Chap 1,2,3,4. 25 July

Thermovision:
The new maintenance technology
Under the supervision:Dr. Adrian Rosca

Edited by monzer al isber
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1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THERMOVISION
1. Infrared Waves
The existence of infrared was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir Frederick William
Herschel. Curious to the thermal difference between different light colors, he directed sunlight
through a glass prism to create a spectrum and then measured the temperature of each color.
He found that the temperatures of the colors increased from the violet to the red part of
the spectrum. After noticing this pattern Herschel decided to measure the temperature just
beyond the red portion of the spectrum in a region where no sunlight was visible.
To his surprise, he found that this region had the highest temperature of all.
Infrared radiation lies between the visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The primary source of infrared radiation is heat or thermal radiation.
Any object that has a temperature above absolute zero (-273.15 degrees Celsius or 0
Kelvin) emits radiation in the infrared region.
Even objects that we think of as being very cold, such as ice cubes, emit infrared radiation.
Our eyes are detectors that are designed to detect electromagnetic radiation in the
visible light spectrum.
All other forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, are invisible to the human eye.
We experience infrared radiation every day. The heat that we feel from sunlight, a fire or
a radiator is all infrared. Although our eyes cannot see it, the nerves in our skin can feel it as
heat. The warmer the object, the more infrared radiation it emits.
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1.2. Infrared thermography

Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal imaging, and thermal video are examples of
infrared imaging science. Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 9,000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 µm) and produce images
of that radiation, called thermograms (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects above absolute zero according to the
black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to see one's environment with or
without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with
temperature; therefore, thermography allows one to see variations in temperature. When
viewed through a thermal imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler
backgrounds; humans and other warm-blooded animals become easily visible against the
environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to military and other
users of surveillance cameras (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Thermography has a long history, although its use has increased dramatically with the
commercial and industrial applications of the past fifty years. Government and airport personnel
used thermography to detect suspected swine flu cases during the 2009 pandemic. Firefighters
use thermography to see through smoke, to find persons, and to localize the base of a fire.
Maintenance technicians use thermography to locate overheating joints and sections of power
lines, which are a sign of impending failure (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Building construction technicians can see thermal signatures that indicate heat leaks in
faulty thermal insulation and can use the results to improve the efficiency of heating and air-
conditioning units (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Thermogram of a traditional building in the background
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and a "passive house" in the foreground (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography)
Some physiological changes in human beings and other warm-blooded animals can
also be monitored with thermal imaging during clinical diagnostics.
Thermogram of a cat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography)

The appearance and operation of a modern thermographic camera is often similar to a
camcorder. Often the live thermogram reveals temperature variations so clearly that a
photograph is not necessary for analysis. A recording module is therefore not always built-in.
Non-specialized CCD and CMOS sensors have most of their spectral sensitivity in the
visible light wavelength range. However by utilizing the "trailing" area of their spectral sensitivity,
namely the part of the infrared spectrum called near-infrared (NIR), and by using off-the-shelf
CCTV camera it is possible under certain circumstances to obtain true thermal images of
objects with temperatures at about 280°C and higher (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Specialized thermal imaging cameras use focal plane arrays (FPAs) that respond to
longer wavelengths (mid- and long-wavelength infrared). The most common types are InSb,
InGaAs, HgCdTe and QWIP FPA. The newest technologies use low-cost, uncooled microbolo-
meters as FPA sensors.
The most common types of thermal imaging cameras

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography)
Their resolution is considerably lower than that of optical cameras, mostly 160x120 or
320x240 pixels, up to 640x512 for the most expensive models. Thermal imaging cameras are
much more expensive than their visible-spectrum counterparts, and higher-end models are
often export-restricted due to the military uses for this technology. Older bolometers or more
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sensitive models such as InSb require cryogenic cooling, usually by a miniature Stirling cycle
refrigerator or liquid nitrogen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
1.3. Thermograms
Thermograms or thermal images, are actually visual displays of the amount of infrared
energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple sources of
the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this method.
A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing algorithms to interpret that data and
build an image. Although the image shows the viewer an approximation of the temperature at
which the object is operating, the camera is actually using multiple sources of data based on the
areas surrounding the object to determine that value rather than detecting the actual
temperature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
This phenomenon may become clearer upon consideration of the formula
Incident Energy = Emitted Energy + Transmitted Energy + Reflected Energy
where Incident Energy is the energy profile when viewed through a thermal imaging camera.
Emitted Energy is generally what is intended to be measured.
Transmitted Energy is the energy that passes through the subject from a remote thermal
source.
Reflected Energy is the amount of energy that reflects off the surface of the object from
a remote thermal source (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
1.4. Emissivity
If the object is radiating at a higher temperature than its surroundings, then power
transfer will be taking place and power will be radiating from warm to cold following the principle
stated in the Second Law of Thermodynamics. So if there is a cool area in the thermogram, that
object will be absorbing the radiation emitted by the warm object. The ability of both objects to
emit or absorb this radiation is called emissivity. Under outdoor environments, convective
cooling from wind may also need to be considered when trying to get an accurate temperature
reading (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
The thermal imaging camera would next employ a series of mathematical algorithms.
Since the camera is only able to see the electromagnetic radiation that is impossible to
detect with the human eye, it will build a picture in the viewer and record a visible picture,
usually in a JPG format (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
In order to perform the role of noncontact temperature recorder, the camera will change
the temperature of the object being viewed with its emissivity setting. Other algorithms can be
used to affect the measurement, including the transmission ability of the transmitting medium
(usually air) and the temperature of that transmitting medium. All these settings will affect the
ultimate output for the temperature of the object being viewed.
This functionality makes the thermal imaging camera an excellent tool for the mainte-
nance of electrical and mechanical systems in industry and commerce. By using the proper
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camera settings and by being careful when capturing the image, electrical systems can be
scanned and problems can be found. Faults with steam traps in steam heating systems are
easy to locate (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
In the energy savings area, the thermal imaging camera can do more. Because it can
see the radiating temperature of an object as well as what that object is radiating at, the product
of the radiation can be calculated using the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
Emissivity is a term representing a material's ability to emit thermal radiation.
Each material has a different emissivity, and it can be difficult to determine the
appropriate emissivity for a subject. A material's emissivity can range from a theoretical 0.00
(completely not-emitting) to an equally theoretical 1.00 (completely emitting); the emissivity
often varies with temperature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
An example of a substance with low emissivity would be silver, with an emissivity
coefficient of 0.02. An example of a substance with high emissivity would be asphalt, with an
emissivity coefficient of 0.98 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
A black body is a theoretical object which will radiate infrared radiation at its contact
temperature. If a thermocouple on a black body radiator reads 50 °C, the radiation the black
body will give up will also be 50 °C. Therefore a true black body will have an emissivity of 1.
Thermogram of a snake held by a human

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography)
Since there is no such thing as a perfect black body, the infrared radiation of normal
objects will appear to be less than the contact temperature. The rate (percentage) of emission
of infrared radiation will thus be a fraction of the true contact temperature. This fraction is called
emissivity (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
Some objects have different emissivities in long wave as compared to mid wave
emissions. Emissivities may also change as a function of temperature in some materials.
To make a temperature measurement of an object, the thermographer will refer to the
emissivity table to choose the emissivity value of the object, which is then entered into the
camera. The camera's algorithm will correct the temperature by using the emissivity to calculate
a temperature that more closely matches the actual contact temperature of the object.
If possible, the thermographer would try to test the emissivity of the object in question.
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This would be more accurate than attempting to determine the emissivity of the object
via a table. The usual method of testing the emissivity is to place a material of known high
emissivity in contact with the surface of the object (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
The material of known emissivity can be as complex as industrial emissivity spray which
is produced specifically for this purpose, or it can be as simple as standard black insulation
tape, emissivity 0.97. A temperature reading can then be taken of the object with the emissivity
level on the imager set to the value of the test material. This will give an accurate value of the
temperature of the object. The temperature can then be read on a part of the object not covered
with the test material. If the temperature reading is different, the emissivity level on the imager
can be adjusted until the object reads the same temperature. This will give the thermographer a
much more accurate emissivity reading. There are times, however, when an emissivity test is
not possible due to dangerous or inaccessible conditions. In these situations the thermographer
must rely on tables (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
1.5. Difference between infrared film and thermography
IR film is sensitive to infrared (IR) radiation in the 250°C to 500°C range, while the range
of thermography is approximately −50°C to over 2,000°C.
So, for an IR film to work thermographically, it must be over 250°C or be reflecting
infrared radiation from something that is at least that hot. (Usually, infrared photographic film is
used in conjunction with an IR illuminator, which is a filtered incandescent source or IR diode
illuminator, or else with an IR flash (usually a xenon flash that is IR filtered).
These correspond with "active" near-IR modes as discussed in the next section.
Night vision infrared devices image in the near-infrared, just beyond the visual spectrum,
and can see emitted or reflected near-infrared in complete visual darkness. However, again,
these are not usually used for thermography due to the high temperature requirements, but are
instead used with active near-IR sources.Starlight-type night vision devices generally only
magnify ambient light (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
1.6. Passive vs. active thermography

