MODULE 2

Presentation by Ar. Dhanya Shaji

PLANNING THEORIES OF POST-INDUSTRIAL AGE
Contributions by:

1. Ebenezer Howard
2. Lewis Mumford
3. Patrick Geddes
4. Clarence Stein
5. Clarence Perry
6. C. A. Doxiadis
7. and Le Corbusier

Planning of 20th century cities:

Chandigarh, Navi Mumbai, Islamabad, Brasilia, Curitiba etc.
CHANDIGARH
Refer attached ppt.
NAVI MUMBAI
NAVI MUMBAI

• Navi Mumbai is also called the twin city of Mumbai.

• Twin city concept - brainchild of Charles Correa
(architect/ urban designer), Pravina Mehta (structural
engineer) and engineer Shirish Patel (engineer planner)-
as a suggestion to Bombay Municipality.
• Well aware of the prolonged Mumbai traffic and
overgrowing population, in early 1964 – expansion
to Eastern side - Navi Mumbai was planned to
divert the endless traffic congestion and to migrate
the population.
• CIDCO drafted a development plan for Navi Mumbai,
which included a 343.70 sq km territory stretching
from Thane to Raigad.
• Further, the plan was officially approved by the
Government of Maharashtra in August 1979.
• Large bridges were employed to create links with the
old center – hence, a new commercial center with a
new urban structure could be accomplished.
• The selected site was across the harbor from Bombay Island,
considering that would ease in relocating the people.
• The key was to create livable spaces and a mass transport system.

• The main reasons for the move were:

o The dilapidation of older structures in Bombay
o Navi Mumbai’s cheaper and better housing amenities.
o Navi Mumbai offers more job chances
o Shorter commuting distances

• Le Corbusier explains the planning is based on the 7V rule,

determining the essential function of creating sectors. The aim was
to inculcate the principles of Modernism.

• The planning of Navi Mumbai is based on a polycentric nodal

pattern of development, unlike that of activity-oriented planning of
Mumbai - as polycentric design hinders the concentration of
population and activities in a particular area.
• Keeping into account the problems faced by
Mumbai, planners adopted the strategy of
decentralization.
• The development plan for Navi Mumbai envisages
planning and development of various nodes or
townships.
• The planning model functions as a ‘bunch of
grapes’ and focuses on the decentralization and
balanced residential areas, commercial hubs,
wholesale markets, non-polluting areas, and other
activities.
• Each nodal settlement is spread over 500 to 800
hectares of land and is further sub-divided into
sectors.
• The concept was to bifurcate the entire landmass
into several self-sufficient townships (nodes).
• Each node has a population of about 100,000 to
300,000.
• The entire Navi Mumbai township is expected to have about
20 nodes with a total population of about 2 million and 10,
00, 000 jobs.
• The major job centers are planned at a number of locations
taking into account the existing and future proximity of
infrastructure, availability of port, natural gas etc.

• These nodes were further decentralized into residential

neighborhoods (sectors).
• The sector planning is similar to the traditional grid planning
system.

• Many of the sectors were planned for residential use. The

application of single-use zoning was proposed as opposed to
the traditional multiple-use zoning.

• The nodes offered residential, institutional, commercial, and

recreational uses. At a broader scale, they shared common
facilities like water reservoirs and transit systems.
12 NODAL TOWNSHIPS

North Navi Mumbai

1. Airoli
2. Ghansoli
3. Koperhairane
4. Vashi
5. Sanpada
6. Nerul
7. Belapur

South Navi Mumbai

8. Kharghar and Taloja
9. Kalamboli and Kamothe
10. Panvel and Karanjade
11. Ulwe
12. Dronagiri
DESIGN PRICIPLES:

The conceptual design of Navi Mumbai was developed at a height of modernism.

The principles were:

• Decentralization by the design of self sufficient townships (nodes).

