SEMI CONDUCTOR
SEMI CONDUCTOR
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
In case of a single isolated atom, there are single energy levels in
case of solids, the atoms is arranged in a systematic space lattice
and hence the atom is greatly influenced by neighbouring atoms.
The closeness of atoms results in the intermixing of electrons of
neighbouring atoms of course, for the valence electrons in the
outermost shells which are not strongly bounded by nucleus.
Due to intermixing the number of permissible energy levels
increases or there are significant changes in the energy levels.
Hence in case of a solid, instead of single energy levels associated
with the single atom, there will be bands of energy levels.
1.1 Valence Band, Conduction Band & Forbidden Energy Gap
The band formed by a series of energy levels containing the
valence electrons is known as valence band. The valency band
may be defined as a band which is occupied by the valence
electrons or a band having highest occupied band energy.
The conduction band may also be defined as the lowest unfilled
energy band. The separation between conduction band and
valence band is known as forbidden energy gap. There is no
allowed energy state in this gap and hence no electron can stay
in the forbidden energy gap.
1.2 Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors
On the basis of forbidden band, the insulators, semiconductors
and conductors are described as follows:
1.2.1 Insulators
In case of insulators, the forbidden energy band is very wide.
Due to this fact electrons cannot jump from valence band to
conduction band. In insulators the valence electrons are bond
very tightly to their parent atoms. Increase in temperature enables
some electrons to go to the conduction band.
1.2.2 Semiconductors
In semiconductors, the forbidden band is very small. Germanium
and silicon are the examples of semiconductors. A semiconductor
material is one whose electrical properties lies between insulators
and good conductors. When a small amount of energy is
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supplied, the electrons can easily jump from valence band to
conduction band. For example when the temperature is increased
the forbidden band is decreased so that some electrons are
liberated into the conduction band.
12..3 Conductors
In case of conductors, there is no forbidden band and the valence
band and conduction band overlap each other. Here plenty of free
electrons are available for electric conduction. A slight potential
difference across the conductor cause the free electrons to constitute
electric current. The most important point in conductors is that due
to the absence of forbidden band, there is no structure to establish
holes. The total current in conductors is simply a flow of electrons.
2. SEMICONDUCTORS
Thus a substance which has resistively in between conductors
and insulators is known as semiconductor.
Semiconductors have the following properties.
(i) They have resistively less than insulators and more than
conductors.
(ii) The resistance of semiconductor decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice versa.
(iii) When suitable metallic impurity like arsenic, gallium etc.
is added to a semiconductors, its current conducting
properties change appreciably.
2.1 Effect of temperatue of Semiconductors
At very low temperature (say 0 K) the semiconductor crystal
behaves as a perfect insulator since the covalent bonds are very
strong and no free electrons are available. At room temperature some
of the covalent bonds are broken due to the thermal energy supplied
to the crystal. Due to the breaking of the bonds, some electrons
become free which were engaged in the formation of these bonds.
The absence of the electron in the covalent bond is represented
by a small circle. This empty place or vacancy left behind in the
crystal structure is called a hole. Since an electron unit negative
charge, the hole carries a unit positive charge.
2.2 Mechanism of conduction of Electrons and Holes
When the electrons are liberated on breaking the covalent bonds,
they move randomly through the crystal lattice.
When an electric field is applied, these free electrons have a
steady drift opposite to the direction of applied field. This
constitute the electric current. When a covalent bond is broken,
a hole is created. For one electron set free, one hole is created.
This thermal energy creates electron-hole pairs-there being as
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many holes as free electrons. These holes move through the
crystal lattice in a random fashion like liberated electrons. When
an external electric field is applied, the holes drift in the direction
of applied field. Thus they constitute electric current.
There is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a
covalent bonds. Therefore, a hole attracts an electron from the
neighbouring atom. Now a valence electron from nearby covalent
bond comes to fill in the hole at A. This results in a creation of
hole at B. The hole has thus effectively shift from A to B. This
hole move from B to C from C to D and so on.
This movement of the hole in the absence of an applied field is
random. But when an electric field is applied, the hole drifts
along the applied field.
2.3 Carrier Generation and Recombination
The electrons and holes are generated in pairs. The free electrons
and holes move randomly within the crystal lattice. In such a
random motion, there is always a possibility that a free electron
may have an encounter with a hole. When a free electron meets
a hole, they recombine to re-establish the covalent bond. In the
process of recombination, both the free electron and hole are
destroyed and results in the release of energy in the form of heat.
The energy so released, may in turn be re-absorbed by another
electron to break its covalent bond. In this way a new electrol-
hole pair is created.
T hus the process of breaking of covalent bonds and
recombination of electrons and holes take place simultaneously.
When the temperature is increased, the rate of generation of
electrons and holes increases. This is turn increases, the densities
of electrons and hole increases. As a result, the conductivity of
semiconductor increases or resistivity decreases. This is the
reason that semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.
2.4 Pure or Intrinsic Semiconductor and
Impurity or Extrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor in an extremely pure from is known as intrinsic
semiconductor or a semiconductor in which electrons and holes
are solely created by thermal excitation is called a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of free
electrons is always equal to the number of holes.
2.4.1 Extrinsic Semiconductors
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased by adding some impurity in the process of
crystallization. The added impurity is very small of the order of
one atom per million atoms of the pure semiconductor. Such
semiconductor is called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. The
process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is known as doping.
The doping material is either pentavalent atoms (bismuth,
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus which have five valence
