The respiratory system

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The components of the respiratory system are respiratory passages and lungs. The nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi are continuous open passages to the lung and therefore,
called respiratory passages.
NOSE/NASAL CAVITY
It is the first part of the respiratory passage and extends from exterior to nasopharynx. This
bilateral irregular tubular passage is enclosed by facial bones and cartilages. The external
openings are known as anterior nares (nostrils). These are comma shaped oblique openings
placed on either ends of the muzzle. These are close together below than above. Nostrils are
supported by alar cartilage and the rostral part of the cartilagenous nasal septum. The alar
cartilage forms the dorsal wall by its lamina and lateral wall by its cornu and transverse bar
which looks like an anchor. The medial wall is formed by nasal septum. The skin on the
dorsal and lateral walls are covered by haris and the skin between, around and the lining of
the nostrils is devoid of haris and remains moist. The nasal septum is a midline partition
placed vertically which divides the nose into two cavities. Its posterior part is osseous and is
formed by ethmoid and vomar bone. The anterior part is lamina and lateral wall by its comu
and transverse bar which looks like an anchor. The medial will between, around and the
lining of the nostaisis devoid of haris and remains moist. The navel septum is a midline
partition placed vertically which divides the nose into two cavities. Iis posterior part is
osseous and is formed by ethmoid and vomar bone. The anterior part is cartilagenous. This
septal cartilage dorsally connected with nasal bones. It is expanded on either side to form
dorsolateral cartilages and makes the roof. The posterior part of the roof is formed by the
cells and cribriform plate of ethmoid bone. The ventral border of the septal cartilage is fitted
with the groove of the vomar cartilage cartilage and connected to the palatine process of
premaxilla. The anterior parts of the ventral Premaxilla border is expanded bilaterally to form
ventral cartilage lateral cartilages. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by palatine maxilla
and premaxilla. The cartilage posterior nares (choanae) are thick slit like
Fig. 6.56 Cartilages of nose.
apertures, connect the nasal cavities with the
nasopharynx.
Major portion of each half of the nasal cavity is occupied by dorsal and ventral turbinate
bones (concha). These bones are projected from the lateral walls of the cavity and form dorsal
middle and ventral meatus between the roof and dorsal turbinate either side to 10mm
dorsolateral cartilages and
is formed by the cells and cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone. The ventral border of the septal
Ventral lateral
Dorso-lateral cartilage is fitted with the groove of the vomar
cartilage cartilage and connected to the palatine process of
premaxilla. The anterior parts of the ventralPremaxilla
Lamina of alar
border is expanded bilaterally to form ventral
cartilage
lateral cartilages. The floor of the nasal cavity
Cornu of alar
is formed by palatine maxilla and premaxilla. The
cartilage
posterior nares (choanae) are thick slit like
apertures, connect the nasal cavities with the
Fig. 6.56 Cartilages of nose.
nasopharynx.
Major portion of each half of the nasal cavity is occupied by dorsal and ventral turbinate
bones
(concha). These bones are projected from the lateral walls of the cavity and form dorsal
middle and
ventral meatus between the roof and dorsal turbinate, between the dorsal and ventral
turbinates and
between the ventral turbinate and floor respectively. The middle meatus is divided posteriorly
into
two for the presence of ethmoturbinate bone. The upper one communicates with the frontal
sinus
and the lower one is connected with maxillary sinus. However, there is a common space
between the
median septum and the turbinate bones. The whole of the cavity is lined by mucous
membrane. The
anterior th part is the respiratory portion and the posterior Yth part is the olfactory portion of
the
mucous membrane. The mucous membrane is closely attached to the perichondrium or
periosteum.
It is continuous with the conjunctiva through naso lacrimal duct, with the paranasal sinuses
by their
openings and with the pharynx by choanae.
makes the roof. The posterior part of the roof

255
SPLANCHNOLOGY
The Vomaro-nasal organ (organ of Jacobson) are in the form of two small tubes, each of
which is placed along the ventral border of nasal septum. They open in the oral cavity on
either side
of the papilla incisiva along with those of incisival ducts. Other ends of the tubes are blind.