• Residential neighborhoods (sectors)
• Single use zoning as opposed to traditional multiple use zoning.
• The total area of Navi Mumbai was divided into townships. Each township has several sectors. Many
were residential in nature.
• Each node was planned to accommodate a range of some income groups.
• Ponds were created to accumulate excess run off.
• Each node is self-contained for 100,000 to 200,000 people.
• The nodes contain residential, commercial, infrastructure and recreational uses.
• At a larger scale, nodes share some common facilities such as water reservoirs and transport facilities.
• Navi Mumbai has the SEZ zone (Special Economic Zone) spread over an area of 2,140 Ha across 3
nodes of Navi Mumbai, functioning as a deemed foreign territory.
MRT CORRIDOR

• The structural plan of New

Bombay: three linear spines
arranged in a pinwheel around the
CBD(Central Business District) at
one end tied to the regional
transport network at the other,
anchoring the new city into the
surrounding region.
• With developments in road, rail,
air and water transport, Navi
Mumbai is fully equipped to cater
the needs of the commuters.
• Part of this is the suburban trains
that connect to 12 nodes to each
other as well as to Mumbai.
ISLAMABAD
• Islamabad, the new Capital of Pakistan, planned
by Constantinos A. Doxiadis and Doxiadis
Associates in the late 1950s.
• The Islamabad Metropolitan Area is composed of
Islamabad, the old city of Rawalpindi and the
National Park.
• The latter is a hilly area, containing two large lakes,
the National Sports Centre, the National
University and the National Research Centre.
• Four major interurban roads delineate the above
three major components of the Metropolitan Area.
• Dynametropolis: The overall plan is based on the
“dynametropolis” concept, giving the possibility
of continuous expansion with the least possible
adverse effects in traffic and in the functioning of
the Metropolis.
• Both Islamabad and Rawalpindi, central cores and
residential areas, may expand dynamically.
• GRID-IRON Pattern: The city was conceived into grid-iron patterns • City is divided into eight basic zones:
developed into 2 kilometres by 2 kilometres sectors segregated by administrative, diplomatic enclave, residential
the hierarchy of wide principal roads (600 ft.) comprising areas, educational sectors, industrial sectors,
Islamabad and Rawalpindi area with sectors for distinct land uses commercial areas, rural and green areas.
such as residential, educational, commercial and administrative. • Each sector has kept separated through green
belts which act as – Oxygen Generators.
• Housing is provided in grid-iron pattern sectors on disciplined
hierarchy of communities according to their income groups.
• In the square grid of sectors, four communities clustered around
an enlarged shopping center. To slow down traffic, shopping
activities were organized in the center of a larger square
settlement.

• Local and collector low speed roads, wide sidewalks, pedestrian

roads and bicycles lanes within the lower class “human
communities” provide access to the major transportation system.

• The above hierarchical system of communities and transportation

facilities, contributes to the reduction of travel distances/times
and accidents, and to the promotion of “green transport”
(walking, cycling, public transport).
 https://www.slideshare.net/PlanningTheory/islamabad-city-planning

Schematic representation of four Class V Communities:

• Each Class V Community has a population of 20,000 to

40,000 inhabitants and is divided into four Class IV
communities, each composed in turn of four Class III
Communities.
• Class V communities are spatially defined and accessed by
major arteries at 2km intervals.
• These arteries may be gradually upgraded to freeways,
depending on increasing traffic flows.
• They are developed within 180m wide transportation
corridors where high speed public transport may also be
accommodated.
• Short length minor arteries (190m R.O.W.) are spaced at
about 1km distances, defining Class IV communities
within which pedestrians can safely walk along a system
of local roads, wide sidewalks and pedestrian roads,
leading to the local centers and functions.
• By the extensive use of cul-de-sacs and loops, cars can
move inside these “human communities” without
interfering with pedestrians.
Transport Network:

• The grid-iron pattern of sectors was served by a

hierarchically structured road network comprising a
width of 1200, 600, 300 ft intersecting at right
angles. Collector and local roads were proposed to
serve the community.
• The wide right-of way is a strong identifying
feature of Islamabad - such a hierarchy and width
is best suitable for future traffic growth and high
speed traffic movement.
• In fact, revisions increased the width of right-of-way
of the Capital Highway from 1200 to 1800 ft.
• Doxiadis planned Islamabad by perceiving high
automobile per capita ratio. That’s why a wide
street was proposed along with 50-100 yard green
strips.
• The wide highways was its use for future utility
corridors such as water, high tension electricity
line and gas pipelines etc.
“Planned for the future and built for the present”, the Metropolitan Area of Islamabad is a “Dynametropolis”
which presents the following basic advantages:

a. The possibility of a dynamic extension of both the residential areas and related functions and the
various central functions.

