
According to Bohr's model I ht where n o 44
The maximum valve of Lz tht and its minimum value
in n f ee M k where ma G lei o l

taking led values Therefore one would expectKeey

spots in Stern Gerlach experiments But what they
rather found two spots which corresponds to l Yz
not even integer
 In 1925S Crowds mit and G E Uhlenbeck analyzed
the Noticing of atomic spectral lines occurring in a magnetic
field Zeeman effect She proposed that the splitting of
the
refutal lines into two can be explained if the
electrons possess intricsic angular momentum ei
spin
With analogy to the relation between KT I one writes
exfresses the internal magnetic momentum into a spin

angular momentum
I thats gsMB where

MB GIM in the Bohr magnetic and gg is a

proportionality constant called gyromagnetic ratio tofix
the value of Sz I 12 as seen in Stern Gerlach

experiment Therefore the total angular momentum of

spin is

µ tfIEtgss
The quantization of the spin of the elation to 42
so that it explains the two peaks feature within the

formula of see has no explanation

multiplicity
from classical mechanics and is purely quantum
a

mechanical effect In fact no one know its origin but

the consequence
of honing 42 spin and a fold multiplicity
has important quantum mechanical consequence Hat chitinguishy
electron from photon 1phonon and are called fermions
CdElectronsare waves

So have been collecting evidence of light behaving

far we

like a particle with a quanta of energy hvo and

momenta to h I X II We have also seen from black
body radiation that the particle bike quantum mechanical
behavior is appreciable as we go tothe high frequencycry
and shut wavelength limit There is no hard and fast
rule of when a quantum mechanical
scale appears Its all
depends on the other energy and lengthscales of our
system measurements for example the discrete energy spacing
hVo should be large enough compared to He energy
resolution the instrument or larger than the thermal
of
fluctuation knot so that we can probe the ahicult energy
levels Similarly the wavelength 9 should the small enough
Nh to be able to probe the momentum ofthe particle
with high accuracy Otherwise the particles are moving
very fast and the error in measurement Ab can be very
large and then I b I se S h and hence we are

far from the Ian turn limit

An analogy would be a fan When a fan rotates on high

speed we dont see its discrete blades Bnt at lowspeed
we see theme
 w l J
De Broglie Itsfolksis

It turns out the reverse is also true What we call a particle

in classical physics also behaves as wave if we

go to the
lightscale n lo me Became the waves are very short ware

lengths In it m and very high frequency therefore unless we hone

a night experimental setup with light with small wavelength

comparable to the wavelengthofthe particle em that we are not
atsufficiently low temperature such that the thermal
energy knot is comparable or lessthan the energy separation
energy levels we dont see them
between the discrete

Bohr Sommerfeld's proposal of quantization of

electron's

energy and angular momentum in a feridic motion

But such a quantization and wave nature exists for
all particles just its wavelength is very short and

frequency in very high This is shown as in the

fig below

I Ii
Any classicaltrajectory zoom info to lengthscale nut m
Wave nature is visible
The above schematri figure illustrate thisprocess We take

any arbitrary classical trajectory and zoom into the length

scale 10 om wewill find an oscillatory nature of the
trajectory The above illustration is only for a periodic behavior
i wt
of h in it as n CH n e where W is very very fast
oscillation
causing rapid of the particle the corresponding wavelength
is defined in the position is also small But to define a
proper wavelength we need a function tact to denote the
trajectory both in space e time thats a reason we adopt
wave function description of the trajectory

Before we discuss the origin ofthis underlying nature of

wave

all trajectories let us comment on the possible values of the

wavelengths ats said earlier any continuous Calm some
we

discrete differentiable function Ylrit can be expandedin the

plane wave basis eilti w
with proper coefficients 91kW
The coeffients carry the information about the weight fprobabetig
contributions from each plane crown components
of wavenumber
k 2 Its orbions that smother the function that in
Afaau x lesser the contributions from higher wavelengths X
are A completely oscillating classical path like a Harmonic
oscillator has a well defined wavelength so a ware nature
is evident On the contrary a completely localized particle
 a delta function wave function has equal contributions
from all wavelengths

whats the origin

of the underlying wane nature of the
particle's trajectories atthough mathematically it makes
perfect sense due to the Fourier trameformation of any
function All equations of motions which are translationally
invariant can have fowrier transformation but the
physical origin is not completely known We can however
discuss whats the phyeical implications
of the underlying
wave nature
of particles
We know that the particles trajectories are
fully
defined in a Bat Hero in a flare space the
phase space
degrees of freedom ft x are not completely indeferent
11 unlike
linearly independent position variables butthey
are related to each other by the Poisson bracket