electrons) or trivalent atoms (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron
which have three valence electrons). The pentavalent doping
atom is known as donor atom because it donates one electron to
the conduction band of pure semiconductor.
The doping materials are called impurities because they alter the
structure of pure semiconductor crystals.
2.4.2 N–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting
crystal is called as N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
In case of N-type semiconductor, the following points should be
remembered
(i) In N-type semiconductor, the electrons are the majority
carriers while positive holes are minority carriers.
(ii) Although N-type semiconductor has excess of electrons
but it is electrically neutral. This is due to the fact that
electrons are created by the addition of neutral pentavalent
impurity atoms to the semiconductor i.e., there is no
addition of either negative changes or positive charges.
2.4.3 P–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called a
P-type extrinsic semiconductor.
In case of P-type semiconductor, the following points should be
remembered
(i) In P-type semiconductor materials, the majority carriers
are positive holes while minority carriers are the electrons.
(ii) The P–type semiconductor remains electrically neutral
as the number of mobile holes under all conditions remains
equal to the number of acceptors.
2.5 P–N Junction Diode
When a P-type material is intimately joined to N-type, a P-N
junction is formed. In fact, merely-joining the two pieces a P-N
junction cannot be formed because the surface films and other
irregularities produce major discontinuity in the crystal structure.
Therefore a P-N junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor
(say germanium) by diffusing P-type material to one half side
and N-type material to other half side.When P-type crystal is
placed in contact with N-type crystal so as to form one piece, the
assembly so obtained is called P-N junction diode.
2.5.1 Forward Bias
When external d.c. source is connected to the diode with p–section
connected to +ve pole and n–section connected to –e pole, the
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junction diode is said to be reverse biased.
2.5.2 Reverse Bias
When an external d.c. battery is connected to junction diode with
P–section connected to –ve pole and n–section connected to
+ve pole, the junction diode is said to be reverse biased.
P–N JUNCTION is such a device (any way) which offers
low resistance when forward biased and behaves like an
insulator when reverse biased.
Symbol :
2.6 Junction Diode as Rectifier
An electronic device which converts a.c. power into d.c. power
is called a rectifier.
2.6.1 Principle
Junction diode offers low resistive path when forward biased
and high resistance when reverse biased.
2.6.2 Arrangement
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step down
transformer. The secondary coil ‘S’ of transformer is connected
to the junction diode and load resistance RL. The output d.c.
voltage is obtained across RL.
2.6.3 Theory
Suppose that during first half of a.c. input cycle the junction
diode get forward biased. The conventional current will flow in
the direction of arrow heats.
SEMI CONDUCTOR
The upper end of RL will be at +ve potential w.r.t. the lower end.
The magnitude of output across RL during first half at any instant
will be proportional to magnitude of current through RL, which in
turn is proportional to magnitude of forward bias and which
ultimately depends upon the value of a.c. input at that time.
Thus output across RL will vary in accordance with a.c. input.
During second half, junction diode get reverse biased and hence
no–output will be obtained. Thus a discontinuous supply is
obtained.
2.7 Full Wave Rectifier
A rectifier which rectifies both halves of a.c. input is called full
wave rectifier.
2.7.1 Principle
Junction Diode offers low resistive path when forward biased
and high resistive path when reverse biased.
2.7.2 Arrangement
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step down
transformer. The two ends of S–coil (secondary) of transformer
are connected to P-section of junction diodes D1 and D2. A load
resistance RL is connected across the n–sections of two diodes
and central tapping of secondary coil. The d.c. output is obtained
across secondary.
2.7.3 Theory
Suppose that during first half of input cycle upper end of s-coil is
at +ve potential. The junction diode D1 gets forward biased,
while D2 gets reverse biased. The conventional current due to
D1 will flow along path of full arrows.
When second half of input cycle comes, the conditions will be
exactly reversed. Now the junction diode D2 will conduct and
the convensional current will flow along path of dotted arrows.
Since current during both the half cycles flows from right to left
through load resistance RL, the output during both the half cycles
will be of same nature.
The right end of RL is at +ve potential w.r.t. left end. Thus in full
wave rectifier, the output is continuous.
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2.8 Transistor
It is three section semiconductor, in which three sections are
combined so that the two at extreme ends have the same type of
majority carriers, while the section that separates them has the
majority carriers in opposite nature. The three sections of
transistor are called emitter (E), Base (B), collector (C).
Symbol :
2.8.1 Action of n-p-n Transistor
Fig. shows that, the n-type emitter is forward biased by connecting
it to -ve pole of VEB (emmitter-base battery) and n-type collector
is reverse biased by connected it to +ve pole of VCB (collector-
base battery).
The majority carriers (e–) in emitter are repelled towards base due
to forward biase. The base contains holes as majority carriers
but their number density is small as it is doper very lightly (5%)
as compared to emitter and collector. Due to the probability of e–
and hole combination in base is small. Most of e– (95%) cross
into collector region where they are swept away by +ve terminal
of battery VCB.
Corresponding to each electron that is swept by collector, an
electron enters the emitter from -ve pole of collector – base battery.
If Ie, Ib, Ic be emitter, base and collector current respectively then
using Kirchoff first law
Ie Ib  Ic
2.8.2 Action p–n–p Transistor
The p–type emitter is forward biased by connecting it to +ve
pole of emitter – base battery and p–type collector is reverse
biased by connected it to –ve pole of collection - base battery. In
this case, majority carriers in emitter i.e. holes are repelled towards
base due to forward biase. As base is lightly doped, it has low
number density of e–. When hole enters base region, then only
5% of e– and hole combination take place. Most of the holes
reach the collector and are swept away by –ve pole of VCB battery.
2.9 Common base Amplifier
In this base of the transistor is common to both emitter and
collector.
(a) Amplifier ckt. using n-p-n transistor : The emitter is
forward biased using emitter bias battery (Vcc) & due to
this, the resistance of input circuit bias battery (Vcc), due
to this, resistance of output circuit is large.
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 SEMI CONDUCTOR