b. The final dimensioning of the various elements of the city from the start, thus securing the location and
size of the required land (e.g. 180m R.O.W. for the major transportation corridors and 90m for the minor
ones) while the construction is phased depending on the increasing needs.

c. A Master Plan that reflects the needs of the physical environment to an increasing degree, starting from
the straight line alignment of the 2 by 2km grid iron system of the major transportation corridors down to
the forms of local elements, i.e. local roads with small radius curves, dead ends and loops, pedestrian
roads with stairs, etc.

d. Concept of a “neighborhood” - each one with functions proper to its scale (market, schools, office
buildings, recreation, green areas, etc.) reduces trip-lengths and increases safety and convenience of
movements. Combined with the proper hierarchy of roads and other transportation facilities, the above
hierarchy of communities and functions segregates the various length and speed movements. People are
directed to the proper transportation facilities, while long high speed through movements are kept away
from the lower classification “human communities”.
BRASILIA

• Brasilia is the federal capital of the country of Brazil.
• Brasilia did not exist in the beginning of the 20th
century as it was planned and developed in 1956
with Lucio Costa as its principal urban planner and
Oscar Niemeyer as its principal architect.
• Later in 1960, the city become the capital.
• Brasilia was intended to be a monumental
modernist city.
• Listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
• The size of the planned city was 2245 sq miles,
planned for a population of 50,000.
• Brasilia was planned to relieve the pressure of
overpopulation from the old capital city of Rio de
Janeiro and to move the capital to the inland
plateaus closer to the country’s geographical center.
• The city was built in a span of 41 months and
officially inaugurated in 1960.
• When it was inaugurated in 1960, it was unlike any
other city in the world, with a radical, artistic
urban plan by Lucio Costa, striking edifices by
Oscar Niemeyer, and its avant-garde landscape
design by Roberto Burle Marx.
• Its bold monumentality demonstrated how Brazil
wanted to be perceived by the world: a progressive
power.
• In short, a project that was the urban
representation of the country's slogan: Ordem
e progresso (Order and progress).
‘Plano piloto’

• In 1957, architect Lúcio Costa won the design competition with

his entry known as the ‘Plano Piloto’.
• The entry consisted of only 15 freehand sketches and 23
handwritten paragraphs.
• Lucio Costa designed it as an utopian city.
• His aim was to create an ideal city with an ideal society as a
symbol of Brazilian greatness.
• Costa hated all the comparisons to an aero plane or as a bird, as
his original urban concept pointed to the shape of a cross to
symbolize possession.
• It would have a centralized hub for a series of monumental
government structures—the Square of Three Powers—as well
as residential blocks and green space, all designed around a
system of highways.
• The city had two axis crossing at right angle;
• (i) monumental axis which intersects at the center of the city
with a (ii) residential axis.
• Horizontal axis curved to make it adapt to the local topography
and natural drainage of the area.
At the bottom of the monumental axis, a triangular
area marks a plaza - Praça dos Três Poderes - Plaza
of the Three Powers - hosting the buildings of the
three main government branches:

1. the National Congress Building – at the apex

2. the presidential Palácio da Alvorada
3. and the Supreme Federal Court – base of the
triangle.

The plan suggests a design in which the three

powers can be seen to check and balance each
other.

From there the monumental axis stretches upward

as an ‘esplanade’ where the ministries and agencies
of lesser importance are situated.
National Congress Building
Supreme Federal Court
Planalto Palace
Cathedral of Brasília 
Costa’s Plano Piloto:

• Form: Two axes crossing where one is curved with a

back axis.
• Adapted: Local topography, natural drainage and best
possible orientation.
• Free principles highway engineering: Through
elimination of intersections and curved axis.
• Residential districts have been placed along the
curved axis
• Monumental axis hosts the civic and administrative
center, recreation center, municipal; administration
facilities, barracks, storage and supply zones, railway
station and the small local industries sites.
• Banking and commercial districts fell alongside the
intersection of monumental and high way residential.
• Location of the entertainment center is intersection of
the monument and the back axis.