The two
incisival (naso palatine) ducts are small and extend from the floor of the nasal cavity to the
papilla
incisiva. The nasal opening of nasolacrimal duct opens on the medial surface of the alar fold
of the
ventral nasal concha.
Blood supply-Sphenopalatine, ethmoidal and palatine arteries.
Nerve supply-Branches of olfactory and trigenimal nerves.
Brain
Frontal sinus
Torus linguae
Fig. 6.57 Sagittal section of head of ox.
PHARYNX
The air that passes through nasal cavities reaches the nasopharynx and oropharynx to enter
the
larynx. The pharynx has been described in the previous chapter.
LARYNX
It is an elongated musculo-cartilaginous compartment situated between the pharynx and
trachea.
The roof is related to the pharynx and the begining of esophagus. The lateral walls are in
relation to
omohyoideus and sternomandibularis (constrictor) muscles. The ventral wall is related to
sterno-
thyro-hyoideus muscles.
The cartilages of the larynx are (1) Thyroid, (2) Cricoid, (3) Arytenoid and (4) Epiglottis.
Thyroid cartilage-It is the largest of the four and forms the ventral and lateral walls of the
larynx. It has a body and two laterally placed laminae. The dorsal surface of the body is
related anteriorly with the base of epiglottis. The ventral surface presents a swollen area
known as laryngeal prominence. The cranial angles of the lamina on either side are extended
forward and upward. These are termed cranial cornua. The caudal cornua are blunt. Each
cranial cornu articulates with the thyroid cornu of the hyoid bone. The caudal cornua
articulates with the concerned aspect of cricoid cartilage. Ventral to the cranial cornu, a deep
fissure forms a foramen with the help of fibrous tissuethrough which the cranial laryngeal
nerve passes.
Cricoid cartilage-It is a signet ring shaped structure placed in front of first trachial ring and
caudal to all other laryngeal cartilages. The dorsal broad part is the lamina of the cartilage.
Arytenoid cartilage These are a pair of cartilages situated in front of the cricoid and form the
caudal part of the roof of the laryngeal box. Each cartilage has three surfaces, a base and an
apex. The surfaces are medial lateral and dorsal. The base is concave and articulates with the
cricoid. The apex is free and curved backward and upward. The curved terminal part has been
named as corniculate cartilages by some authors.
Epiglottis—This is a leaf or plate like structure and presents two surfaces, a base and an
apex.
The base is attached to the cranial part of the dorsal surface of thyroid cartilage by ligaments.
The apex is free and curved forward and downward. The lingual surface is convexo-concave
and is connected to the root of the tongue by a glossoepiglottic fold. The laryngeal surface is
concave and smooth through which tile Claude dig
Cricoid cartilage—It is a signet ring shaped structure placed in front of first trachial ring and
caudal to all other laryngeal cartilages. The dorsal broad part is the lamina of the cartilage.
Arytenoid cartilage—These are a pair of cartilages situated in front of the cricoid and form
the caudal part of the roof of the laryngeal box. Each cartilage has three surfaces, a base and
an apex. The surfaces are medial lateral and dorsal. The base is concave and articulates with
the cricoid. The apex is free and curved backward and upward. The curved terminal part has
been named as corniculate cartilages by some authors.
Epiglottis—This is a leaf or plate like structure and presents two surfaces, a base and an
apex.
The base is attached to the cranial part of the dorsal surface of thyroid cartilage by ligaments.
The apex is free and curved forward and downward. The lingual surface is convexo-concave
and is connected to the root of the tongue by a glossoepiglottic fold. The laryngeal surface is
concave and smooth. The cartilages of the larynx are functioned by a group of extrinsic and
another group of intrinsic muscles. The extrinsic muscles are sterno-thyro-hyoideus,
thyrohyoideus, and hyo epiglottideus. There are four pairs of intrinsic muscles. These are
crico-thyroideus, crico-arytenoideus posticus, crico- arytenoideus lateralis and thyro-
arytenoideus. Beside the paired muscles, there is one single arytenoideus muscle which is
placed across the concave dorsal surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages. Laryngeal cavity-It
extends from the entrance of the larynx (aditus laryngis) to the caudal border of cricoid
cartilage. The entrance is bounded ventrally by the epiglottis, laterally by lateral
folds and dorso caudally by arytenoid cartilages. For description the cavity is divided into
three parts
- (a) Vestibule, (b) Rima glottidis and (c) Caudal compartment. Rima glottidis is the space
between
vocal cords. The space in front of rima glottidis is vestibule and the space behind is the
caudal
compartment.