All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 K) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an
excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal
plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 μm) and long
(7 to 14 μm) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the
high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object
are an indication of a potential problem (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
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Thermal imaging can detect elevated body temperature, one of the signs
of the virus H1N1 -Swine influenza (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography).
In passive thermography, the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower

temperature than the background. Passive thermography has many applications such as
surveillance of people on a scene and medical diagnosis (specifically thermology).
In active thermography, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast
between the feature of interest and the background. The active approach is necessary in many
cases given that the inspected parts are usually in equilibrium with the surroundings.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography
2. CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THERMAL IMAGING CAMERA
2.1. Principle operation

Infrared energy (A) coming from an object is focused by the optics (B) onto an infrared
detector (C). The detector sends the information to sensor electronics (D) for image processing.
The electronics translate the data coming from the detector into an image (E) that can
be viewed in the viewfinder or on a standard video monitor or LCD screen.
Thermal imaging camera principle operation

(http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Infrared thermography is the art of transforming an infrared image into a radiometric one,
which allows temperature values to be read from the image. So every pixel in the radiometric
image is in fact a temperature measurement. In order to do this, complex algorithms are
incorporated into the thermal imaging camera. This makes the thermal imaging camera a
perfect tool for industrial applications (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;
www.micronix.ro).
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2.2. Considerations on technical characteristics of thermal imaging camera
2.2.1. Emissivity
Different materials have different thermal properties. It is extremely important to set the
right emissivity in the camera or the temperature measurements will be incorrect.
FLIR Systems thermal imaging cameras have predefined emissivity settings for lots of
materials, and the rest can be found in an emissivity table (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/YHG/
/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
The thermal image on the left has the right emissivity settings for human skin (0.97) and the temperature
reading shows the correct temperature (36.7 °C). For the thermal image on the right, the wrong emissivity
was entered (0.15), leading to a false temperature reading (98.3 °C)
2.2.2. Reflection
Some materials reflect thermal radiation much like a mirror reflects visible light.
One example is non-oxidized metal, especially if it is polished.
Reflections can lead to misinterpretation of the thermal image, the reflection of the
operator’s own thermal radiation might lead to a false hot spot, for instance.
The operator should therefore choose the angle at which the thermal imaging camera is
pointed at the object carefully, to avoid such reflections (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/
Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
If the object’s surface material has a low emissivity – such as the non-oxidized metal
mentioned earlier – and there is a large difference in temperature between the object and the
ambient temperature, the reflection of the ambient temperature will influence the temperature
readings from the thermal imaging camera.
To solve this problem FLIR has included the option in its thermal imaging cameras to set
the ambient temperature and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature
(www.flirmedia .com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
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These two ‘hot spots’ might look like warm areas, but this is actually cause
by reflection by non-oxidized metal surfaces. A tell-tale sign is the fact
that real hot spots usually display a smooth pattern, but reflections do not.
The fact that the ‘hot spot’ in the middle picture disappears when the location
of the thermal imaging camera is slightly altered clearly shows that this
apparent ‘hot spot’ is caused by reflection. This is another tell-tale sign.
A good method of ensuring correct emissivity and reflection settings is to use a piece of
tape with a known emissivity (usually close to 1), also called ‘calibration tape’.
This piece of tape is affixed to the object’s surface material and left there for a few
minutes, long enough for it to assume the object’s surface temperature. Using the known
emissivity the exact temperature of the tape is determined.
Because this temperature is the same as that of the surface material, the operator can
then change the emissivity settings (and the reflection settings if applicable) so that the
temperature reading is the same as the temperature reading form the calibration tape a moment
ago (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/ Brochures/ T820264;www.micronix.ro).
2.2.3. Weather conditions
Ambient temperatures can have a big influence on temperature readings. High ambient
temperatures can mask hot spots by heating the entire object, while low ambient temperatures
might cool down the hot spots to a temperature below a previously determined threshold.
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This thermal image looks quite odd, if you don’t know the circumstances under
which it was taken. The cables are not loaded at all. They are located in a warm
room and the non-oxidized metal surfaces reflect the warm ambient temperature
It goes without saying that direct sunlight can also be a strong influence, but direct
sunlight and shadows might even influence the thermal pattern on a surface many hours after the
exposure to sunlight has ended. These sunlight caused patterns should not be mixed up with
patterns generated by heat transfer (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/ Brochures/ T820264;
www.micronix.ro).
Another weather factor to be taken into account is wind. Airflows cool down the surface
material, lowering the temperature differences between hot and cold areas.
Another obvious factor that can render thermal imaging inspection useless is rain, it
cools down the surface material. Even after the rain has stopped the evaporation of the water cools
down the surface material. Obviously this can lead to misleading thermal patterns.
2.2.4. Heating and ventilation systems
External influences on surface temperatures can also be found indoors.
Ambient temperature can influence the object surface temperature, but there’s another
factor as well: climate control (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264).
Heating systems create temperature differences that can cause misleading thermal
patterns. Cool air flows from ventilators or air conditioning systems can have the opposite effect,
cooling down surface material while the components below the surface are hot, which may
cause potential defects to remain undetected (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures
/T820264;www.micronix.ro).
2.3. Camera functions

2.3.1. Resolution
With a higher resolution camera is covered a larger object with only one image.
With lower resolution more images are needed to cover the same area with the same
level of detail.
With a 640 x 480 pixel camera equipped with at 45 degree lens, an area of about 4 m x
3 m can be inspected at 5 meter distance with only one image.
To inspect the same installation with a 320 x 240 camera, also with a 45 degree lens,
four images on half the distance are required.
Not only does this increase the efficiency in the field, a lower amount images taken in
the field also saves time in the documentation phase (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/
Brochures/ T820264;www.micronix.ro).
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Better image resolution also means greater measurement accuracy.
The 640 x 480 pixels thermal image on the left shows a temperature of 63.9°C
while the 320 x 240 pixels thermal image on the right indicates 42.7°C
2.3.2. Thermal Sensitivity

