EE-101- S2- W10- 02

Vivek Agarwal
 Quiz (08/11/2020)

Highlights: Integrator, Differentiator, Comparator,

DAC (R-2R ladder), ADC (priority encoder)
Schmitt trigger (square + triangle wave), JK Flip Flop,
Phasor analysis (network theorems),
Phasor analysis (series R-L-C circuit),
Exam mode: Safe App
Same format (short quantitative questions) as Mid Sem
Moderate difficulty
Lecture note preparation
Contents
 Ampere’s law and relation among B, H and i
 Magnetic circuits
 Hysteresis curve and core losses
 Transformer
 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
 No load test and short circuit test
 Voltage regulation of transformer
 Efficiency of transformer
 Three phase transformer (basic introduction) 03/32
 Reference book
 “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics” P.C. Sen (Wiley)
 Reference link: Transformer
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-basics.html

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-loading.html

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/multiple-winding-transformers.html

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/three-phase-transformer.html

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/voltage-regulation.html
 B-H curve (hysteresis)

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/magnetic-hysteresis.html
 Hysteresis Loss
When the magnetic core is subjected to alternating excitation
𝑛
Area of B-H Loop=𝐾𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , which is found
B
empirically based on experiments.

The hysteresis loss can be evaluated as:

𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑛 𝑓
H = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 − 𝐻 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∗ 𝑓

Here, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum flux density in the core.

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 is the volume of the core and 𝑛 ranges between
1.5 to 2.5 (depending on core-material).
 Eddy Current Loss
 Eddy currents are loops of electrical current
induced within conductors by a changing
magnetic field in the conductor according to
Faraday's law of induction.
ie ie The eddy current –loss is evaluated as:
2 𝜋2 𝑡 2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 ∗ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑓2 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , and 𝐾𝑒 = , where,
6𝜌
B B 𝑡 is the thickness of the laminations, and 𝜌 is the
resistivity of the material.

 Thin Laminated Sheets with high-resistivity core

may be used to reduce eddy currents
Core Loss
The loss in the magnetic material that makes up the core of an
electromagnetic systems is called the core loss and is equal to:

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒
 Core Loss (Exercise 1)
A toroidal core of mean length 15cm and cross-sectional area 10cm2 has a uniformly
distributed winding of 300 turns. The B-H characteristics of the core can be assumed to
be a rectangular form, as shown in the figure. The coil is connected to a 100V, 400Hz
supply. (i) Determine the Hysteresis Loss in the core. Next, determine (ii) Eddy
Current Loss, as well as (iii) Total Loss. The core-laminations is alloy-steel material,
with thickness of 0.3mm, and resistivity of 𝟑𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒐𝒉𝒎 − 𝒎.
 Core Loss (Solution)

𝑛 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 − 𝐻 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 ∗ 𝑉
As discussed before 𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∗ 𝑓

Here, 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 15 ∗ 10−2 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−4 = 15 ∗ 10−5 𝑚3

And, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 − 𝐻 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 =20*2.4=48
Therefore, 𝑃ℎ = 15 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 48 ∗ 400 = 2.88 𝑊

2 𝜋2 𝑡 2 0.0003 2
Similarly, 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ,
where 𝐾𝑒 = 2
=𝜋 ∗ = 0.493, and 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.2 𝑇
6𝜌 6∗30∗10−8
Substituting the values, 𝑃𝑒 = 0.493 ∗ 1.22 ∗ 4002 ∗ 15 ∗ 10−5 = 17.03 𝑊
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃ℎ = 17.03 + 2.88 = 19.91 𝑊
 Transformer: construction
Construction of Transformer Core

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html

1. Core-type construction: Small leakage flux exists, as windings surround the core.
2. Shell-type construction: Lower leakage flux than core-type, as the core surrounds the winding.
 Transformer: construction
Types of Laminations:

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html

Typically, silicon-steel laminations are used to reduce the eddy-current losses. The choice of
lamination depends on the type of core-construction, as shown above.
 Transformer equation
i1
φ
d
i2 v1  e1  N1
N1 N2
SW dt
v1 e1 e2 v2 ZL

d
v2  e2  N 2
dt
v1 : Applied voltage to the primary winding.
v2 :Secondary winding terminal voltage. v1 N1
 a
N1 : Number of turns in primary winding. v2 N 2
N2: Number of turns in secondary winding.
 Transformer equation

N1i1  N2i2  net mmf  0

v1i1  v2i2
N1i1  N 2i2
I1 N 2 1 V1 N1
i1 N 2 1    a
  I 2 N1 a V2 N 2
i2 N1 a
i1: Primary winding current V2: RMS voltage at the secondary winding

i2: Secondary winding current I1: Primary winding rms current

V1: RMS voltage at the primary winding I2: Secondary winding rms current
Ideal transformer
 All the core and winding losses are neglected.
 It is assumed that the core has infinite permeability and hence zero
reluctance.
 The leakage flux is zero.
N1 N2
I1 I2

V1 V2 ZL
 Ideal transformer

𝑉1
 Z1: Input impedance/primary side impedance=
𝐼1

 Z2: Secondary side impedance. Here it is equal to 𝑍𝐿

𝑁2 2
 Z1 Primary side impedance seen from the secondary side. It is equal to
’: 𝑍1 𝑁
1

𝑵𝟏 𝟐
 Z2 Secondary side impedance seen from the primary side. It is equal to
’: 𝒁𝟐 𝑵
𝟐
Impedance transfer
N1 N2
I1 I2 I1

V1 V2 ZL V1 Z 2' Z 2'  a 2 Z 2

V1 aV2 V
Z2’ = Z1    a2 2  a2Z2 Here, 𝑎 =
𝑁1
I1 I 2 / a I2 𝑁2
 Transformer Load: Exercise-2
Q.1 For given circuit, find out power dissipated at load resistance R
 Transformer Load: Solution

The equivalent circuit referred to the primary side is shown in the

figure.