Blood supply-Cranial and caudal laryngeal arteries.
Nerve supply-Laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves.
TRACHEA
It is an elastic tube extends from larynx to the level of the base of the heart and is made up
cartilages and membranes. There are about 50 to 60 cartilages in the form of incomplete rings
with the open end placed dorsally. The rings are completed by connective tissue and smooth
muscle fibers
SPLAT
is about Nerve supply-Laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves.
TRACHEA
SP
NI'
It is an elastic tube extends from larynx to the level of the base of the heart and is made up of
cartilages and membranes. There are about 50 to 60 cartilages in the form of incomplete rings
with the open end placed dorsally. The rings are completed by connective tissue and smooth
muscle fibers of trachial muscle. The trachial tube is about 60 cm. long and terminates by
bifurcating into two (right and left) bronchi at the base of the heart which enter into
corresponding lung. For
Larynx
description it may be divided into a cervical part and a thoracic part.
Cervical part-It extends from the larynx to the level of thoracic inlet. The tube is dorsally
related to the esophagus up to the level of 3rd servical vertebra and then by longus coli . For
description it may be divided into a cervical part and a thoracic part.
Cervical part-It extends from the larynx to the level of thoracic inlet. The tube is dorsally
related to the esophagus up to the level of 3rd cervical vertebra and then by longus coli
muscles. Ventrally it is related to sterno-thyro-hyoideus muscles and laterally to the carotid
artery, jugular vein, vagosympathetic trunk and recurrent laryngeal nerve. However, the
dorsolateral aspect of the left side is related to the esophagus.
Thoracic part-It is situated at the dorsal aspect of the cranial mediastinum and a portion
of the middle mediastinum. At the level of 3rd intercostal space it gives off an extra bronchus
at the right side which ventilates the apical lobe of the right lung. This is known as apical
bronchus. It is related dorsally to the esophagus and longus colli muscle; left laterally to the
aortic arch, left axillary artery and thoracic duct; right laterally to the vagus and ventrally to
the anterior venacava, brachiocephalic trunk and recurrent laryngeal nerves.
Structure-The trachea is composed of an outer fibrous adventitia, cartilagenous rings, a
submucous coat and mucous membrane. The outer fibrous layer may possess some
longitudinal muscle fibers on the dorsal wall. The cartilagenous rings are of hyaline in nature.
The submucous coat has a good number of serous and mucous glands, occasional lymphoid
follicles and plenty of elastin fibers. The mucous membrane is composed of pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium.
THORACIC CAVITY
It is a laterally compressed cone shaped cavity with an oblique and concave base which is
directed backward. The cranial cone is the thoracic inlet. The inlet is an oval opening formed
by Ist thoracic vertebra, first pair of ribs and the cranial end of the sternum. The base is
formed by the diaphragm.
Lateral walls are formed by the ribs and the thoracic muscles such as inter-costals, latissimus
dorsi, Serratus thoracis, Serratus dorsalis anticus, Serratus dorsalis posticus, rectus thoracis,
longissimus costarum etc. The roof is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, proximal ends of ribs
and muscles such as longissimus dorsi, levator costarum and multifidus dorsi. The sternum,
distal ends of costal cartilages along with the muscles such as transversus thoracis and
pectorals from the floor of the thoracic cavity. The walls roof and the floor are externally
covered by skin and subcutaneous tissue and internally lined by a serous membrane - the
pleura. The contents of the thoracic cavity are lungs, heart, thoracic part of esophagus and
trachea, begining of large vessels, lymphnodes, nerves and vessels. In younger animals it
contains thymus.
PLEURA
This is a thin transparent serous membrane which encloses a lung and lines the interior of
thoracic cavity. Out of the two separate sacs each comprises of a parietal and a visceral part.