Thermal sensitivity describes how small a temperature difference the camera can detect.
The better the thermal sensitivity, the smaller the minimum temperature difference the
thermal imaging camera can pick up and visualize.
Usually the thermal sensitivity is described in °C or mK. The most advanced thermal
imaging cameras for industrial applications will have a thermal sensitivity of 0.03°C (30 mK).
Being able to detect these minute temperature differences is important in most thermal
imaging applications. High camera sensitivity is particularly important for industrial applications
where temperature differences are low. These small temperature differences can be crucial
information both for diagnosing the problem and for planning further actions (www.flirmedia.com
/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
2.3.3. Accuracy
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All measurements are susceptible to error, and unfortunately thermal imaging temperature
measurements are no exception. This is where the thermal imaging accuracy comes into play.
In thermal imaging fact sheets the accuracy is expressed both in percentages and degrees
Celsius. This is the margin of error within which the camera will operate.
The measured temperature might vary from the actual temperature with either the mentioned
percentage or absolute temperature, whichever is bigger.
The current industry standard for accuracy is ±2% / ±2°C. The more advanced thermal
imaging cameras from FLIR Systems score even better: ±1% / ±1°C (http://www.flirmedia.com/
MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
2.3.4. Emissivity and reflection
As discussed in the previous chapter, the emissivity of the object is a very important
parameter that has to be taken into account.
All FLIR thermal imaging cameras for industrial applications allow the operator to set the
emissivity and reflection. Being able to set the parameters emissivity and reflection makes a
huge difference. When buying a thermal imaging camera you should make sure that these
functions are included in the design (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;
www.micronix.ro).
2.3.5. Manual span and level correction
Another important camera feature is the option to manually set the span and level of the
displayed thermal images. Without this feature, the camera will automatically detect the maximum
temperature and minimum temperature of the entire scene and display all the temperatures within
that range. But sometimes the operator is only interested in a small part of that temperature scale.
To name an example: an operator is inspecting the transmission lines along a utility pole
on a cold day. When the camera is in the automatic mode, it will display all temperatures from
the cold air (let’s say 8°C for example) to the warmest temperature of the transmission line (let’s
say 51°C) (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
In this image the entire utility pole will show up on the thermal image as a monochrome
warm area. If the minimum temperature is raised from 8°C to 24°C, however, suddenly all the
temperature differences between the different components become visible in the thermal image,
allowing the operator to better spot the overheated connector (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/ THG/
Brochures /T820264; www.micronix.ro).
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Two versions of the same image: auto adjusted (left) and thermally tuned
on the component (right). The span of the auto-adjusted image is too wide.
2.3.6. Digital camera

Sometimes it can be very difficult to see what components are shown in a thermal image,
especially in complicated situations with a lot of components shown in one image, or when you
are taking close up pictures. In such cases it can help a great deal if you also take a visible light
picture of the subject to help you locate the components in the thermal image. To that end most
of FLIR’s thermal imaging cameras for industrial applications have a built in digital camera.
Most predictive maintenance professionals that use thermal imaging cameras claim that
they always take a visible light picture as well, to make sure that they know what is shown in the
thermal image. (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Thermal image Visual image

2.3.7. LED lights

Even though a thermal imaging camera needs no light whatsoever to produce crisp thermal
images, it is still advisable to choose a camera with a built-in light. Having a light in your camera
ensures that the built in digital visual light camera will be able to produce the clear pictures you
need to make the most of the Picture in Picture and Thermal Fusion features, regardless of the
lighting conditions (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
Both of these images have been taken with the built in visual camera of a
FLIR thermal imaging camera. The photo on the right is taken with the built in lights switched on.
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Picture-in-Picture allows a clear overview of these high voltage installations.
Thermal image Visual image Thermal Fusion Image

Thermal image Visual image Thermal Fusion Image

2.3.8. Interchangeable lenses

Once you start using a thermal imaging camera and discover all its possibilities your needs
might change. Interchangeable lenses can help you to adapt your thermal imaging camera to every
situation. For most applications the standard lens might be the best solution but sometimes you
simply need a different field of view. In some cases there isn’t enough room to step back and
see the whole picture. A wide angle lens can be the perfect solution. It is ideal for wide or tall
targets such as electrical panels or paper machinery. When the target in question is a bit farther
away it may be useful to use a telephoto lens. They are ideal for small or distant targets such as
overhead power lines. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Telephoto lenses offer a detailed view of the object and accurate measurement
15
FLIR thermal imaging cameras

References
http://www.flirmedia.com/ MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264
www.micronix.ro
3. CONSIDERATION CONCERNING THERMOVISION APPLICATIONS

3.1. General considerations concerning thermovision applications
- Condition monitoring
- Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care
- Medical imaging
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- Breast thermography: tele-thermography (medical), contact thermography and dynamic
angiothermography
- Peripheral vascular disease screening
- Neuromusculoskeletal disorder
- Extracranial cerebral and facial vascular disease
- Thyroid gland abnormalities
- Various other neoplastic, metabolic, and inflammatory conditions
- Archaeological Kite Aerial Thermography: Kite_aerial_photography
- Thermology
- Veterinary Thermal Imaging
- Night vision
- UAV Surveillance
- Stereo vision
- Research
- Process control
- Nondestructive testing
- Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence
- Chemical imaging
- Volcanology
- Building
3.2. Advantages of thermography
- It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared
- It is capable of catching moving targets in real time
- It is able to find deteriorating, i.e., higher temperature components prior to their failure
- It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods
- It is a non-destructive test method
- It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes, and other metal or plastic parts
- It can be used to detect objects in dark areas
- It has some medical application, essentially in kinesiotherapy
3.3. Limitations and disadvantages of thermography

- Quality cameras often have a high price range (often US$ 3,000 or more), cheaper are
only 40x40 up to 120x120 pixels
- Images can be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects,
specifically objects with erratic temperatures, although this problem is reduced in active
thermal imaging
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- Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and
reflections from other surfaces
- Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse in measurement of temperature and are
not as accurate as contact methods
- Only able to directly detect surface temperatures
- Condition of work, depending of the case, can be drastic: 10°C of difference between
internal/external, 10km/h of wind maximum, no direct sun, no recent rain.
3.4. Thermovision applications for electromechanics transmissions operation
3.4.1. Thermovision applications for electrical systems
Thermal imaging cameras are commonly used for inspections of electrical systems and
components in all sizes and shapes. The multitude of possible applications for thermal imaging
cameras within the range of electrical systems can be divided into two categories: high voltage and
low voltage installations (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
3.4.1.1. Thermovision applications for high voltage installations
Heat is an important factor in high voltage installations. When electrical current passes
through a resistive element, it generates heat. An increased resistance results in an increase in
heat. Over time the resistance of electrical connections will increase, due to loosening and
corrosion for instance. The corresponding rise in temperature can cause components to fail,
resulting in unplanned outages and even injuries. In addition, the energy spent on generating heat
causes unnecessary energy losses. If left unchecked, the heat can even rise to the point where
connections melt and break down; as a result, fires may break out (www.flirmedia.com/MMC
/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Examples of failures in high-voltage installations that can be detected with thermal imaging
(http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro):
- Oxidation of high voltage switches
- Overheated connections
- Incorrectly secured connections
- Insulator defects
These and other issues can be spotted at an early stage with a thermal imaging camera.
A thermal imaging camera will help you to accurately locate the problem, determine the severity
of the problem, and establish the time frame in which the equipment should be repaired.
A wide view of a substation can quickly show areas where unwanted high resistance connections exist.
No other predictive maintenance technology is as effective for electrical inspections as thermal imaging.
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One of the many advantages of thermal imaging is the ability to perform inspections while
electrical systems are under load. Since thermal imaging is a non-contact diagnostic method, a
thermographer can quickly scan a particular piece of equipment from a safe distance, leave the
hazardous area, return to his office and analyze the data without ever putting himself in harm’s
way. Due to the fact that FLIR’s thermal imaging cameras for industrial applications are all
handheld and battery operated, they can also be used for outdoor inspections: high voltage
substations, switchgear, transformers, and outdoor circuit breakers can be inspected quickly
and efficiently with a thermal imaging camera from FLIR Systems (http://www.flirmedia.com/
MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Thermal imaging cameras allow you to inspect high voltage

installations from a safe distance, increasing worker safety.
Continuity is very important to utilities since many people rely on their services. Therefore
thermal imaging inspections have become the core of utility predictive maintenance programs
throughout the world. FLIR can provide the most advanced thermal imaging solutions to support
monitoring programs that keep the vital electrical power grid up and running (www.flirmedia.
com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
Thermal Fusion image Visual image Thermal image
The inspection of a substation reveals overheated components.

3.4.1.2. Thermovision applications for low voltage installations

Thermal imaging cameras are used for inspections of electrical systems and components
in all sizes and shapes and their use is by no means limited to large high voltage applications
alone. Electrical cabinets and motor control centers are regularly scanned with a thermal
imaging camera. If left unchecked, heat can rise to a point that connections melt and break
down; as a result, fires may break out. Besides loose connections, electrical systems suffer
from load imbalances, corrosion, and increases in impedance to current. Thermal inspections
can quickly locate hot spots, determine the severity of the problem, and help establish the time
frame in which the equipment should be repaired.
Examples of failures in low voltage equipment that can be detected with thermal imaging:
19
High resistance connections; Corroded connections; Internal fuse damage; Internal circuit breaker
faults; Poor connections and internal damage.
This will help to prevent costly damages and to avoid dangerous situations
(http://www.flirmedia .com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;www.micronix.ro).
Overheated connection Overheated connection

This thermal image shows that the load is not distributed evenly among the fuse boxes.
Whether you intend to use thermal imaging cameras for low voltage inspections in production
plants, office facilities, hospitals, hotels or domestic residences, FLIR Systems has exactly the
right thermal imaging camera for the job.
This thermal fusion image shows an overheated connector.