Low input voltage is applied across emitter – base ckt. and and Ic be the emitter current, base current and collector
amplified circuit is obtained across collector - base circuit. If Ie, current respectively. Then according to Kirchhoff’s first
Ib, Ic be the emitter, base and collector current than law
Ie = Ib + Ic
Ie Ib  I c …(i)

When current Ic flows in collector circuit, a potential drop IcRc

occurs across the resistance connected in collector - base circuit
and base collector voltage will be

Vcb Vcc  Ic R c …(ii)

(b) Amplifier circuit using p–n–p Transistor

3. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage

1. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter–base
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
consequently the collector current increases.
2. As Ic increases, the collector voltage Vc decreases.
3. Since the collector is connected to the negative terminal
of VCC battery of voltage VCB, therefore, the decrease in
collector voltage means the collector will become less
negative. This indicates that during positive half cycle of
input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the
collector also varies through the positive half cycle.
4. During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage,
the output signal voltage at the collector also varies
through the negative half cycle. Thus in common base
transitor amplifier circuit the input signal voltage and the
output collector voltage are in the same phase.
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter-base
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
consequently the collector current increases. As a result
of which, the collector voltage Vc decreases.
4. Since the collector is connected to the positive terminal of
VCE battery, therefore decreases in collector voltage means
the collector will become less positive, which means
negative w.r. to initial value. This indicates that during
positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output
signal voltage at the collector varies through a negative
half cycle.
5. When negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it opposes the forward biasing of emitter-base
circuit, due to this the emitter current decreases and hence
collector current decreases; consequently the collector
voltage Vc increases i.e., the collector becomes more
positive. This indicate that during the negative half cycle
of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage varies
through positive half cycle.
2.11 Common base Amplifier
a.c. current gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in collector
current as constant collector voltage. It is denoted by Dac

2.10 Common Emitter Amplifier § 'I c ·

D ac ¨ ¸
¨ 'I ¸ [VCB = const.]
Amplifier circuit using n–p-n transitor © e ¹

1. The input (emitter base) circuit is forward biased with Voltage gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage
battery VBB of voltage VEB, and the output (collector- to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by A.
emitter) circuit is reversed biased with battery VCC of
voltage VCE. Due to this, the resistance of input circuit is 'I c R out 'I c R out
Av = u
low and that of output circuit is high. Rc is a load resistance 'I e R in 'I e R in
connected in collector circuit.
Or Av = DAC × resistance gain,
2. When no a.c. signal voltage is applied to the input circuit
where Rout/Rin is called resistance gain.
but emitter base circuit is closed let us consider, that Ie, Ib

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Power gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output power

to the change in input power. Therefore,

change in output power 'I c R out

a.c. power gain =
change in input power 'I e R in

'I 2 c R out
u
'I 2 e R in

Or a.c. power gain = D2ac × resistance gain.

4. DIGITAL SIGNALS
2.12 Common Emitter Amplifier
Signals having either of the two levels, 0 or 1, are called digital
a.c. current gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in signals.
collector to the change in base current. It is denoted by Eac.

§ 'Ic ·
Therefore, Eac = ¨ 'I ¸ [Vce = const.]
© b ¹v

Its value is quite large as compared to 1 and lies between 15 to 50.

Voltage gain : It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the
change in input voltage. It is denoted by A.