Curved Axis Monumental Axis Back Axis

Administrative Residential CBD
Landscaping:
• Superblocks are surrounded by bands of greenery planted with
trees.
• Strips of districts are also lined with greenery.
• Park city as the layout is filled with parks, squares, gardens,
orchards etc with 25 sqm/ person.
• Cemeteries arranged at the end of residential highway axis.

Vehicular Circulation:
• Traffic which is controlled by roads that go on a platform,
underground or under the platform.
• Clover shaped turn-offs – circulate in the different districts
without creating intersections.
• Streets didn't have names, instead they had coordinates,
numbers and initials to provide better orientation.

Pedestrian Circulation:
• Independent paths designed as local pathway systems for each
districts of residential, commercial and administrative separately.
• Separated from vehicular circulation.
Super Blocks:
Uniform height of six stories, no high rises
and vast motorways with ample parking, low
population density and open green space for
people to enjoy.
• The residential “superquadra,” or superblocks,
intended for government workers and their
families along a cross axis, the wings of the bird.
• Lower buildings for commercial businesses in
between super blocks.
• Six stories height based on the concept that a
mother would be able to call her child below
from that height.
• Each superquadra contained six-story residential
towers in a park-like setting.
• With facilities as schools, playgrounds, shops,
recreation fields, and community spaces.
• Strict limitations on building height, land use,
and rooflines.
• Transportation was centered around the car,
which was the new, exciting mobility technology
of the time.
Lessons

1. Lacks the typical street life of other traditional Brazilian cities as majority of people travel in for
work and leave to go home at night.
2. Brasília’s plan is far too rigid despite the city’s significant population growth.
3. Brasília is now the fourth-largest city in the country and the home to more than 2.5 million
people, yet fewer than 10 percent are residents of the Pilot Plan area and others in suburban
sprawl area.
4. Original nucleus accommodates the upper middle class and politicians but the wider social range
lives in the 27 surrounding satellite towns.
5. Brazil’s favelas developed organically to hold the Plano Pilato’s overflow and they highlight the
socioeconomic disparity.
6. Artificially emerged in an office, it has barely any memorable events or even its own
identity
CURITIBA
• Curitiba is the capital city of the Brazilian state of Parana.

• In 2010 the city was awarded with the "Globe Sustainable City Award’.

• Sustainability relates to the existence of a balanced relationship

between people and nature, or between society and its environment.
• The concept is linked to social inclusion, environmental preservation,
economic feasibility and institutional continuity.

• Curitiba is one of the most reputable cities in terms of sustainability

achievements which can be categorized into six integrated subjects:

i. integrated urban planning,

ii. effective public transport system,
iii. local environmental consciousness,
iv. pedestrian and public priority in the city,
v. social justice concentration and
vi. local waste management system.
• Since Curitiba was declared as the capital, the city has gone through several major urban planning projects to
manage uncontrolled sprawl.
• In 1940s, the first city plan - emphasized a star of boulevards, with most of the public services in downtown,
an industrial district and sanitation infrastructures.
• In 1964, urban planning of Curitiba with objectives as strict controls on urban sprawl, a reduction of traffic in
the downtown area, preservation of Curitiba's historical sector, and building a convenient and affordable
public transport system based on express buses.
• Adopted in 1968 with hundreds of small-scale practical solutions to enhance urban qualities.