The fuses that show up in the thermal image are overloaded and need to be replaced.
The hotspot indicates a short circuit that can potentially start a fire.
20
The hotspot indicates a short circuit that can potentially start a fire.
3.4.1.3. Thermovision applications for electrical motors

Motors can also be inspected with a thermal imaging camera. Motor failures like brush contact
- wear and armature shorts typically produce excess heat prior to failure but remain undetected with
vibration analysis, since it often causes little to no extra vibration. Thermal imaging gives a full
overview and allows you to compare the temperature of different motors.
Examples of electromechanical faults that can be detected with thermal imaging for
electrical motors: Lubrication issues; Misalignments; Overheated motors; Overheated motor
axles; Hot bearings (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;www.micronix.ro).
This will help to prevent costly damages and to ensure the continuity of production.
This thermal image shows an electric engine under normal operation.

3.4.2. Thermovision applications for mechanical installations

In many industries, mechanical systems serve as the backbone of operations.
Thermal data collected with a thermal imaging camera can be an invaluable source of
complimentary information to vibration studies in mechanical equipment monitoring.
Mechanical systems will heat up if there is a misalignment at some point in the system.
(http:/www.flirmedia. com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;www.micronix.ro)
Conveyor belts are a good example. If a roller is worn out, it will clearly show in the thermal
image so that it can be replaced.
Typically, when mechanical components become worn and less efficient, the heat
dissipated will increase. Consequently, the temperature of faulty equipment or systems will increase
rapidly before failure.
By periodically comparing readings from a thermal imaging camera with a machine’s
temperature signature under normal operating conditions, you can detect a multitude of different
failures. (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
21
Other mechanical systems monitored with thermal imaging cameras include couplings,
gearboxes, bearings, pumps, compressors, belts, blowers and conveyor systems.
Suspected roller Overheated bearing

3.4.3. Thermovision applications for pipeline testing

For pipelines carrying fluids at temperatures above or below the ambient ground
temperatures (i.e., steam, oil, liquefied gases, or chemicals), an alternative is to use the heat
sinking ability of the earth to draw heat from the pipeline under test. The crucial point to
remember is that the energy must be flowing through the ground and fluids (www.flirmedia.com/
MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro).
Ground cover must be evaluated for temperature differentials (i.e., anomalies such as
high grass or surface debris), as to how it may affect the surface condition of the test area. Of
the three methods of energy transfer, radiation is the method that has the most profound effect
upon the ability of the surface to transfer energy. The ability of a material to radiate energy is
measured by the emissivity of the material. This is defined as the ability of the material to release
energy as compared to a perfect blackbody radiator. This is strictly a surface property. It normally
exhibits itself in higher values for rough surfaces and lower values for smooth surfaces. For
example, rough concrete may have an emissivity of 0.95 while a shiny piece of tinfoil may have
an emissivity of only 0.05. In practical terms, this means that when looking at large areas of
ground cover, the engineer in charge of testing must be aware of differing surface textures
caused by such things as broom roughed spots, tire rubber tracks, oil spots, loose sand and dirt
on the surface and the height of grassy areas. (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/ Brochures/
T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Thermal imaging gives valuable information about the condition of pipe, tube and valve
insulation. Inspecting the condition of the insulation material surrounding the pipework can be
crucial. Heat losses due to failing insulation will show up very clearly in the thermal image,
allowing you to quickly repair the lacking insulation and prevent significant energy losses or
other damages. (http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Process valves are another good example of pipework related equipment that is often
inspected with thermal imaging cameras. Besides leakage detection a thermal imaging camera
can also be used to determine whether the valve is opened or closed, even from a distance.
Examples of pipework faults that can be detected with thermal imaging are: Leakage in
pumps, pipes and valves; Insulation breakdowns; Pipe blockage.
22
All types of leakage, blocked pipes and faulty insulation will clearly show up in the thermal
image. And because a thermal image can quickly give you an overview of an entire installation,
there is no need to check each pipe individually (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/ Brochures/
T820264; www.micronix.ro).
Insulation damage Heat leakage in a steam installation

due to insufficient insulation.
3.5. International reglementations for infrared thermal testing

Infrared Thermography testing is one of many Nondestructive testing techniques
designated by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT):
- Infrared Thermography is the science of measuring and mapping surface temperatures.
- Infrared thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing technique, has proved to be
an effective, convenient, and economical method of testing concrete. It can detect internal voids,
delaminations, and cracks in concrete structures such as bridge decks, highway pavements,
garage floors, parking lot pavements, and building walls. As a testing technique, some of its most
important qualities are that it is accurate; it is repeatable; it need not inconvenience the public;
and it is economical. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
According International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Infrared Thermography is
reglementated by the following standars (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;
www.micronix.ro):
- ISO 6781, Thermal insulation - Qualitative detection of thermal irregularities in building
envelopes - Infrared method
- ISO 18434-1, Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Thermography - Part 1:
General procedures
- ISO 18436-7, Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Requirements for
qualification and assessment of personnel - Part 7: Thermography
- E1256-11a Standard Test Methods for Radiation Thermometers (Single Waveband
Type). This standard contains test methods for the following areas: Calibration accuracy test
method; Repeatability test method; Target size test method; Response time test method; Warm-
up time test method; Long-term drift test method.
- E2758-10 Standard Guide for Selection and Use of Wideband, Low Temperature
Infrared Thermometers
23
- E2847-11 Standard Practice for Calibration and Accuracy Verification of Wideband
Infrared Thermometers.
3.6. Thermovision applications for predictive maintenance