Costal pleura, diaphragmatic pleura and mediastinal pleura are the names of different parts of
parietal pleura on the basis of their attachments with the concerned wall of the thorax. The
visceral pleura which invests the surface of the lung is continuous with the parietal pleura at
the root of the lung. The visceral pleura passes into the interlobar fissure and becomes
blended intimately with the connective tissue framework of the lungs. The apex of each
pleural sae is known as cupula. A part of the right pleura invaginates longitudinally to enclose
the thoracic venacava, known as fold of venacava. The pleural sacs always remain moist by
the liquor pleurae, the secretion of the free surface of the membrane and therefore, provide a
frictionless environment during inspiration. The pleura receives blood supply from the
intercostal and bronchial arteries and nerve supply from vagus, sympathetic
and intercostal nerves. The pleura is formed by a single layer of squamous mesothelial cells
lying on a loose connective tissue layer. Numerous microvilli and few cilia are present on the
free surface of the cells.
MEDIASTINUM
The right and left pleural sacs are separated from each other by an interpleural space at the
midline - known as mediastinum. It extends from thoracic inlet to the diaphragm along the
mid-axis of the thorax. Vertically the space extends from the vertebral column to the sternum.
The cavity is imaginarily divided into three portions - cranial, middle and caudal. The space
in front of the heart is the cranial mediastinum. It contains esophagus great vessels, lymph
glands, vagus, phrenic and cardiac nerves.
In fetus and young animals it also contains thymus. The middle mediastinum is occupied by
heart, origin of great vessels, esophagus, bifurcating trachea, vagus and phrenic nerves. The
caudal mediastinum is the space behind the heart. It accommodates the thoracic part of aorta,
venacava, esophagus, vagus and phrenic nerves.
Lungs are a pair of main organ of respiration. They occupy most parts of the thoracic cavity
and are separated by mediastinum. Each lung invaginates into the corresponding pleural
cavity and is invested intimately by the visceral layer of pleura except at the hilar area. It is
pink in fesh condition. The organ is soft and spongy in apearance. It crepitates to the touch
and floats on water. In still-born calf lung tissue is solid and does not float on water because
it did not breath earlier. Each lung is conical in shape, divided into lobes by fissures and
presents two surfaces, two borders, a base and an apex. The right lung is bigger than the left.
The surface presents numerous polyhedral markings of the underlying lung lobules.
Trachea Right Lung
Borders—Dorsal border is thick, rounded and related to the proximal ends of ribs and
sympathetic trunk. Ventral border is irregular thin and shorter than dorsal border. Both the
lungs presents cardiac notches at the level of the heart. The cardiac notch in the left lung is
big and in the form of a 'L' gap.
Due to the absences of parenchyma at the notches, portions of the lateral walls of the heart as
well as the pericardium is related directly to the corresponding thoracic wall.
Base—The base is concave and is moulded on the thoracic surface of diaphragm. The base of
right lung is more concave due to the placement of liver at the other side of diaphragm. This
surface is oval in outline and bounded by basal border.
Apex—The apex of each lung is placed within cupula pleurae. The apex of left lung is more
or less pointed. In the right lung the apex is much larger, rounded and occupies the space in
front of heart OG and extends also to the left side. The apical lobe of right lung is ventilated
by a separate bronchus known as apical bronchus. This is a peculiarity in the ruminants.
Surfaces—The lateral or costal surface is convex, smooth and related to the inner aspect of
thoracic wall and presents impressions of ribs and cartilages. The medial surface consists of
the dorsal or vertebral part and the ventral or mediastinal part. The vertebral part is related to
the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae and the mediastinal part is related to the structures present
in the mediastinal space. The hilum of lung is roughly a triangular nonpleural area above and
behind the cardiac notch which transmits the bronchus, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein,
bronchial artery, nerves of the
Groove for aorta
Cardiac notch
Groove for aorta
Groove for esophagus
Groove for esophagus
Dorsal border
Apical lobe
Dorsal border
Intermediate lobe

Y
SPLANCHNOL
261
pulmonary plexus and lymphatics. The cardiac impression is a deep concave area which
lodges the heart covered by the fibrous pericardium. The cardiac impression of left lung is
larger but it is deeper in right lung. Beside these the mediastinal surfaces present a number of
impressions for various mediastinal structures. In the right lung a horizontal impression of
trachea extends cranially from the hilus towards the apex along the dorsal aspect of the
cardiac impression. Two horizontal grooves which are prominent in both the lungs extend
caudally from the hilus; the dorsal one is for aorta and the ventral one is for the esophagus. In
between the intermediate and diaphragmatic lobes of the right lung, the abdominal vena cava
is lodged.