You may think of it as everytime we make an infinisimal

change in there is a change in contraints
by the Poisson
me
f
bracket undess
f in a conserved quantity in which case the
translation inn is generated momentum only.J
by the
The is in inch
way that after certain time
change a

and position the trajectory make a rotation in the

Khan space abort an area h or covers h h area in the
 II
phase space
words the thaiIE et i e i l i i
I
f f c

can not be shrink Smallest Ei I

arbitrarilyto zero area
tossible IIIi l tE III a
gridin f I l
l i i
l t It t
area s l t htt
there in a minimum
aphone 1 I I I t ti ti
t H
area of the phone
of an space n'h I g I t
i t

which is h discrete huh that

So the phone space is
the wavelength of the Fourier modes cannot taken all the

way to aero In principle we should be doing a discrete

Fourier transformations by considering all the discrete
wavelengths separated by X Mk Therefore the shortest
wavelength possible for a particle with momentum f
is

This is the de Broglie wavelength which measures the

distance the particle travels with momentum for it to
Aweek bit of phone space area tho The corresponding
one

frequency is
V I 1M the quantum of energyis
f a hi tY2m relativistic particles rdalenstro
for non for
farticle we hone choose F to HV where c XV This
condition also makes the trajectory in Erst phone space
discrete as fotE dt ET h
The discrete nature phase space also fonts restrictions
ofthe
on how the derivatives in the Hamiltonian principles
si
are defined It I GATE The derivative

rule some AH.tt

qq.ahipqottcb Alo

But the fact that both limits Af An cannot be

taken simultaneously to hero rather their limits

here to be restricted to the minimum area of
Afo ar n h
Do Ex i can we measure the wave

nature of a particle trajectory

Ang Ofcourse We hone to build a setup which will be
sensitive to the wavelength X h
H and then the
interference and diffraction patterns are observables
So we construct the double slit experiment with slit
size der X htt

For the case of a plane

wave of light when coherent
light is shined on a

double slit as shownhere

the plane ware splits into
two and then they start
interfering with each other
and produce an Figi
alternating bright and
dark patterns on the screen we have done this experiment

with light and also showed that such a bevour

can
only be explained by nature of the light
the ware

which in desciible by a complex function having an

amplitude and phase At the two slits the ware
has split into two with equal amplitude but acquire
 differentflares determined by the path difference
between the two light rays

Let us
imagine doing the same
experiment with particles
with equal momenta tanned with the slit site d such
that p d or h
Fig2iclassical kicture

Classical picture expectation from classical physics butnot

observed

Let us first discuss what do we expect if the particles are

not wave then the particle either go through the

sti l
can

with a probability Pi or the probability of going through

Hits in P2 without any bias P Pa but we keep them
different for generality then each probability distribution
most likely will be gaussian will have the shape as
shown in fig 2 Then the total probability intensity
distribution
of particles collected by the detector will be
 Pez P t Pz C
as shown in fig 2 Ccs

Figs AES erratum

as
0bserrhmdQuant an.es

But what one observes is an pattern as shown

inker
in fig 3 Ccs The observedfeature cannot be explained by

simply adding the probability of passing through each

slit but by adding the complex waves 9 Q2 from the
two stilt ditch and then taking its amplitude itch F
This is the same theory we used for
light to explain
its ice So particles to trajectories are made of

many many short wavelength waves

If we are two detectors one onlydetects particles from 1 otherfrom2

we will observe fig 3 But a single detector with observe

fig B
DiffractionersInterferenuI Are observing the interference
we

patters of two different waves associated with two different

electron orthoton
particles or
observingthe diffraction
are we

patterns of a single wave C a single etrehon or phono which

split by the two slits and Hen diffracts due to the phone
difference 2
Aes If it was interference we will see for
fig Bad
diffraction we see
fig boy

