EE-101 (Module - 3) (Week - 2)

Vivek Agarwal
Contents
 Ampere’s law and relation among B, H and i
 Magnetic circuits
 Hysteresis curve and core losses
 Transformer
 Transformer Equivalent circuit
 No load test and short circuit test
 Voltage regulation of transformer
 Efficiency of transformer
 Three phase transformer (basic introduction)
 Reference book
 “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics” Book by P.C. Sen
 i-H relation

The relationship between current and field intensity can be obtained by using
Ampère’s circuit law, which states that the line integral of the magnetic field
intensity H around a closed path is equal to the total current linked by the contour.

i1 i2
i3 H  H  dl   i  i  i
1 2  i3
The magnetic field intensity H at a distance r from a
dl conductor carrying current, i can be calculated as
Closed follows:
path

 H  dl  i  H (2 r )  i H 
i
2 r
 B-H relation

The magnetic field intensity H produces a magnetic flux density B which are related
as follows:

B   H Weber/m 2 or Tesla
B  r o H Wb/m 2 or T
where μ is a characteristic of the medium and is called the permeability of the
medium. μ is the permeability of free space and is 4π×10-7 Henry/meter. μ is the relative
0 r

permeability of the medium.

 Magnetic equivalent circuit

The magnetic field intensity H for the toroid with

l
N number of turns shown in the figure:
r
 H  dl  Ni A N

Hl  Ni
H  (2 r )  Ni
i
Ni is called the magnetomotive force (mmf) , and its
units are Ampere-turns or At
 Magnetic equivalent circuit continued

the flux crossing the cross section of the toroid

Hl  Ni  
   B dA
N
H  i At/m
l   BA Wb
 Ni  NiNi
B T  A=
l l l A
Magnetic equivalent circuit continued
analogous
  l A  i

+
Ni
   E R
DC

 -

F

  is called the reluctance of the magnetic
path
B-H curve

B saturation

high

low 

H
 Composite magnetic circuits
When flux path encounters more than one type of material

lc lc: Mean core length
i lg: Air gap length
c
+
Ac: Cross-sectional
N lg Ni
area of the core
- g
Ag: Cross-sectional
area of the airgap

Reluctance of iron core c  lc c Ac Reluctance of air gap  g  lg o A g

 Composite magnetic circuits

c g

Ni
Bc  Bg 
c   g Ac Ag


Ni  H c lc  H g lg Ag =Ac Bg  Bc 
Ac
 Composite magnetic circuits: Example 1
lc Figure represents the magnetic circuit of a primitive relay. The
i
coil has 500 turns and the mean core path is lc = 360 mm. When
N lg the air gap lengths are 1.5 mm each, a flux density of 0.8 T is
required to actuate the relay. The core is cast steel.

 (a) Find the current in the coil.

(b) Compute the values of permeability and relative
c
+ permeability of the core.
Ni
- g (c) If the air gap is zero, find the current in the coil for the same
flux density (0.8 T) in the core.
Composite magnetic circuits: Example 2
In the magnetic circuit shown in the
figure the relative permeability of the
ferromagnetic material is 1200.
Neglect magnetic leakage and
fringing. All dimensions are in
centimeters, and the magnetic
material has a square cross-sectional
area. Determine the air gap flux, the
air gap flux density, and the magnetic
field intensity in the air gap.
Inductance

Flux linkage  =N


Inductance L =
i

N NBA N  HA N  HA N2 N2
L=     L
i i i Hl N l  A 
 Inductance: Example 3
For the magnetic circuit in the figure, N = 400 i
lc

turns. Mean core length lc = 50 cm.

N lg
Air gap length lg = 1.0 mm.
Cross-sectional area Ac = Ag = 15 cm2.
Relative permeability of core μr = 3000. 

i = 1.0 A. Find: +
c
 (a) Flux and flux density in the air gap. Ni
- g
 (b) Inductance of the coil.
 B-H loop or the Hysteresis loop
When the magnetic core is subjected to alternating excitation
B Area of B - H loop  KBmax
n

The hysteresis loss can be found as:

H Ph  K h Bmax
n
f
These formulas are empirical based
on experiments
 Eddy current losses
 Eddy currents are loops of electrical
current induced within conductors by
a changing magnetic field in the
ie
conductor according to Faraday's law
ie
of induction.
B B  Laminated core may be used to
reduce eddy currents

The eddy current loss can be found using

the following empirical formula: Pe  K e Bmax
2
f2
Core loss
The loss in the magnetic material that makes up the core of an
electromagnetic systems is called the core loss and is equal to:

Pcore=Physt + Peddy
Transformer: construction
Core type Shell type

L-shaped laminations:
E-shaped laminations:
 Transformer equation
i1
φ
d
i2 v1  e1  N1
N1 N2
SW dt
v1 e1 e2 v2 ZL

d
v2  e2  N 2
dt
v1 : Applied voltage to the primary winding.
v2 :Secondary winding terminal voltage. v1 N1
 a
N1 : Number of turns in primary winding. v2 N 2
N2: Number of turns in secondary winding.
 Transformer equation

N1i1  N2i2  net mmf  0

v1i1  v2i2
N1i1  N2i2
I1 N 2 1 V1 N1
i1 N 2 1    a
  I 2 N1 a V2 N 2
i2 N1 a
i1: Primary winding current V2: RMS voltage at the secondary winding

i2: Secondary winding current I1: Primary winding rms current

V1: RMS voltage at the primary winding I2: Secondary winding rms current
Ideal transformer
 All the core and winding losses are neglected.
 It is assumed that the core has infinite permeability and hence zero
reluctance.
 The leakage flux is zero.
N1 N2
 Z1: Input impedance/primary side
I1 I2
impedance
 Z2: Secondary side impedance
V1 V2 ZL  Z1’: Primary side impedance seen
from the secondary side
 Z2’: Secondary side impedance
seen from the primary side
Impedance transfer
N1 N2
I1 I2 I1