To evaluate equipment condition, predictive maintenance utilizes nondestructive testing
technologies such as infrared, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), corona detection,
vibration analysis, sound level measurements, oil analysis, and other specific online tests.
New methods in this area are to utilize measurements on the actual equipment in
combination with measurement of process performance, measured by other devices, to trigger
maintenance conditions. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
This is primarily available in Collaborative Process Automation Systems (CPAS). Site
measurements are often supported by wireless sensor networks to reduce the wiring cost.
Vibration analysis is most productive on high-speed rotating equipment and can be the
most expensive component of a PdM program to get up and running. Vibration analysis, when
properly done, allows the user to evaluate the condition of equipment and avoid failures.
The latest generation of vibration analyzers comprises more capabilities and automated
functions than its predecessors. Many units display the full vibration spectrum of three axes
simultaneously, providing a snapshot of what is going on with a particular machine. But despite
such capabilities, not even the most sophisticated equipment successfully predicts developing
problems unless the operator understands and applies the basics of vibration analysis.
Acoustical analysis can be done on a sonic or ultrasonic level. New ultrasonic techniques
for condition monitoring make it possible to “hear” friction and stress in rotating machinery, which
can predict deterioration earlier than conventional techniques.
Ultrasonic technology is sensitive to high-frequency sounds that are inaudible to the
human ear and distinguishes them from lower-frequency sounds and mechanical vibration.
Machine friction and stress waves produce distinctive sounds in the upper ultrasonic range.
Changes in these friction and stress waves can suggest deteriorating conditions much earlier
than technologies such as vibration or oil analysis. With proper ultrasonic measurement and
analysis, it’s possible to differentiate normal wear from abnormal wear, physical damage,
imbalance conditions, and lubrication problems based on a direct relationship between asset
and operating conditions. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Sonic monitoring equipment is less expensive, but it also has fewer uses than ultrasonic
technologies. Sonic technology is useful only on mechanical equipment, while ultrasonic
equipment can detect electrical problems and is more flexible and reliable in detecting mechanical
problems. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
Infrared monitoring and analysis has the widest range of application (from high- to low-
speed equipment), and it can be effective for spotting both mechanical and electrical failures;
some consider it to currently be the most cost-effective technology.
24
Predictive maintenance (PdM) techniques help determine the condition of in-service
equipment in order to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers
cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance, because tasks are performed
only when warranted. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264; www.micronix.ro)
The main value of Predicted Maintenance is to allow convenient scheduling of corrective
maintenance, and to prevent unexpected equipment failures. The key is "the right information in
the right time". By knowing which equipment needs maintenance, maintenance work can be
better planned (spare parts, people etc.) and what would have been "unplanned stops" are
transformed to shorter and fewer "planned stops", thus increasing plant availability. Other
advantages include increased equipment lifetime, increased plant safety, fewer accidents with
negative impact on environment, and optimised spare parts handling.
PdM, or condition-based maintenance, attempts to evaluate the condition of equipment
by performing periodic or continuous (online) equipment condition monitoring.
The ultimate goal of PdM is to perform maintenance at a scheduled point in time when
the maintenance activity is most cost-effective and before the equipment loses performance
within a threshold. This is in contrast to time-and/or operation count-based maintenance, where
a piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not.
Time-based maintenance is labor intensive, ineffective in identifying problems that develop
between scheduled inspections, and is not cost-effective.
The "predictive" component of predictive maintenance stems from the goal of predicting
the future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of statistical process
control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities will be appropriate.
Most PdM inspections are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing
disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of PdM can result in substantial cost savings
and higher system reliability. Reliability-centered maintenance, or RCM, emphasizes the use of
predictive maintenance (PdM) techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures.
When properly implemented, RCM provides companies with a tool for achieving lowest
asset Net Present Costs (NPC) for a given level of performance and risk.
One area that many times is overlooked is how to, in an efficient way, transfer the PdM
data to a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) system so that the
equipment condition data is sent to the right equipment object in the CMMS system in order to
trigger maintenance planning, execution and reporting.
Unless this is achieved, the PdM solution is of limited value, at least if the PdM solution
is implemented on a medium to large size plant with tens of thousands pieces of equipment.
In 2010, the mining company Boliden, as a first, implemented a combined Distributed
Control System (DCS) and Pdm solution integrated with the plant CMMS system on an object to
object level, transferring equipment data using protocols like Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer Protocol (HART), IEC61850 and OLE for process control (OPC).
25
Proactive maintenance is a Preventive maintenance strategy for stabilizing the reliability
of machines or equipment. It is basically a program designed to keep equipment serviced and in
proper working order, normally in two parts: - Preventive maintenance; - Predictive maintenance.
A proactive maintenance plan gives a company the ability to prolong the life of machinery
and prevent a complete and unexpected breakdown of production facility.
A proactive maintenance plan allows an organization to schedule production shutdowns
for repairs, inspection and maintenance. (www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264;
www.micronix.ro)
References
www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T820264
www.micronix.ro)
4. PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH RESULTS CONCERNING

THE THERMOVISION APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITES
4.1. THERMOVISION - A RELIABLE METHOD TO PREVENT

FIRE HAZARD IN FLOUR MILLING INDUSTRY
Introduction
International standards for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the
Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids (Eckhoff, 2003;
Hatwig & Steen, 2004) contain comprehensive guidance on the control of dusts to prevent
explosions, that recommend: minimize the escape of dust from process equipment or ventilation
systems; use dust collection systems and filters; utilize surfaces that minimize dust
26
accumulation and facilitate cleaning; inspect for dust residues in open and hidden areas, at
regular intervals; clean dust residues at regular intervals; use cleaning methods that do not
generate dust clouds (approved vacuum cleaners), if ignition sources are present; locate relief
valves away from dust hazard areas; develop and implement a hazardous dust inspection,
testing, and control program with established frequency and methods.
The vast majority of natural and synthetic organic materials, as well as some metals, can
form combustible dust. International Industrial Fire Hazards standards (Hatwig & Steen, 2004)
state that "any industrial process that reduces a combustible material and some normally
noncombustible materials to a finely divided state present a potential for a serious fire or
explosion." A combustible dust explosion hazard may exist in a variety of industries, including:
food (dust cloud such as grain, flour, sugar, pollen, powdered milk), plastics, wood, rubber,
furniture, textiles, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, dyes, coal, metals (e.g., aluminum, chromium, iron,
magnesium, and zinc), and fossil fuel power generation (Eckhoff, 2003; Hatwig & Steen, 2004).
There are four necessary conditions for a dust explosion or deflagration: a combustible dust;
the dust is suspended in the air at a high concentration; there is an oxidant (typically atmospheric
oxygen); there is an ignition source. To support combustion, the dust must also consist of very small
particles with a high surface area to volume ratio, thereby making the collective or combined surface
area of all the particles very large in comparison to a dust of larger particles.
Combustible dust is defined by international standards for Combustible Metals, Metal Powders,
and Metal Dusts as: "Any finely divided solid material that is 420 microns or smaller in diameter and
presents a fire or explosion hazard when dispersed and ignited in air".
Below a certain value (LEL - the lower explosive limit), there is insufficient dust to
support the combustion at the rate required for an explosion. A figure 20% lower than the LEL is
considered safe. Similarly, if the fuel/air ratio increases above the upper explosive limit there is
insufficient oxidant to permit combustion to continue at the necessary rate. Dusts have a very
large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the surface of a
solid or liquid, where it can react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more flammable
than bulk materials. For example, a 1 kg sphere of a material with a density of 1g/cm 3 would be
about 27cm across and have a surface area of 0,3m 2. However, if it was broken up into
spherical dust particles 50µm in diameter (about the size of flour particles) it would have a
surface area of 1600m2. This greatly increased surface area allows the material to burn much
faster, and the extremely small mass of each particle allows it to catch on fire with much less
energy than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to conduction within the material. When
this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse, a silo
or flour milling house, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to
demolish the structure (Hatwig & Steen, 2004; Salas-Bringas et al, 2007).
In agriculture and food industry the dust can arise from activities such as transporting
grain and indeed grain silos do regularly have explosions. Flour mills likewise have large amounts
27
of flour dust as a result of milling. Some devastating and fatal explosions have occurred at flour
mills (including an explosion) and a series of devastating grain dust explosions in grain elevators
left many people dead and injured (Eckhoff, 2003).
Material and method
International general standards for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in
Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities, and specific standards for Grain Handling Facilities,
and for Explosion Prevention Systems recommend the temperature measure with thermocouples
or other temperature sensors, and for online applications in the latest versions are recommend
non-contact and rapid method as Thermovision (Eckhoff, 2003; Hatwig & Steen, 2004).
Infrared cameras are the ideal solution for assuring that temperature tolerances are
maintained throughout all of the equipments operations, and in addition, can instantly reveal the
operation condition of electrical components and machines’ elements in the factory, warehouse,
retail stores and refrigerator trailers (Rosca, 2010). In order to perform the interdisciplinary
studies concerning the influence of low vacuum processing on non – thermic preservation of
orange fruit high, in the Unconventional Technologies and Equipment for Agro-Food Industry
Laboratory within Faculty of Horticulture in Craiova, a FLIR Infrared Thermovision Camera that
can detect temperature differences as small as 0,1oC was used (Rosca & Rosca, 2010).
In the last time, this camera was also used for temperature control in vegetable
cropping, in fruits preservation in deposits, and in smoked Kaiser type product made by
intensive vacuum process.
Flour milling is a mechanical manufacturing process which produces flour from wheat
through comprehensive stages of grinding and separation. Gluten is the natural protein material
which gives wheaten flour ability to make leavened bread and baked products, but during milling
process must prevent water absorption in gluten. Therefore during the grinding, the operation
temperature in all the milling process must not exceed 45 oC. To prevent the overheating during the
grinding process there are made rollers mill equipped with internal water cooling system.
The quality of the roller mill is of decisive importance to the efficiency of the mill and
must create the optimal conditions in grain milling process for product quality. During grinding,
as a result of breaking grains between the rollers mill, the milling process develops heat or over
heat which generally adversely affect the process. Poor roller mills distance alignment (incorrect
grinding gap setting) requires static and dynamic balance measurements using a specialist
shaft alignment system.
The paper presents examples of the defects that can be identified by using T200 Flir
Thermovision camera as predictive maintenance method to prevent fire or explosion hazard
during flour milling process in a food industry small enterprise.
Results and discussions
The small enterprise flour milling is put in centralized operation by a Diesel motor, and
then by many belts transmissions. In figure 1 is presented the Diesel motor at 20 minute after
28
starting the flour milling process. It is observed that the gases evacuation gallery was fast
increased up to 272oC (in the spot).
Due to high concentration of combustible dust suspended in the air, this temperature can
determine fire hazard. To prevent fire hazard thermal isolation multilayer mineral basaltic wool
was fitted around the gases evacuation gallery, which caused the temperature decrease up to
80oC during operation.
In figure 2 is presented low quality maintenance example for a belt transmission (rubber
and fiberglass insertion) that drive one of the roller mill. It can be observed the overheating of
the belt up to 81,1oC (maximum temperature in the thermal image) caused by poor alignment of
the transmission wheels (in the figure, on the belt’s width can be observed the temperature
distribution from 61oC to 81,1oC).
Figure 1. Diesel motor overheated up to 272oC Figure 2. Belt transmission overheated up to 81,1oC
In figures 3 and 4 is presented a roller mill (with no internal water cooling system) with low
quality maintenance that cause fast increasing of the temperature more then 45oC during operation.
In these figures is observed the fast temperature increase of milling process up to 72,2oC (in
the squared thermal image of Figure 3), and after just 1 minute, the temperature increase at
maximum average up to 76oC (in the squared thermal image of Figure 4).
These thermal images were compared with a thermal image of a similar flour process that
reveals normal operation temperature at 30,7 oC (maximum temperature in entire thermal image in
figure 5).
Figure 3. Roller mill in overheat operation at Figure 4. Roller mill in overheat operation at
72,2oC temperature 76oC temperature
29
Figure 5. Roller mill in normal operation temperature
According to international general standards for the Prevention of Fires and Dust
Explosions in Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities, to prevent fire hazard in flour milling
process, the operation temperature must not exceed 80oC.
Due to the Thermovision predictive maintenance, the milling process described in figures
3 and 4 was proposed to be stopped. During maintenance activity it was observed an important
wear rate of both rollers mill caused by broken and high grade deformation of the rollers’ riffle
teeth. Therefore it was supposed high averages of accidental radial and tangential forces that
caused broken and high grade deformation of the rollers’ riffle teeth could produced high wear
rate deformation of the sliding bearing.
A thermal imaging analyze revealed the intense overheat of the sliding bearing nearby
the side with high grade deformation rollers’ riffle teeth.
Due to this intense overheat of the sliding bearing, sequential Thermovision monitoring
was performed; during this Thermovision monitoring a fast increase of the sliding bearing’
temperature was observed: after 30 min from the starting of milling process the maximum
temperature in thermal image was 139 oC (figure 6), and then after just 30 min the maximum
temperature increased up to 151oC (figure 7).
Due to these Thermovision monitoring results, the flour milling process was proposed to
be stopped.
During the mechanical evaluation it was observed a very high ware rate of the sliding
bearing, therefore this machine element was replaced with a new one.
After 30 min from the flour milling process start, the Thermovision monitoring revealed a
proper temperature at about 48,5oC (in figure 8, maximum temperature in entire thermal image).
30
Figure 6. Sliding bearing overheated at 139oC Figure 7. Sliding bearing overheated at 151oC
.
Figure 8. Sliding bearing in proper operation 48,5oC
Reference
Roşca Daniela, Roşca A. - Thermovision - A Reliable Method To Prevent Fire Hazard in
Flour Milling Industry, Annales of the University of Craiova, Biology, Horticulture, Food produce
processing technology, Environmental engineering Series, vol. XLI (LII) 2011, Universitaria
Publishing House Craiova, pp. 368-373, ISSN 1453-1275.
4.2. THERMOVISION PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