LOBES
The lungs are divided into lobes by fissures of variable depth. The right lung presents four
lobes - (1) Apical, (2) Cardiac, (3) Diaphragmatic and (4) Accessory or intermediate. The
apical lobe is large and partially subdivided into a cranial and a caudal part. The cardiac lobe
is elongated and related to the heart. The diaphragmatic lobe is the largest and is placed
caudally. It is related to diaphragm. The accessory or intermediate lobe is in the form of a
triangular mass attached to the diaphragmatic lobe of right lung at its medial aspect and
placed just caudal to the hilus. The left lung presents three lobes-(1) Apical, (2) Cardiac, (3)
Diaphragmatic. The apical lobe is small. The cardiac lobe along with the apical lobe forms
the extensive cardiac impression. As the fissure between the apical and cardiac lobes is not
deep, some authors have described both the lobes
as a single one.
SPLANCHN
OLOGY
STRUCTURE OF THE LUNG
It is an organ that encloses spaces. Each lung is composed of an external serous coat, a
subserous areolar tissue and pulmonary substance. The serous coat is derived from
pulmonary pleura and invests the lung except at its hilum. The subserous coat is composed
Alveolus Alveolar duct Respiratory bronchiole of elastic fibro areolar tissue. invests the lungs
and enters the organ at the hilum to form interlobular septa. Each lung contains several
thousand lobules. The pulmonary substance is composed of these lobules. Each lobule
receives a terminal bronchiole which again subdivides into few successive orders to form
respiratory bronchioles. The area of lung parenchyma provided by one terminal respiratory
bronchiole is known as the pulmonary or lung unit. The terminal respiratory bronchiole
divides to form several alveolar sacs and ultimately to alveolus. The alveolar duct, alveolar
sac and alveoli constitute the respiratory portion of lobules. These portions do not have walls
of their own. These are the enclosed spaces within the capillary bed where air can come in
close contact with the blood. The alveolar epithelium is composed of type I and type II
pneumocytes. The type I cells are squamous and possess centrally placed nucleus and thin
cytoplasm. Type II cells are rounded in shape and project into the lumen of the alveolus.
Alveolar phagocytes (macrophages) are also found in the cavity of the alveoli. In between the
two layers of alveolar epithelium there remains a thin layer of connective tissue with rich
network of capillaries surrounded by collagen and elastin fibers along with some cells
such as fibroblasts, pericytes, lymphocytes, plasma cells, mast cells, and neutrophils.
Internally the alveolar surface is covered by a thin film of surfactant which is probably
produced by the type II pneumocytes. This surfactant reduces surface tension of the alveoli.
BRONCHIAL TREE
Trachea after giving off apical bronchus at the level of 3rd rib, bifurcates into left and right
principal or Primary bronchi at the base of the heart, each of which enter into the
corresponding lung. Each primary bronchus divides into secondary bronchi, one for each
bronchial lobe and hence called the lobar bronchus. Each lobar bronchus again divides into
tertiary bronchi. Each of these teritary or segmental bronchus ventilate a particular portion of
lung, called bronchopulmonary Small bronchus segment. Within the bronchopulmonary
segment the tertiary bronchus will repeatedly divide, loose their cartilagenous component
from the wall and then termed bronchioles. The bronchioles will give rise to terminal
broncheoles.
Blood supply-Functional - Pulmonary artery
Nutritional - Bronchial artery.
Nerve supply-Pulmonary branches from vagus and sympathetic.
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Lungs get blood supply from two sources; (a) Pulmonary artery and (b) Bronchial arteries.