• Integrated urban planning (political, social, environmental, economical, cultural and technical) and
implementation of goals by utilizing practical design solutions are key points in this achievement.
• Curitiba's Master Plan has integrated urban development with transportation and land use planning.
• It limited the city area growth, whilst have encouraged commercial activities along five transport axes
radiating out from the city center.
• The city center was partly closed to vehicular traffic and pedestrian streets were recreated.
• Mixed land use based on high density residential buildings is allowed alongside to transport axes.
• Linear development along the arteries road cause a considerable decrease in downtown movement need as
well as providing new opportunities for commercial and light industries to be located near fast transport
thoroughfares.
• A new industrial city was built in the west side of the city near the sea shore where includes low-income
public houses as well.
• Since post-WWII Curitiba has become a center for
• 1966 - Public Administration of Curitiba
economic activities mainly due to its central
developed a preliminary urban plan for
location and regional transportation network -
Curitiba and the Curitiba Research and Urban
processing and distribution center for the
Planning Institute, IPPUC was established in
surrounding agricultural industry.
1965 to coordinate the implementation of the
• The city was experiencing rapid growth and had a
Master Plan.
thriving agricultural sector and attracted migrants
from Japan, Syria and Lebanon - increasing demand
• The main objectives of the Plan were to
for Housing, Services and Transportation.
manage transportation, limit the physical
expansion of the central city focusing on;
• 1943 - the Agache Plan was designed by Alfred as
an attempt to manage urban growth in the city –
1. Changing the radial urban growth trend to a
• spoke-and-wheel design with the focus of a central
linear through integration of the road network,
business area from which access streets where
2. Transportation and land use,
connected to radial avenues.
3. Decongestion of the central area and
• This design failed to include the rapid expansion of
preservation of the historic center and
auto-mobiles during the 1950’s. The plan was never
environment,
fully implemented except from the ideas about
4. Demographic control and management,
radial avenues due to lack of funding.
5. Economic support to urban development and
Improvement of the infrastructure.
 The city has integrated a "radial linear-branching pattern“:
1. to protect density by diverting traffic from the city center
2. and protect green areas by encouraging industrial development along radial axes.

The benefits of the systems are as follows: Reduced transportation time - the per capita income
loss due to severe congestion is ~11 and 7 times lower than in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.

• The creation of the CIC has created about 50,000 direct jobs and 150,000 indirect jobs, and
about 20% of the state's exports are from the CIC;
Curitiba's fuel usage is 3% lower than in Brazil's other major cities;
• Improved outdoor air quality and associated health benefits;
• 70% of the city's residents are actively recycling and 13% of solid waste is recycled;
• Reduced flood mitigation expenditures by promotion of park development in flood-prone areas
• The development of Curitiba is twisted with
its public transport system which is based
on buses.

• Bus transport system was selected

because of its extremely low costs of
installation and operation in addition to its
fast and easy construction process.

• The bus system consists of three types of

buses for different functions, distinguished
by different colors (red for express, green
for inter-district and yellow for conventional
buses).

• Concentric circles of local bus lines

connect to five radial lines that go outward
from the center of the city.

• On the radial lines, triple-compartment

buses in their own traffic lanes carry 300
1. EFFECTIVE PUBLIC BUS SYSTEM:

• From 1974 to 1982, within eight years, the bus transport system was
expanded from two express bus lanes to five express axes in addition to
inter-district bus lines.
• The three-part road system in main axes has two one-way streets moving
in opposite directions which surround a smaller two-lane street exclusive
for express buses.
• Five of these roads form a star that converges near the city center.
• In 1980s, the RIT (Rede Integrada de Transporte: Integrated Transport
Network) was created, allowing transit between any points in the city by
paying just one fare.
• The long express buses are split into three sections and stop at designated
elevated tubes with disabled access. People pay for tickets at the bus stop
so the urban travels become easier, faster and cheaper.
• The system is used by 85% of Curitiba's population.
• The population has doubled since 1974, yet car traffic has declined by 30%
- reducing the fuel consumption and air pollution as well as environmental
costs of urban mobility.
• Urban terminals are built at the end of each express bus lane with social
services and smaller terminals which are located every 1400 meters.
• The system reduces the fuel consumption
and air pollution as well as environmental
costs of urban mobility.
• “They go as fast as subway cars, but at one-
eightieth the construction cost.”
• The innovative local public transport system
is considered as the pioneer of urban
development in Curitiba:
▪ 4000 passengers per day on special bus
▪ 25% less congestion
▪ Public transport is now used by 75% of
commuters on weekdays 
• 2 million passenger per day
• Its efficiency encourages people to leave
their cars at home.
• Curitiba has one of highest rates of car
ownership in Brazil, and high population
growth.
• Yet auto traffic has dropped substantially;
Curitiba has the highest public ridership of
any Brazilian city, and it registers the
country’s lowest rates of ambient pollution
and per capita gas consumption.