'I c u R out 'I c R out

Av = u
'I b u R in 'I b R in

Or Av = Eac × resistance gain.

a.c. power gain : It is the ratio of the change in output power to
the change in input power. 5. LOGIC GATES
A digital circuit which either stops a signal or allows it to pass
2
change in output power 'I c R out through it is called a gate. A logic gate is an electronic circuit
a.c. power gain = = 2
change in input power 'I b R in which makes logical decisions. Logic gate has one or more inputs
but one output. Logic gates are the basic building blocks for
Or a.c. power pain = E2ac × resistance gain. most of the digital systems. Variables used at the input and output
are 1’s and 0’s. These are three basic logic gates:
2.13 Relation between D and E
(i) OR gate (ii) AND gate
For both the types of amplifier, we have
(iii) NOT gate.
ie = ib + ic
5.1 OR Gate
Dividing both sides of the above equation by Ic, we get
OR gate is an electronic device that combines A and B to give Y
ie ib
1 as output. In this figure two inputs are A and B and output is Y.
ic ic In Boolean algebra OR is represented by +.
? 1/D = (1/E) + 1 or 1/E = (1/D) 1 = (1D)/D
or E = D/ (1D)

3. ANALOG SIGNALS
Truth Table: A truth table may be defined as the table which
Signals which varies continuously with time is called analog gives the output state for all possible input combinations.
signal. A typical analog signal is shown in figure. Circuit used
Logic operations of OR gate are given in its truth table for all
for generating analog signal is called analog electronic circuit.
possible input combinations.

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 SEMI CONDUCTOR

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 Truth Table :

1 1 1 A B Y’ Y
0 0 0 1
5.2 AND Gate
0 1 1 0
In an AND gate there are two or more inputs and one output. In
1 0 1 0
Boolean algebra AND is represented by a dot (.).
1 1 1 0

Boolean expression for NOT gate is and it is read as Y = A  B

and it is read as Y equals A OR B negated. A NOR function is the
reverse of OR function.
Truth Table

In put Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0 Truth Table :
1 0 0
In put Output
1 1 1
A B Y
5.3 NOT Gate 0 0 1
NOT gate is an electronic circuit which has one input and one 0 1 0
output. This circuit is so called because output is NOT the same 1 0 0
as input. 1 1 0

5.5 NAND Gate

A NAND gate has two or more inputs and one output. Actually
a NAND gate is a NOT–AND gate. If a NOT gate is connected at
the output of a AND gate, we get NAND gate as shown in figure
Boolean expression for NOT gate is Y = A .
and its truth table is given in table.
Truth Table:

In put Output
A Y
0 1
1 0 A B Y’ Y

0 0 0 1
5.4 NOR Gate
0 1 0 1
A NOR gate has two or more inputs and one output. Actually 1 0 0 1
NOR gate is a NOT-OR gate. If a NOT gate is connected at the 1 1 1 0
output of an OR gate, we get NOR gate as shown in figure and its
truth table in table.

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Truth Table :
Boolean expression for NAND gate, is Y = A . B and is read as Y
In put Output
equals A and B negated.
Logical symbol of NAND gate is shown in figure and its truth A B Y
table in table. 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Like NOR gate, NAND gate can also be used to realize all basic
gates : OR, AND and NOT. Hence it is also known as universal
Gate.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example - 1
Sol. (a) Ge diode will start conducting before the silicon diode
Find current passing through 2: and 4: resistance in the does so. The effective forward voltage across Ge diode is
circuit shown in figure. (12 – 0.3) V = 11.7 V. This will appear as the output voltage
across the load, i.e.,
V0 = 11.7 volt
The current through RL ,

11.7
i A
5 u 103
Sol. In the given circuit diode D1 is forward biased and D2 reverse
biased. Hence, D1 will conduct but D2 not. Therefore, current = 2.34 mA
through 4 : resistance will be zero while through 2 :
Example - 3
10
resistance wil be 5 A. The current gain of a transistor in a common base
2
arrangement in 0.98. Find the change in collector current
Example - 2 corresponding to a change of 5.0 mA in emitter current.
What would be the change in base current ?
(a) Calculate the value of V0 and i if the silicon and
germanium diode start conducting at 0.7 V and 0.3 respectively.
Sol. Given, D = 0.98 and 'ie = 5.0 mA
From the definition of ,

'i c
D
'i e

Change in collector current,

'ic = (D) ('ie) = (0.98) (5.0) mA = 4.9 mA

(b) If the Ge diode connection is now reversed, what will Futher, change in base current,
be the new values of v0 and i ? 'ib = 'ie – 'ic = 0.1 mA

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Example - 4 The corresponding truth table is as under.

A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. A B X= AOR B D = (A ORB) AND B
The collector supply is 8 V and the voltage drop across a
1 0 1 0
resistor of 800 : in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the
current gain factor (D) is 0.96, find the base current. 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
D 0.96
Sol. E 24 1 1 1 1
1 D 1  0.96
Example - 7
The collector current is,
Convert the decimal number 10.625 into its binary
Voltage drop across collector resistor equivalent.
ic
resistance

Sol. Integral part is 10. It can be converted into its binary part by
0.5
: 0.625 u 10 3 A using divide by 2 rule.
800
Example - 8
ic How many AM broadcast stations can be accomodated in
From the definition of E = i
b a 100 kHz bandwidth if the highest frequency modultating
Example - 5 a carriage is 5 kHz ?