FOR LARGE CAPACITY MILLING PROCESS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Material and method

The food industry must maintain tight control of food temperatures during the transportation
of perishable food materials, during preparation and processing, and all the way through storage in
wholesale and retail environments (Vadivambal & Jayas, 2011).
Infrared thermography can instantly reveal the condition of electrical and mechanical
systems in the factory: retail refrigerator stores, vacuum or cooking vessels, ovens, heat
exchangers, compressors, motors and electrical connections (Rosca & Rosca, 2009).
In order to perform the interdisciplinary studies concerning the influence of low vacuum
processing on non – thermic preservation of orange fruit high, in the Unconventional Technologies
and Equipment for Agro-Food Industry Laboratory within Faculty of Horticulture in Craiova, a FLIR
infrared thermovision camera that can detect temperature differences as small as 0,1oC was used
(Rosca & Rosca, 2010).
31
In order to apply thermovision predictive maintenance for large capacity milling process
in food industry, T200 FLIR infrared thermovision camera was used.
Results and discussions
Thermovision predictive maintenance for electrical systems
The use of proper electrical equipment in hazardous locations is crucial to eliminating a
common ignition source. The classification of areas requiring special electrical equipment is
discussed in the Facility Dust Hazard Assessment section in international and national standards.
Once these areas have been identified, special Class II wiring methods and equipment (dust
hazards such as "dust ignition-proof" and "dust-tight") must be used.
In milling process in food industry all the international norms recommend to operate with
explosion proof enclosure electric motors special designed to withstand an explosion of a specified
air/fine dust combination that may occur within it and to prevent the ignition surrounding the
enclosure. It must operate at a temperature that prevents the surrounding flammable atmosphere
from being ignited.
Due to the specific operation conditions in milling process in food industry, the international
norms recommend totally enclosed fan - cooled electric motor, insulation class F (allowable
temperature rise up to 105oC for motors’ insulation).
In grains milling are used centrifugal cyclones, each one being provided with a
proportioning discharge dozing device that are rotated by an electro-mechanical equipment
composed in a single stage gear box direct connected to an electric motor. In figure 1 is
presented the thermal image of 2 a.c. motors with proper thermal operation: 43,8oC in the spot,
and maximum temperature 48,1oC in the entire thermal image.
In figure 3 is presented the thermal image of a motor in abnormal thermal operation of
90,2oC in the entire thermal image.
To prevent the excessive motor heating up to hazard duty, the electro-mechanical
equipment was necessary to be stopped. It was observed that two cable connections were hotter
than normal due to incorrect screws tithing, which caused consequently the overheat of motor’
stator that determined the excessive temperature in bearing case in torque end shaft.
Fig. 1. Motors with proper thermal operation: 43,8 oC / 48,1oC
32
Fig. 2. Motor with abnormal thermal operation: 90,1 oC
This excessive temperature in the bearing caused the grease loosing that can conduct to
another overheating of the bearing and the shaft where is fitted. In the same time, due to the
excessive temperature above described, occurred irreversible damage of simmering seal system
of the gear box, which determined the overheating of all internal mechanical elements (gear teeth,
bearings) of the gear box.
Reference
Roşca Daniela, Roşca A. - Thermovision Predictive Maintenance for Large Capacity
Milling Process in Food Industry, Annals of DAAAM for 2011 & Proceedings of the 22nd
International DAAAM Symposium, Editor B[ranko] Katalinic, Published by DAAAM International,
Vienna, Austria 2011, pp. 1407-1408, ISBN 978-3- 901509-83-4, ISSN 1726-9679.
Field training companies