• Urban growth is also restricted to corridors

of growth – along key transport routes.
• Tall buildings are allowed only along bus
routes.
• Designed to encourage density along the
corridors, the system expands according to
the needs of its riders.
2. LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND CITIZENS’ PARTICIPATION:

• In the early 1970s, when Brazil was welcoming mass industry, Curitiba accepted only non-polluting
industries.
• It also has constructed an industrial district containing a considerable amount of green space that
was called "Golf Course".
• Builders get tax breaks if their projects include green space.
• Curitiba is referred as the ecological capital of Brazil, with a network of 28 parks and tree-planted
areas (in 1970, there was less than 1 square meter of green space per person, but in 2010 there
were 52 square meters).
• Citizens’ participation has a great role in this greenery development movement - planted 1.5
million trees.
• There is even a local environmental legislation to control industries, which are desired to be
located in the industrial city, to serve environmental quality.
• In order to achieve the goal of having 52 square meters of green space per inhabitant in 2010 -
greenery strategy implementation is closely related to legislations, long term environmental vision
and citizens’ participation.
• Curitiba’s sewage treatment system utilizes the local
lagoons (located near the river) as a water refreshing
system.

Flood Mitigation:

• Reduced flood mitigation expenditures by promotion

of park development in flood-prone areas (the cost of
this strategy is estimated to be 5% lower than
building concrete canals).
• Instead of investing in dams like the rest of Brazil in
the 80s, Curitiba invested in creating park systems
which protected at-risk regions for flooding.
• This included natural river basins, valley floors and
any streams in significant watersheds. Within these
parks they placed deep lakes in which the floodwater
could be diverted into these.
• By preventing flooding of urban spaces and otherwise
unprotected natural habitats, a higher level of
biodiversity and species richness is maintained
3. LOCAL WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

• Combining waste management systems with social and

environmental purposes provides multidiscipline
sustainability for Curitiba.

• In the “garbage that is not garbage” program, 70% of

the city's trash is recycled by residents. The city's paper
recycling preserves the equivalent of 1,200 trees a day.

• ‘Purchase of Garbage’ program - Social and

environmental benefits: Low-income families, living in
areas unreachable by trucks, bring their trash bags to
neighborhood centers, where they exchange them for
bus tickets, food and agricultural products. This means
less litter, less disease and less garbage dumped in
sensitive areas such as rivers.

• There's also a program for children where they can

exchange recyclable garbage for school supplies,
chocolate, toys and tickets for shows.
4. PEDESTRIAN PRIORITY AND HERITAGE
REHABILITATION

• Refurbishment of the city center into a heritage realm in the

authority of pedestrians has begun in 1970s.
• Old buildings were allowed to be rehabilitated with new
functions, whilst the public squares were empowered by
commercial and cultural facilities.
• Historical urban elements of Curitiba are used as shopping mall,
theatre, creativity centre, cultural documentation service,
museum; some operate 24 hours, 7 days a week.
• Downtown area was transformed into pedestrian public space
with shops, restaurants and cafes, and the Flower Street (Rua das
Flores) which was an urban recreational place.
5. Social justice, quality of life and public health

• Improving the quality of life has been a guideline for Curitiba’s municipality.

• Education: Since 1980s the city has begun a project called the Faróis de Saber (Lighthouses of Knowledge).
• These Lighthouses are free educational centers which include libraries, Internet facilities, and other social
resources.
• Job providing programs and sustainable income policies are followed in the decision making process as well
as action plans.

• Housing: The concentration of social programs is on poor citizens to provide social justice.
• The city's public housing program has built one of the largest plots of available lands as the home for 50,000
poor families called Novo Bairro (New Neighborhood).
• Housing developments were made, with low fee payments every month for its inhabitants , so
they could become full owners in a long term program.
• Besides environmental benefits, money raised from selling materials goes into social programs.

• Employment: City employs the homeless and recovering addicted people in its garbage separation plants.
• Sanitation and waste management programs are developed by utilizing local prescriptions to improve
citizens’ welfare and social justice.
• From the Curitiba example it becomes clear that social, environmental and economic solutions can be
integrated with holistic approaches to promote the quality of life.