In a common emitter amplifier, the load resistance of the Sol. Any station being modulated by a 5 kHz signal will produce
output circuit is 500 times the resistance of the input circuit. and upper side frequency 5 kHz above its carries and a
If D = 0.98, then find the voltage gain and power gain. lower side frequency 5 kHz below its carriaer, thereby
requiring a bandwidth of 10 kHz. Thus,
R out Number of stations accomodated
Sol. Given D = 0.98 and 500
R in
Total bandwidth
D 0.98 Bandwidth per station
E 49
1 D 1  0.98
100
= 10
§ R out · 10
(i) Voltage gain = (E) ¨ ¸ = (49) (500) = 24500
© R in ¹ Example - 9

How many 500 kHz waves can be on a 10 km transmission

2§
R out · line simultaneously ?
(ii) Power gain = E ¨ ¸ = (49)2 (500) = 1200500
R
© in ¹
Example - 6 Sol. Let O be the wavelength of 500 kHz signal. Then,
Write the truth table for the logical function D = (A OR B)
AND B. c 3.0 u 108
O m 600 m
f 5.0 u10

Sol. A OR B is a logical function, say it is equal to X, i.e., The number of cycle on the line can be found from,

X = A OR B
d 10 u 103
n 16.67
Now D = X AND B y 600

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Example - 10 (b) Population covered = (population density) × (area

A two wire transmission line has a capcitance of 20 pF/m covered)
2
and a characteristic impedance of 50:. = (1200) × (Sd )
3
(a) What is the inductance per metre of this cable ? = 2400 × 3.14 × 6.4 × 10 × 0.16
(b) Determine the impedence of an infinitely long section = 77.17 lac
of such cable.
(c) Coverage range v h
Sol. (a) The characteristic impedance, Therefore coverage range can be doubled by making height
of the tower four times of 640 m. So, height of the tower
Z L/C
should be increased by 480 m.
2
? L = (Z ) (C)
Example - 12
2 –12
= (50) (20 × 10 ) H
The core of an optical fibre is made of glass with refractive
= 0.05 PH index equal to 1.55 and clad has refractive index 1.51.
(b) The characteristic impedence of a transmission line is Calculate :
the impedence that an infinite length of line would present (a) the critical angle for total internal reflection.
to a power supply at the input end of the line. Thus,
(b) maximum acceptance angle at the air-core interface.
Zf Z0 50 :

Example - 11 §n ·
Sol. (a) Tc sin 1 ¨ 2 ¸
T.V. transmission tower at a paticular station has a height © n1 ¹
of 160 m.
Here, n1 = refractive index of core = 1.55
(a) What is the coverage range ?
and n2 = refractive index of clad = 1.51
(b) How much population is covered by transmission, if
the average population density around the tower is 1200 § 1.51 ·
2
per km ? ? Tc sin 1 ¨ ¸ 55.8q
© 1.55 ¹
(c) By how much the height of tower be increased to double
(b) Maximum acceptance angle at the air-core interface
its coverage range. Given, radius, radius of earth = 6400 km ?
1
= sin n12  n 22
Sol. (a) Coverage range d = 2 Rh

sin 1 ª«  1.51 º»
2 2
1.55
2 u 6400 u 10 u160 m
3 ¬ ¼

= 42.254 km = 20.4°

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1. The reading of the ammeter for a silicon diode in the given circuit is: (2018)

(a) 13.5 mA
(b) 0
(c) 15 mA
(d) 11.5 mA

2. In a common emitter configuration with suitable bias, it is given that RL is the load resistance and
RBE is small signal dynamic resistance (input side). Then, voltage gain, current gain and power gain
are given, respectively, by : β is current gain, IB, IC and IE are respectively base, collector and emitter
currents. (2018)
RL I C 2 RL
(a)  , ,
RBE I B RBE
R I R
(b)  L , E ,  2 L
RBE I B RBE
R I R
(c)  2 L , C ,  L
RBE I B RBE
R I R
(d)  2 L , C ,  2 L
RBE I E RBE

3. In the given circuit, the current through zener diode is : (2018)

(a) 3.3mA
(b) 2.5mA
(c) 5.5mA
(d) 6.7mA

4. In a common emitter amplifier circuit using an n-p-n transistor, the phase difference between the
input and the output voltages will be (2017)
(a) 900
(b) 1350
(c) 1800
(d) 450

5. The temperature dependence of resistances of Cu and undoped Si in the temperature range 300-
400 K, is best described by (2016)

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(a) linear increase for Cu, linear increase for Si
(b) linear increase for Cu, exponential increase for Si
(c) linear increase for Cu, exponential decrease for Si
(d) linear decrease for Cu, linear decrease for Si