Where,
 Practical transformer

I1 R2
m I2
R1
V1 l1 l2 V2

leakage flux

There is winding resistance and leakage flux in case of a practical

transformer. There is also core loss (Pcore) in a practical transformer.
Further, there is a non-zero reluctance associated with a practical core.
Transformer equivalent circuit (1)
R1 Xl1 N1 N2 R2 Xl2
I2 Here:
I1 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 are winding resistance
𝑿𝒍𝟏 , 𝑿𝒍𝟐 are the leakage reactance of
V1 the primary and secondary coils
V2 respectively.

Tightly coupled transformer reflects

that the coefficient of coupling
𝑴
𝒌 = √𝑳 𝑳 ≈ 1
𝟏 𝟐
Tightly coupled
transformer
 Transformer equivalent circuit (2)
N1 N2 I2
IP Xl1 Iφ1 I2 Xl2
R1 R2
IC1 Im1
E1
V1 Rc1 jXm1 E2 V2

Here, core-loss is modelled 𝑎𝑠 𝑰𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝒄𝟏 and the

magnetising reactance is 𝒋𝑿𝒎𝟏, with the magnetising current 𝑰𝒎𝟏 flowing into it.
 Determination of equivalent circuit
parameters

I1 Iφ1 Xl1 Xl2

R1 R2 I2
IC1 Im1
Req1 Xeq1
V1 Rc1 Xm1 V2

Zeq1

 Open circuit test

 Short circuit test
 Open Circuit Test
𝐼𝑜𝑐
CC + I1

Adjustable 𝑉𝑜𝑐 Ic1 Im1

Input
Wattmeter PC V1 Rc1 Xm1
Voltage L.V H.V V2
(V1)

-
This test is performed to get the shunt branch parameters (𝑅𝑐1 and 𝑋𝑚1 ).
Here, HV side is open, and measurements are taken on LV side for voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ), current (𝐼𝑜𝑐 ) and
power (𝑃𝑜𝑐 ).
2 2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑅𝑐1 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑚1 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑐 𝑄𝑜𝑐 2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 2 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐
 Short Circuit Test
𝐼𝑠𝑐
CC
+ I Req Xeq
Adjustable
Input
Voltage PC H.V L.V V1
(V1) 𝑉𝑠𝑐
Wattmeter
-

This test is performed to get the series branch parameters (𝑅𝑒𝑞 and 𝑋𝑒𝑞 ).
Here, LV side is shorted, and measurements are taken on HV side for voltage (𝑉𝑠𝑐 ), current
(𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) and power (𝑃𝑠𝑐 ).
𝑃𝑠𝑐 2 2
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
 Transformer Equivalent Circuit: Exercise-3
Q.3 Open circuit and closed circuit tests are performed on a 10KVA, 220V/110V,
60Hz transformer and both test are performed with the instrument on the high-
voltage side and the following data are obtained:

Open circuit test: input voltage = 220V, input current= 3.16A, input power =500W

Short circuit test: input voltage = 65V, input current= 10A, input power = 400W
obtain the approximate equivalent circuit, referred to high-voltage side.
Transformer Equivalent Circuit: Solution
A) High Voltage side
From O.C. test
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 2202
𝑅𝑐1 = = = 96.8 Ω
𝑃𝑜𝑐 500

2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 2202
𝑋𝑚1 = = 0.5 = 100.2 Ω
2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐 220 ∗ 3.16 2 − 5002
Transformer Equivalent Circuit: Solution
From S.C.test

𝑃𝑠𝑐 400
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 = = 4Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 100
𝑉𝑠𝑐 65
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = = = 6.5Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 10
2 2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 5.12Ω
Transformer Equivalent Circuit: Solution
 Assignment Question 4
 An ac load with an impedance of
𝒁𝑳 =𝟐𝟓 𝟓∠(− 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔) Ω, is connected to
the secondary side of transformer with turns ratio ‘a’:1.
ZS
 The primary winding is connected to the supply voltage
of 10V with an internal impedance of
ZL 𝒁𝑺 = 𝟓∠(𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔) Ω.
AC
10V  Convert impedances from polar to rectangular form,
and solve for the following:
a:1  (a) Determine value of ‘a’, such that maximum power
is transferred to the load.
 (b) Evaluate the maximum power dissipated at the
load.
Assignment Question 5
 Tests are performed on a 1φ, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer
and the following results are obtained.

Open circuit test (high voltage side) Short circuit test (low voltage side)
Voltmeter 220V 150V
Ammeter 2.5A 4.55A
Wattmeter 100W 215W
 (a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits referred
to the low-voltage side and the high-voltage side.
 (b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated current.
 (c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit tests.
32/32