To verify it have to keep reducing the intensity

we
of
the incident particle until at any instant of time there
is
only one particle comingout and going through both
slits and then being detected Then the 2nd particle is
fired from the source This was demonstrated originally
in 1909 by h I Taylor who photographed the diffraction

pattern formed by the shadow of a needle using a very

weak source such Hat the exposures lasted for months It
can be concluded Hat inferenence between two distinct
particles wave do not happen but a property of a
single particle More recently in 1989 this experiment was
confirmed by A Aspect P Granger and h Roger for
photon and for electrons by A To nomura T Endo
T Matsuda T Kawasaki H E 2 aww in 1989
 It should be noted that is one slit is dosed in a
double slit experiment the diffraction pattern disappears
So when both slits that the
may infer
are one
open
particle's wave hard med bott slits and created the

diffraction pattern
This is what people I 7
imply when they say
the particle is not
M s
particle's
wane
localized at one
place but has finite probability of being everywhere
Its more of particle not having a well defined
single line trajectory but made of waves of single
many wavelengths As tht Ik and
or distance between
the slits of the order of Yp we can probe these
are

short wavelength wares associated with the particle

Probabatistic fsuperposition Interpretation
hmmmm

hetas return to the frobabalistic interpretation of the above

diffraction pattern of particles As the particle affrach the
two slits and having the wavelength of the particle comparable
to the distance between the two slits the particle is now exposed
to two possibilities with equal ordifferent probabilities to
pass through In otherwords the double slit in Imment
offers two distinct stats to the particle or the outgoing
particle has two distinct status and the total wave function
is a linear superposition of the two distinct stats 9 da

as
Y 9Q t Cz 92
f2J
where 4 Cz are the coefficients or probability amplitude
associated with two slits we absorb as a within 9 92

Eg can be interpretated as a linear superposition of two

distinct possible status of the particle implying that the
particle have finite probability of being in any one

of Ctu state 9f slit 2 is closed then ez so I 4 1

and vice versa

In this description as
singing a wavefunction with a
 particle trajectory means we are adopting a probabilistic
So at whatposition article will be detected on the screen
approach f
can not bedefinitely ascertained but we can only evaluate
the probability of detecting at a positron Pad By
probabity we mean the number of times than HeIsarticle
will be detected at a divided by Ae total memberof
measurements the intensity of the pattern formed onthe
screen proportional to Pac
a
From the theory of diffraction of
light ware we
know that He probabiEb ily a intensity is
given by

pent Html z
Q ex t
I
19ft Hate2146592
Interference
P t Pz t Interference
term term

Gina Q Q2 are complex functions So we can write

9 Qd ei 9 pi e i Oe
02
da fly ei The e
Then we have

P Cx a P t P z t 2Pips cos 99 OD1

The classical result would simply be Pat Poe while the
the quantum mechanics predicts probability distribution's
a

oscillating between f pi fpDl2to.fp tipster between 0 to

4 P if P Pz

Now we hypothetically design an experiment that

if the particle pass through slit I iet will obtain a

color red otherwise blue Then in the detector we count
them differently and plot the total frobability Then
obviously we will measure P Peeps as we plotted
in fig Sb Mathematically we say the total
wave function 4 49 tag has a ed4 into any
one
of the state by distinguishingthem r Thi ai to
say by distinguishing them we are making a orca
to be zero We will see mathematical definition of
Collapsing a genomic state into a siren stale

In modern language the superposition ofa state into

man'y
two or possible state can cause fractionatication

of Cte particle C fractionalization of its charge gysin

etc the superposition of the tno or many possible
stats also mean those two stats hence generated
remain entangled for ever u they know eachother
 no matter how He screen in distanced
far
from the slit In another way to say if we
somehow find a way to measure one of the state
at very far away and after a long dong time
later we also certainly know the other state as

well since the total brobability is 1 of

and the wave nature oomf

qonblesht.euoerir.nen.t
robability superposition etc are the foundation of
modern Quantum Mechanics The ad hoc
quantization rules of Bohr Sommerfeld quantization
energy quantization angular momentum quantiahia
am part of the old
quantum mechanics that
we can
reproduce by using
modern 9M
 AnExaYk