6. Identify the semiconductor devices whose characteristics are as given below, in the order
(a),(b),(c),(d). (2016)
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a) Simple diode, Zener diode, Solar cell, Light dependent resistance
(b) Zener diode, Simple diode, Light dependent resistance, Solar cell
(c) Solar cell, Light dependent resistance, Zener diode, Simple diode
(d) Zener diode, Solar cell, Simple diode, Light dependent resistance

7. The forward biased diode connection is (2014)

(a)

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(b)

(c)

(d)

8. The I-V characteristics of an LED is (2013)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

9. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed. The wavelength λ of the light falling on the cathode
is gradually changed. The plate current I of photocell varies as follows (2013)
(a)

(b)

(c)

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(d)

(d)

10. A diode detector is used to detect an amplitude modulated wave of 60% modulation by using a
condenser of capacity 250 pF in parallel with a load resistance 100 kΩ. Find the maximum modulated
frequency which could be detected by it. (2013)
(a) 10.62 MHz
(b) 10.62 kHz
(c) 5.31 MHz
(d) 5.31 kHz

11. In a p-n junction diode not connected to any circuit: (1998)

(a) the potential is the same everywhere
(b) the p-type side is at a higher potential than the n-type side
(c) there is an electric field at the junction directed from the n-side to the p- side
(d) there is an electric field at the junction directed from the p-type side to the n-type side

12. Which of the following statements is not true ? (1997)

(a) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductors decreases with increase of temperature
(b) Doping pure Si with trivalent impurities give p-type semiconductors
(c) The majority carriers in n-type semiconductors are holes
(d) A p-n junction can act as a semiconductor diode

13. The circuit shown in the figure contains two diodes each with a forward resistance of 50 Ω and
with infinite backward resistance. If the battery voltage is 6 V, the current through the 100 Ω
resistance (in ampere) is (1997)

(a) zero
(b) 0.02
(c) 0.03
(d) 0.036

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14. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases when electromagnetic radiation of
wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it. The band gap (in eV) for semiconductor is
(1997)
(a) 0.9
(b) 0.7
(c) 0.5
(d) 1.1

15. Two identical p-n junctions may be connected in series with a battery in three ways . The
potential drops across the two p-n junctions are equal in (1989)

(a) circuit-I and circuit-2

(b) circuit-2 and circuit-3
(c) circuit-3 and circuit-1
(d) circuit-1 only

16. The density of electrons and holes in a pure germanium sample at room temperature are equal
and its value is 3 × 1016 m–3. On doping with aluminium, the hole density increases to 4.5 × 1022 m–3.
Then the electron density in doped germanium is
(a) 2 × 1010 m-3
(b) 5 × 109 m-3
(c) 4.5 × 10-10 m-3
(d) 3 × 109 m-3

17. A block of pure silicon at 300 K has a length of 10cm and an area of 10-4 m2. If a battery of emf
2 V is connected across this sample, then, the electron current is (Given: mobility of electrons is
0.14 m2 V-1 s-1 and electron density is 1.4 × 1016 m-3)
(a) 6.72 × 10-4 A
(b) 6.72 × 10-5 A
(c) 6.72 μA
(d) 0.56 μA

18. A piece of copper and silicon are first heated to a temperature of 1500C and then gradually
cooled. During the cooling
(a) the resistance of copper increases and that of silicon decreases
(b) the resistance of silicon increases and that of copper decreases
(c) the resistance of both silicon and copper increase
(d) the resistance of both copper and silicon decrease

19. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor specimen is found to increase when

electromagnetic radiation of wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it. The band gap in (eV)
for the semiconductor is
(a) 0.7 eV
(b) 0.5 eV

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(c) 2.5 eV
(d) 1.2 eV

20. In a p-type semiconductor the acceptor level is situated 60 meV above the valence band. The
maximum wavelength of light required to produce a hole in the valence band is
(a) 0.207 × 10-5 m
(b) 2.07 × 10-5 m
(c) 20.7 × 10-5 m
(d) 2075 × 10-5 m

21. A sample of silicon is doped with 1.5 × 105 arsenic atoms/cm3. If the intrinsic carrier density in
silicon at 300 K is 1.5 × 1010 / cm3, the electron density and hole density in each sample at 300 K
respectively (number density is in cm -3):
(a) are 1.5 × 1010, 1.5 × 1010 and the sample behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor
(b) are 1.5 × 1010, 1.5 × 1010 and the sample behaves as an extrinsic semiconductor
(c) are 1.5 × 1015, 1.5 × 1010 and the sample behaves as an extrinsic semiconductor
(d) cannot be calculated with the given data

22. n-type and p-type silicon semiconductors can be obtained by doping pure silicon with
(a) sodium and magnesium respectively
(b) phosphorus and boron respectively
(c) boron and phosphorus respectively
(d) indium and sodium respectively

23. If in a p-n junction diode, a square input signal of 10 V is applied, then the value of output signal
across RL will be