V1 V2 ZL V1 Z 2' Z 2'  a 2 Z 2

V1 aV2 V
Z1    a2 2  a2Z2
I1 I 2 / a I2
 Practical transformer

I1 R2
m I2
R1
V1 l1 l2 V2

leakage flux

There is winding resistance and leakage flux in case of a practical

transformer. There is also core loss (Pcore) in a practical transformer.
Further, there is a non-zero reluctance associated with a practical core.
Transformer equivalent circuit
R1 Xl1 N1 N2 R2 Xl2
I2
I1

V1 V2

Tightly coupled
transformer
 Transformer equivalent circuit
N1 N2 I2
IP Xl1 Iφ1 I2 Xl2
R1 R2
IC1 Im1
E1
V1 Rc1 jXm1 E2 V2
 Determination of equivalent circuit
parameters

I1 Iφ1 Xl1 Xl2

R1 R2 I2
IC1 Im1
Req1 Xeq1
V1 Rc1 Xm1 V2

Zeq1

 Open circuit test

 Short circuit test
 Open circuit test

CC
I1
Adjustable Ic1 Im1
Input
Wattmeter PC
Voltage L.V H.V V2 V1 Rc1 Xm1
(V1)

The shunt branch parameters (core loss and magnetizing) can be found out
 Short circuit test

CC

Adjustable I Req Xeq

Input
PC H.V L.V
Voltage V1
(V1)
Wattmeter

The series branch parameters can be found out

Voltage regulation of a transformer

I SW
Zeq
V1 V2 Load

V2  V2
Voltage Regulation  NL L

V2 L
Voltage regulation of a transformer (cont..)
Locus of V1

V1 '
I2 Zeq1
θ2  θeq
'
θ2 V ' '
I2 Req1 I2 X eq1
2

I2'
 Efficiency of transformer

ouput Power (Pout ) Pcu  I12 R1  I 22 R2 Pout  V2 I 2 cos 2


input Power (Pin )  I12 Req1 V2 I 2 cos  2

Pout  I 22 Req 2 V2 I 2 cos  2  Pc  I 22 Req 2

Pout  losses
Pout : Output power Pcu : Copper loss
Pout
 Pin : Input power : Efficiency
Pout  Pc  Pcu Pc : Core loss cos2 : Load power factor
 Condition for maximum efficiency
d
0 Pc  X 2 Pcu , FL
Req1 : Equivalent
dI 2 winding resistance
seen from primary
Pc  I 22 Req 2
side
1/2
 Pc  Req2 : Equivalent
Pcu , FL  I 2,2 FL Req 2 X  
P winding resistance
 cu , FL  seen from secondary
I2
X  per unit loading side
I 2, FL
 Transformer: Example 4
I
 An ac load of 9 Ω, resistive
1W impedance is connected to a supply
Output R2 of 10 V with internal resistive
load  9W
10V AC
impedance of 1 Ω.
 (a) Determine the power absorbed
I by the ac load.
 (b) To maximize the power transfer
1W to the ac load, a transformer of 1 : 3
Output R2 turns ratio is used between source
load  9W
10V
AC and load. Determine the power
1:3
taken by the ac load.
Transformer: Example 5
 Tests are performed on a 1φ, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer
and the following results are obtained.
Open circuit test (high voltage side) Short circuit test (low voltage side)
Voltmeter 220V 150V
Ammeter 2.5A 4.55A
Wattmeter 100W 215W

 (a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits referred
to the low-voltage side and the high-voltage side.
 (b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated current.
 (c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit tests.
Transformer: Example 6
 Consider the transformer in Example 5. Determine the voltage
regulation in percent for the following load conditions.
 (a) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor lagging.
 (b) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor leading.
 (c) Draw the phasor diagram for conditions (a) and (b).
Transformer: Example 7
 For the transformer in Example 5, determine
 (a) Effificiency at 75% rated output and 0.6 PF.
 (b) Power output at maximum effificiency and the value of maximum
effificiency. At what percent of full load does this maximum effificiency
occur?
Three-phase transformer

• Three single-phase transformers can be

N1:N2 connected to form a three phase transformer.

• Star delta connected three phase transformer

is shown in Figure.

(a) Υ -
 Υ-∆ and ∆- Υ three-phase transformers

3aI aI
I 3
I

V 3 N1 V V V
N2 aI I a
V 3a 3V
3 a

(c) -Υ
(b) Υ -
 ∆ -∆ and Υ - Υ Three-phase transformers

aI I aI
I

V V 3 V
aI V 3a
I V V
3 a a
3

(d) - (e) Υ - Υ
 Three phase transformer: Example 8
Three 1 , 50 kVA, 2300:230 V, 60 Hz transformers are connected to
form a 3, 4000/230 V transformer bank. The equivalent impedance of
each transformer referred to low voltage is
0.012 + j0.016 Ω. The 3 transformer supplies a 3, 120 kVA, 230 V,
0.85 PF (lag) load.
(a) Draw a schematic diagram showing the transformer connection.
(b) Determine the transformer winding currents.
(c) Determine the primary voltage (line-to-line) required.
(d) Determine the voltage regulation.
 The following weblinks may be useful

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NkRk_xaRwjg&ab_channel=nptelhrd
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UpTc20yh2Y&ab_channel=nptelhrd
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mMQxPjw5r0U&ab_channel=nptelhrd
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6nJweqFnmc&ab_channel=nptelhrd
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6AqeTmUV9SY&ab_channel=nptelhrd