I l Particle
I Particle I Wave
I
wave dual
n X i r x but foggy i r X P h Ix
I 1
classical particle c classical ware 1 Quantum
scattering 1
Interferencel diffracton i cattering t interference
1 diffractionI
l
g i
l

mnm mhniEmmmEm
i i
e

Let us we have
bumpy road and a car is moving
say a

on it We hone three possible situations as shown above

When the carb wheel much much bigger than the

site is

site
of the bumf the car's vibration is negligibly small
and thus although the vibration exists but one does not

feel measure it
This is the classical limit of Newtonian
mechanics where the Wave nature ofthe trajectory is not
measurable due to the instrument's WW inability to
resolve the small scale vibration So here the car mores

as a particle and scatter with another cave

II In the second situation the wheel's size is now comparable
to the bamfob rise Here the car will really vibrate
wildy and all the passengers will be able to sense the
vibrations Therefore the Carlo trajectory is defined
by a
wave solution But we not hone yet reached the quantum
may
limit unless the momentum is not low enough to reachthe
Ha h lo H
De Broglie limit of f JI seo on regular
road the bumf site is Xn i m Then a car of
1kg
need to acquire speed u n
Hmp n lo 34mLsee to reach
the quantum limit Therefore the wave nature ofthe
Carlo trajectory is a classical wane If many carb
collide on inch a bumpy road the scattered carb will exhibit
interference patterns but this is still not a quantum limit
where uncertainty principles will
affly
HI Let us imagine an hypothetical rotuation where Ho
now
bumfpb size and Its carb size have been sealed to Ite
atomic limit such that r x as well as to Hx Then
the will acquire a particle and wane dual behavior
car

Now if the cars will exhibit both inference diffraction as

well Compton Raman scattering phenomena Carb
as

position and momenta will also not now be simultaneously

determined with arbitrary precision
 Comfotonscaltering Let us now try to perform a Compton
like scattering between two cars on
situations
a
bumpy road We consider 3 1
I A classical car when
it hit another
exchange momentum
car Hey

and
0yd T
0
F NJ
T

both scatter with different momenta with the total momenta being
conserved To Etz Ditto's
II
I when a classical 9 x
reform 9 It
71 X X2
wavey car hits another
pie a
car at rest it exchanges

its total wavelength

and the second car vibrating at the
Sare wavelength Recall that this is what one expects in the

Compton experiment to hone only one peak at Hu same

wavelength from classical ware theory

I But in the quantum
ntin TE
limit when two X X X2 9 X
a.fm
1
qrantum cars hit each
other they scatter like a particle
in they exchange momenta and Hus both scatter into
different wavelengths according to Hr momentum
conservation roughly as thx thy
This is what one b serves in Compton effect
 DoubleTunnelexperimentswithcars

t. e
Let us now
imagine
a bumpy road which spits
into two or hone two tunnels on the road before its
join
again How will the above three cars will travel after it
cross the splitter h

E the classical car will take either path 1 or path 2

and then forward with a well defined trajectory
move

Despite the fact that the car had equal probability

to but He final result
choose between the two paths
does not defend on which path a car takes If we
observe many many cars we will find that on average

half of Hr cars will take path 1 I other half will

take path 2 but all the cars will eventually meet
at the same road and the total probability of

finding all cars on the road after the splitterwill

add to 1
Iduin In both Case IIe It nature of
we have a ware

a car takes both the

the Carlo trajectory Therefore pathsand
the two split waves then merge to form diffraction pattern
the has finitepropability
in the
final path Therefore car a

of finding it onltide the path

proportional to do Clearly to
see the diffraction faltern the distance
d has to be order of the warelength
of the
of the care It is worthmile repeatingthat the diffraction
pattern is formed by a each car dueto its wave nature
and simultaneously taking bolt bath 14 path 2 However

of the diffraction pattern will betoo low to observe

the intensity

and one needs enough member

of carb diffractionprocess
to observe affordable intensity the diffraction patterns
of

I not sure between

if wayto distinguish
am there is a a

classical wave and a quantum wave via double slit experiment