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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24. Which of the junction diodes shown in the following circuits is forward biased?
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

25. Zener diode is fabricated by

(a) heavily doping both p and n sides of the junction
(b) heavily doping the p side and lightly doping the n-side
(c) lightly doping the p side and heavily doping the n-side
(d) lightly doping both p and n sides of the junction

26. The graph that better represents the I-V characteristics of an ideal diode under forward bias is
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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27. In a photodiode, the value of the emf produced by monochromatic light is proportional to
(a) the barrier voltage at p-n junction
(b) the intensity of light falling on the photodiode
(c) the frequency of light falling on the photodiode
(d) the voltage applied at the p-n junction

28. Efficiency of a half wave rectifier is nearly

(a) 80%
(b) 60%
(c) 40%
(d) 20%

29. In a transistor, the least doped region is

(a) emitter
(b) base
(c) collector
(d) both emitter and collector

30. In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains frequency, the fundamental frequency
in the ripple would be
(a) 70.7 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 25 Hz
(d) 50 Hz

31. In in the output characteristics of a transistor in CE - mode, initially even for a very small change
in VCE, IC increases almost linearly. This shows that the transistor is in
(a) active state
(b) saturation state
(c) conducting state
(d) cut-off state

32. From the following circuits, choose the circuit that correctly represents the biasing circuit of a
transistor.
(a)

(b)

(c)

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(d)

33. The current gain for a transistor is less than unity for
(a) common base mode
(b) common collector mode
(c) common emitter mode
(d) both (A) and (B).

34. The current gain of a transistor in common base mode is 0.99. If the change in emitter current is
5 mA, then the change in collector current is
(a) 4.95 mA
(b) 5.4 mA
(c) 5.99 mA
(d) 0.198 mA

35. The current gain of a transistor in common base mode is 0.98. If the change in emitter current is
2 mA, the corresponding change in base current is
(a) 2 mA
(b) 980 mA
(c) 0.04 mA
(d) 1 mA

36. A p-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding

(a) arsenic to pure silicon
(b) gallium to pure silicon
(c) antimony to pure germanium
(d) phosphorous to pure germanium

37. The valency of the impurity atom that is to be added to germanium crystal so as to make it an
n-type semiconductor, is
(a) 6
(b) 5
(c) 4
(d) 3

38. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from the room temperature to 80 K,
then which of the following would be a correct statement?
(a) Resistance of each increases
(b) Resistance of each decreases
(c) Resistance of copper increases while that of germanium decreases
(d) Resistance of copper decreases while that of germanium increases

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39. In an insulator, the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is of
the order of
(a) 1 MeV
(b) 0.1 MeV
(c) 1 eV
(d) 5 eV

40. The energy band gap of Si is

(a) 0.70 eV
(b) 1.1 eV
(c) between 0.70 eV to 1.1 eV
(d) 5 eV

41. In a semiconductor, the separation between conduction band and valence band is of the order of
(a) 100 eV
(b) 10 eV
(c) 1 eV
(d) zero

42. A piece of semiconductor is connected in series in an electric circuit. On increasing the

temperature, the current in the circuit will
(a) decrease
(b) remain unchanged
(c) increase
(d) stop flowing

43. Intrinsic semiconductor is electrically neutral. Extrinsic semiconductor having large number of
current carriers would be
(a) positively charged
(b) negatively charged
(c) positively charged or negatively charged depending upon the type of impurity that has been
added
(d) electrically neutral

44. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
0.36 m2/Vs and 0.17 m2/Vs. The electron and hole densities are each equal to 2.5 × 1019 m-3. The
electrical conductivity of germanium is
(a) 0.47 S/m
(b) 5.18 S/m
(c) 2.12 S/m
(d) 1.09 S/m

45. In the circuit given below, the value of the current is

(a) zero
(b) 10–2 A
(c) 102 A
(d) 10–3 A

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46. What is the current in the circuit shown below?

(a) zero
(b) 10-2 A
(c) 1 A
(d) 0.10

47. A p-n junction has a thickness of the order of

(a) 1 cm
(b) 1 mm
(c) 10-6 m
(d) 10-12 cm

48. For the given circuit of p-n-junction diode, which of the following statement is correct

(a) In forward biasing the voltage across R is V

(b) In forward biasing the voltage across R is 2V
(c) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is V
(d) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is 2V

49. The diode shown in the circuit is a silicon diode. The potential difference between the points A
and B will be

(a) 6 V
(b) 0.6 V
(c) 0.7 V
(d) zero

50. The current through an ideal p-n-junction shown in the circuit diagram will be

(a) zero
(b) 1 mA
(c) 10 mA
(d) 30 mA

51. The equivalent resistance of the circuit across AB is given by

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(a) 4 Ω
(b) 13 Ω
(c) 4 Ω or 13 Ω
(d) 4 Ω or zero

52. The width of depletion region in a p-n junction is 500 nm and an intense electric field of 6 × 105
Vm-1 is also found to exist. The potential barrier is
(a) 0.30 V
(b) 0.40 V
(c) 3 V
(d) 4 V