I use the information above in my training at 4 companies 10 days each from 09:00 till 04:00
(Cummins-Popeci-Reloc-Electroputere) and i will give a summery about those companies:
Power Generation
Our world depends on reliable power for just about everything: for day-to-day living, for
travel and leisure activities, for manufacturing and commerce, and for essential, life-
saving services. For over 90 years, Cummins Power Generation has been supplying all
33
kinds of reliable power for customers around the world. Homes, boats and RVs use our
generators. Providers of essential services like hospitals, data centers and public safety
agencies rely on our emergency standby power systems to keep functioning during a
power outage. Businesses interested in distributed power use our systems to reduce
costs and save energy with prime or peaking power applications or cogeneration.
Organizations wanting to reduce emissions install our systems to generate electricity
from lean-burn natural gas, methane, biofuels, and other alternative and renewable
energy sources. We invite you to explore the possibilities of our reliable power solutions.
Cummins Power Generation develops, designs, builds and supports complete power
generation systems using components from one company — ours. You benefit from
reliable, fuel-efficient product designs that make better use of space and provide
seamless functionality. You also have one source for accountability, service and
support. That’s what we call The Power of One.
Reference: Powering your world
34
A global power leader, is a corporation of complementary business units that design,
manufacture, distribute and service engines and related technologies, including fuel
systems, controls, air handling, filtration, emission solutions and electrical power
generation systems. Headquartered in Columbus, Indiana, (USA) Cummins employs
approximately 46,000 people worldwide and serves customers in approximately 190
countries and territories through a network of more than 600 company-owned and
independent distributor locations and approximately 6,500 dealer locations. Cummins
earned $1.66 billion on sales of $17.3 billion in 2012.
Engines running on 100% biodiesel.
In briefing Cummins Power Generator is composed of Integrated Customer Solutions:
i. Generator Technologies
ii. Fuel System
iii. Filtration
iv. Emission Solutions
v. Turbo Technologies
Reference: Cummins Power Generation Products Overview
Cummins complementary business units design, manufacture, distribute and service

engines and related technologies, including fuel systems, controls, air handling,
filtration, emission solutions and electrical power generation systems , and concerning
the engines 'different types some coefficient that should presented.
Cummins Engine Information
Clean, efficient, dependable and durable, Cummins engines are found in nearly every
type of vehicle and equipment on earth -- from emergency vehicles to 18-wheelers,
berry pickers to 360-ton mining haul trucks. You'll also find us everywhere there's water,
with a full line of recreational and commercial marine diesels. And every Cummins
engine is backed by Cummins Genuine Parts and Service, providing total customer
support from over 5,500 worldwide locations every hour and every minute of every day.
Cummins designs:
Develops, manufactures and supports every component from air handling to the
exhaust aftertreatment as a totally integrated system – so we can optimize every
function better than other engine manufacturers. Key components include:
35
 VGT™ Turbocharger from Cummins Turbo Technologies, the industry leader for
performance.
 XPI fuel system (ISX15, ISX12, ISL9) and the High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) fuel
system (ISB6.7), for superior performance at any engine rpm.
 Cooled-EGR subsystem for reduced emissions.
 Cummins Aftertreatment System with Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and proven
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology.
 Fleetguard® fuel filters and lube filters from Cummins Filtration, for protection against
corrosion and contaminants.
Reference:
EveryTM Step Ahead.
Cummins 2013 On-Highway Engines.\\in document names: cummins1
OUR PRODUCTS:

Cummins Generator Technologies offer premium quality ac generators in the range 2.7 to over
20,000 kVA. Our family of brands - MARKON, STAMFORD and AvK are known for their robust build
reliable performance and versatile configurations.
2-pole low voltage ac generators in the range

2.7 kVA to 9.3 kVA.

2, 4 and 6-pole low voltage ac generators in

the range 4.1 kVA to 5,520 kVA.

4 to 10-pole low, medium and high voltage ac

generators in the range 600 kVA to over
20,000 kVA.
36
........................................................................................................................
37
-POPECI-
History
Located in the industrial platform in the east of Craiova, with possibilities not only for the
road and railway transport, but the naval also , POPECI UTILAJ GREU is the ideal
partner for realization of complex products of big dimensions.
Started in 2008 the company implemented and Certificate for Integrated Management
System, which lead to preservation and improvement of the image on home and foreign
market. Likely, certificates and qualification in the field of welding of metal structures on
behalf of SLV MÜNCHEN (conf. DIN 18800-7:2008-11) and ISIM Timişoara (conf. EN
ISO 3834-2), as well as authorization of the personnel (welders and controllers) after
European standards, represents a trump-card of credibility of the company for our
clients.
Products
The needs of every industrial branch are different, but we succeed in adapting our
products to the market needs. The fields for which we produce machine instruments
and equipment are very diverse, and among the representative products we may
mention:
- special machine instruments and thematic, with great dimensions – for industrial
machine constructors and metallurgy
- continuous casting lines for metallurgic industry
- cold rolling pipes, rolling cylinders, etc.
38
- one or many level press for wood industry
- cylinders and equipment for the production of paper
- press, robot equipment for automobile industry
- press and equipment for electronic industry
- equipment and reduction gear for mining industry
- equipment for energy industry (including equilibration)
- components for nuclear plants
- continuous casting lines
- cold rolling pipes
- cutting and bending of sheet iron machine
- rolling machines, etc
Machine instruments that we are manufacturing are performed based on our own
design and cover a wide range of processing types, beginning with milling plain
operations, followed by shaving and finishing with cogs, all these are specific for the
heavy industry.
Services:
Using of professional software products for assisting design of calculators
(CAD/CAM/CAE) as well as of own programs to follow the production, accounting or
design (cogged wheels – all variants, arcs, cogged levers, etc.) providing extreme
accuracy of activities as well as a high level of organization.
Our company may offer numerous services such as:
- repair of machine instruments and accessories;
- static and dynamic equilibrators;
- Thermal tension reducers or with vibrations;
- Modeling 3D, assembly or individual repair;
- realization of overall design (conceptual design and details) on topic;
- FEA Analysis (analyses with complete element) – optimization of repair and sub-
assembling.
http://innoportal.ro/index.php?meniu=cercetare&id=38
39
40
.........................................................................................................................
41
-RELOC-
History
RELOC S.A. company, Craiova, association with industrial profile, implements
reparations of various types of locomotives Diesel – electric with power between 1250 -
4000 CP equipped with engines Sulzer, ALCO, Maybach or General Motors, electric
locomotives with power from 3400kW and 5100kW license ASEA, electric railway coils
Diesel with raising burden of 80 - 200 tones manufactured in SMKirov - Germania,
electric frame manufactured by Electroputere - Romania and RVR Riga - Latvia.
Its production activities started in 1968 by repairing of diesel - electric locomotives LDE
2100 CP, reaching its maximum capacity at about 31 RGE/month (equivalent overhaul)
in 1983.
Besides the repair activities the company executes also:
•Repair of aggregates and sub-assembling components of locomotives;
•Manufactures spare parts for locomotives;
•Reconditioning of spare parts for locomotives.
SC RELOC SA Company, Craiova is the most important company oriented toward

repair and modernization of railway vehicles in Romania. Company was founded in
1992 and continues the tradition over 35 years of the former IMMR Craiova.
The main activity of the company is modernization and repair of railway vehicles and
production of spare parts for them. The quality of the products and services is provided
since 2003, when it was granted certificate ISO 9001 for all its activities and services,
such as repair of electric locomotives, diesel-electric, diesel-hydraulic and ones and
42
spare parts for them, for clients in Romania, as well as from Serbia-Muntenegru,
Macedonia and other European countries.
With its successful products and services, company promotes good reputation among
repair industry in Romania. During its existence, thousands of railway vehicles were
repaired and modernized in production halls of the company. By getting modernized of
the railway vehicles the company offered its clients a viable economic alternative of
purchasing new vehicles. Our main beneficiaries are SNTFC-Călători SA, SNTFM-
Marfă SA, ZTP (Serbian Railways) as well as other private railway operators. SC
RELOC SA Craiova presents its products on various fairs and expositions.
The researches as well the high quality of the personnel, the references and the
experience within numerous repair and modernization projects were and are still is a
precondition for different projects in future. SC RELOC SA Craiova has its main office in
Craiova (a town with more than 300.000 inhabitants).
SC RELOC SA Craiova with more than 850 Nos. personnel is one of the biggest
companies in the region.
Products
SC "RELOC" SA company, Craiova executes repair of different types of locomotives
Diesel – electric with power between 1250 - 4000 CP equipped with engines Sulzer,
ALCO, Maybach or General Motors, electric locomotives with power from 3400kW and
5100kW license ASEA, electric railway coils Diesel with raising burden of 80 - 200
tones manufactured in SMKirov - Germania, electric frame manufactured by
Electroputere - Romania and RVR Riga - Latvia, aggregates and sub-assembling
components for locomotives, spare parts and other products and services, which are
part of the object of activity of the company.
On the occasion of the repair the company executes modification and modernization on
request of the beneficiary.
SC "RELOC" SA company, Craiova has its organization structure based on various
specific, including each member of its staff in implementation, operation and
maintenance of quality assurance system with regard of duly execution of the products.
43
Endowment of material and human resources in SC RELOC SA Craiova, it allows the
execution of all types of planned repair of locomotives at technical level of
manufacturing.
Created technical factors, mentioning, news and supervision assures the company
"RELOC" SA Craiova a technologic level always corresponding to the technological
requirements imposed by the beneficiary.
SC "RELOC" SA Craiova has an experience accumulated for more than 35 years since
its foundation through the diversity and complexity of the applied technical solutions with
success over 7600 Nos. repaired railway vehicles for home and foreign beneficiaries.
SC "RELOC" SA Craiova is certified by Romanian railway Authority and TÜV for the
planned works and repair and is implementing its activity with a supervision contract
AFER.
Metrologic compartment, duly authorized by Metrologic Inspection Craiova, executes
repair and verification for the following fields which define the measurable phenomena
of the locomotive:
 pressure;
 thermal sizes;
 electric;
 cinematic(speed-meter);
 of time;
 of length.
Measurement apparatuses are brought to nominal operational parameters following