53. The transfer ratio β of a transistor is 50. The input resistance of the transistor when used in the
common emitter configuration is 1 k Ω. The peak value of the collector AC current for a peak value of
AC input voltage of 0.01 V is
(a) 100 μA
(b) 0.01 μA
(c) 0.25 μA
(d) 500 μA

54. In a transistor circuit shown here the base current is 35 μA. The value of the resistor Rb is

(a) 124 kΩ
(b) 257 kΩ
(c) 352 kΩ
(d) None of these
(b)

55. In a common base transistor circuit, the current gain is 0.98. On changing the emitter current by
5.00 mA, the change in collector current is
(a) 0.196 mA
(b) 2.45 mA
(c) 4.9 mA
(d) 5.1 mA

56. What is β value for transistor whose α = 0.98 ?

(a) 29
(b) 38

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(c) 49
(d) 56

57. When the emitter current of a transistor is changed by 1 mA, its collector current changes by
0.990 mA. In the common base circuit, current gain for the transistor is
(a) 0.099
(b) 1.01
(c) 1.001
(d) 0.990

58. In a transistor the current amplification factor a is 0.9. The transistor is connected in common
base configuration. The change in collector current when base current changes by 4 mA is
(a) 4 mA
(b) 12 mA
(c) 24 mA
(d) 36 mA

59. The combination of gates shown here are equivalent to

(a) OR gate and an AND gate respectively

(b) AND gate and a NOT gate respectively
(c) AND gate and an OR gate respectively
(d) OR gate and a NOT gate respectively

60. The Boolean expression of NOR gate is

(a) C = A + B
(b) C = A + B
(c) C = A.B
(d) C = A.B

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 ANSWER KEYS

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (a)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (b) 41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (c)
45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (c) 57. (d) 58. (d)
59. (a) 60. (b)

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 SOLUTIONS

1. (c)

2. (a)

3. (a)

4. (c)

5. (c)
As, we know Cu is conductor, so with increase in temperature, resistance will increase. Si is
semiconductor, so with increase in temperature, resistance will decrease.

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6. (a)
Theoretical question. Therefore, no solution is required.

7. (a)

8. (a)
For same value of current higher value of voltage is required for higher frequency.

9. (d)

10. (b)

11. (c)
At junction a potential barrier/depletion layer is formed, with n-side at higher potential and p-side at
lower potential. Therefore, there is an electric field at the junction directed from the n-side to p-
side.

12. (c)
In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority charge carries.

13. (b)

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14. (c)

15. (b)
In circuit 2 both the diodes are forward biased and in circuit 3 both the diodes are reverse biased.

16. (a)

17. (d)

18. (b)
Copper is a conductor whose resistance decreases with decrease in temperature whereas silicon is a
semiconductor whose resistance increases with decrease in temperature (semiconductors have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance).

19. (b)

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20. (b)

21. (a)

22. (b)
Phosphorous is pentavalent and boron is trivalent material.

23. (c)
The junction diode will conduct when it is forward biased. Therefore, the output voltage will be
obtained during positive half cycle.

24. (b)

25. (a)
When both p and n sides of the junction are heavily doped, the depletion region formed is very thin
(less than 10-6 m). Even for a small reverse bias, (a few volts) the electric field is very high (∽ 5 × 106
V m-1) which results in a breakdown.

26. (a)

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In an ideal diode, the current I is independent of the bias voltage above the junction potential.

27. (b)
In a photodiode, the emf produced by photovoltaic action is proportional to the intensity of incident
light.

28. (c)
Only around 40% of the AC input power is converted to DC in a half wave rectifier.

29. (b)
The base of a transistor is made thin (about 1/150 of the total) and is least doped (about 1/10 of the
doping level of collector) in order to transfer most of the charge carries injected into the base circuit
from the emitter to the collector circuit.

30. (b)
Input → sin t → which involves cos 2t

31. (b)
In the saturation state the current is controlled by the supply voltage VCC (= VCE) in this part of the
characteristic.

32. (d)
In a transistor circuit for normal operation the emitter base junction is always forward biased and
the collector base junction is reverse biased. Therefore, circuit (D) correctly represents the biasing
circuit of a given n-p-n transistor.

33. (a)

34. (a)

35. (c)

36. (b)

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37. (b)

38. (d)

39. (d)

40. (b)

41. (c)

42. (c)

43. (d)

44. (c)

45. (b)

46. (a)

47. (c)
The thickness of p-n junction has a order of 10-6 m.

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48. (a)
In case of forward biasing, resistance of pin junction diode is zero, So, whole voltage appears across
the resistance.

49. (a)

50. (a)
The diode is in reverse biasing, so no current flows through it.

51. (c)

52. (a)
V = Ed = (6 105 )(500 10−9 ) = 0.30 V

53. (d)

54. (b)

55. (c)

56. (c)

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57. (d)

58. (d)

59. (a)

60. (b)

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