repair. Metrological verifications are executed by comparing of etalons, which attest the
quality of the apparatus.
Chemical and electronic compartments, execute chemical analyses and repairs of the
punctual control of speed and vigilance installations.
Analysis and repairs were certified by tests which provide imposed by norms
parameters.
Laboratory analyses of mechanical and chemic trials are authorized by AFER.
Department of spare parts production
It manufactures complex spare parts for locomotives with thermo and thermo-chemic
treatment. The department has a donation of a sector of galvanic coverings, where are
44
preformed various covering procedures (chrome-covering, silver-coating, etc.).
The complex repairs produced here, suppose high-performance technology and are
part of the nomenclature of spare parts for locomotives:
 segments for diesel engines;
 admission-evacuation valve;
 pistons;
 axles;
 admission-evacuation cam;
 coils for electric engines, etc.
http://innoportal.ro/index.php?meniu=cercetare&id=37
45
-''Electroputere''-
Founded September 1, 1949 and designed for the production of heavy electrotechnical
equipment, "Electroputere" shall ever be connected to the establishment of the power
systems and the modernization of the railway and urban transportation systems in
Romania.
1951 was the commencement of power transformer production according to our own
designs. Later on, the power transformer production developed by increasing the rated
voltage and by using new types of materials for magnetic cores.
During 1960-1965 the production range expanded and an ELIN Austria license was
purchased for the 220MVA autotransformer, together with an ASEA Sweden license for
the electric locomotive transformer.
The stage between 1965 and 1975 was characterized by the reorganization of the
transformer manufacturing process, new production plants and self-accomplished 400
kV and 400MVA transformers. The first 440MVA transformer was built in 1987 for
Cernavoda Nuclear Power Plant, the biggest transformer delivered by Electroputere in
Romania. The testing laboratories significantly developed during this period, providing a
diversity of transformers on the Romanian market and abroad and assuring all
necessary means for any type of tests required.
Between 1949 and 1960, Electroputere produced electric locomotives for mines, as well
as trams, and in 1960 it started producing Diesel Electric Locomotives. After 1989, the
Locomotives division focused on modernization works and overhauls for Diesel Electric
Locomotives 2100 HP and 5100 kW electric locomotives.
In 1950 the manufacturing of rotating electric machines started and over 400 types of
electric machines were appropriated. In the late 60s, based on its own research and on
the introduction into fabrication of BBC and ASEA licenses, the insulation class "F" was
extended to the entire production, so that Electroputere became one of the first
producers in Europe in this field. During 1980-1985, based on General Electric Canada
46
and Ansaldo Italy licenses, electric motors for nuclear power plants were manufactured,
thus conferring to the fabrication of rotating electrical machines an additional technical
advantage.
Due to massive investments, cooperation with prestigious companies in Switzerland,
Sweden, France, Germany and Italy, as well as the efforts of a number of specialists,
Electroputere became well known in over 100 countries all over the globe.
In 1991 Electroputere became a company on shares.
ELECTROPUTERE was privatized in November 2007. The major shareholder, owing
86.28% of the shares, is a Saudi Arabian company, Al-Arrab Contracting Company
Limited.
At the moment, a comprehensive investment and reorganization program including the
renewal of production machines and equipment, refurbishment of buildings,
occupational health and safety program, process development and many others, is
being implemented in Electroputere.
The goal of Electroputere is to become a global provider of power transformers and
rotating electrical machines together with efficient solutions for its customers.
http://www.electroputere.ro/en/short-history
Considering the products of electroputere it interested in power transformers and
rotating electrical machine.
The power transformers provides:
Power generation
 Generator transformers
 Auxiliary service transformers: internal up to 72 MVA and voltages of up to 24 kV
Power transmission
 Interconnection transformers up to 440MVA and 400kV
 Earthing Transformers
 Autotransformers of up to 500 MVA and 400kV
Power distribution
 10 - 63 MVA medium power distribution transformers with OLTC/DETC and
nominal voltages of 123 kV
 2.5 - 16 MVA distribution transformers with OLTC/DETC and nominal
voltages of up to 66 kV
http://www.electroputere.ro/en/power-transformers
and Rotating electrical machines provides:
High voltage asynchronous motors
47
 squirrel cage
 slipring
Low-voltage asynchronous motors
 squirrel cage
 slipring
Special motors
 Low-voltage asynchronous motors for oil drilling rigs
 Low voltage asynchronous motors for variable speed drive
 Submersible motors
 Asynchronous motors for hazardous locations - ATEX certified (IECEx certification
available upon request)
Synchronous generators for hydroelectric power stations
 Generators 5500 ÷ 1000 kVA, 6 ÷ 34 poles, 6.6 KV; coupling with Francis or Pelton
turbines
http://www.electroputere.ro/en/rotating-electrical-machines
48
49

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Thermovision:

The new maintenance technology

Under the supervision:Dr. Adrian Rosca

1.2. Infrared thermography

Thermogram of a traditional building in the background

Thermogram of a cat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography)

The most common types of thermal imaging cameras

Thermogram of a snake held by a human

1.6. Passive vs. active thermography

In passive thermography, the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower

2. CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THERMAL IMAGING CAMERA

2.1. Principle operation

Thermal imaging camera principle operation

2.3. Camera functions

2.3.2. Thermal Sensitivity

2.3.6. Digital camera

Thermal image Visual image

2.3.7. LED lights

Thermal image Visual image Thermal Fusion Image

Thermal image Visual image Thermal Fusion Image

2.3.8. Interchangeable lenses

FLIR thermal imaging cameras

3. CONSIDERATION CONCERNING THERMOVISION APPLICATIONS

3.3. Limitations and disadvantages of thermography

Thermal imaging cameras allow you to inspect high voltage

The inspection of a substation reveals overheated components.

3.4.1.2. Thermovision applications for low voltage installations

Overheated connection Overheated connection

This thermal fusion image shows an overheated connector.

3.4.1.3. Thermovision applications for electrical motors

This thermal image shows an electric engine under normal operation.

3.4.2. Thermovision applications for mechanical installations

Suspected roller Overheated bearing

3.4.3. Thermovision applications for pipeline testing

Insulation damage Heat leakage in a steam installation

3.5. International reglementations for infrared thermal testing

3.6. Thermovision applications for predictive maintenance

4. PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH RESULTS CONCERNING

4.1. THERMOVISION - A RELIABLE METHOD TO PREVENT

Figure 8. Sliding bearing in proper operation 48,5oC

4.2. THERMOVISION PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

Material and method

Fig. 1. Motors with proper thermal operation: 43,8 oC / 48,1oC

Field training companies

Reference: Powering your world

Cummins complementary business units design, manufacture, distribute and service

2-pole low voltage ac generators in the range

2, 4 and 6-pole low voltage ac generators in

4 to 10-pole low, medium and high voltage ac

SC RELOC SA Company, Craiova is the most important company oriented toward

Measurement apparatuses are brought to nominal operational parameters following

 coils for electric engines, etc.

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