The pulmonary artery originates from the right ventricle of heart and carries deoxygenated
blood. The vessels breaks up into arterioles and finally capillaries to make network around
alveoli. After gasious exchange the oxygenated blood ultimately returns to the heart via
pulmonary vein. The bronchial arteries after its origin from the aorta enter the lung and
branch along the divisions of bronchial tree. But the branches of bronchial artery supply only
up to respiratory bronchioles. It carries oxygenated blood. The bronchial arteries also breaks
up into capillaries, some of which join the alveolar network and some return via brochial vein
or azygos vein. However the branches of bronchial artery and vein communicate with the
branches of pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein respectively. The number of pulmonary
veins which enter the left atrium are generally three or four. However the number is highly
variable. Out of these three veins, one drains blood from cranial part of left lung; one drains
the apical part of right lung and the other one drains the caudal parts of both the lungs.
Difference between left and right lungs apical part of right lung and the other one drains the
caudal parts of both the lungs.
Difference between left and right lungs
Right
Left
1. Larger
1. Smaller.
24. Lobes
23 Lobes.
3 Base more concave
3. Less concave.
4. Apical lobe larger
4. Apical lobe small
5. Cardiac impression is more deep.
5. Cardiac notch is wide.
6. Apical bronchus present.
6. Absent.
7. Intermediate lobe present.
7. Intermediate lobe absent.
Respiratory organs of horse
1. Nasal cavity is larger and narrower.
2. Middle meatus is not divided posteriorly.
3. The nasal orifice of the nasolacrimal duct is visible at the floor of the nasal cavity about 5
cm. behind the ventral commissure of nostril. The nostrils are dialated.
4. The larynx presents a prominent vocal cord.
3. The epiglottis is long and pointed.
6. The thoracic cavity is larger.
7. The trachea is comparatively long.
8 The anical bronchus is absent.
9. The fissures in the lung are not deep and the lobes are not prominent.
10. The apical lobe of right lung is not as large as found in ox.
11. There are 3 unpaired (cricoid, thyroid, epiglottis) and 3 paired (Arytenoid, corniculate,
cuneiform) cartilages in the larynx of horse.
Respiratory organs of dog
1. The shape and size of the nasal cavity varies according to breed.
2. Nostrils are comma shaped.
3. A pair of extra cartilages are found attached to the arytenoid cartilages of the larynx. They
are known as cuneiform cartilages.
4. Vocal cords are prominent.
5. Trachea does not possess apical bronchus.
6. The fissures are deep and the lobes are prominent.
7. Number of laryngeal cartilages are similar to those of horse.
8. Right lung has 4 lobes apical, cardiac, diaphragmatic and accessory. The left lung has two
lobes- apical and diaphragmatic.
Respiratory organs of pig
1. The nose is extended from the snout to the level of the eye.
2. Nostrils cannot be dilated much becauses they are embedded within the skeleton of face.
3. The snout is formed by the apex of the nose and the upper lip. Two rounded openings
(Nostrils) are situated in the snout.
4. The skin covering the snout is pigmented and divided by shallow grooves. These surface
markings are specific for individual animals and helpful for identification.
5. The nasal cavity is comparatively long.
6. Larynx is elongated and the vocal fold is formed by the mucous membrane
Epiglottis which covers the caudal part of vocal ligament and thyroarytenoideus muscle.
Trachea
7. Right lung has 4 lobes - (a) apical (b) cardiac, (c) diaphragmatic and (d)
Apical lobe
intermediate. The left lung has 2 lobes---
Apico-cardiac-
(a) apico-cardiac and (b) diaphragmatic. lobe
Cardiac lobe
8. The apical bronchus is present for Intermadiate
right apical lobe at the level of 3rd rib.
Diaphragmatic-
lobe
Diaphragmatic
Respiratory organs of rabbit
lobe
1. Nostrils are in the form of clongated slits between the nasal flap and
Left lung
upper jaw
Right lung
2. The nasal bones are well built and the nasal cavities are extended
3. The tip of the epiglottis is rounded but bifurcated.
4. The trachea is about 6 cm long and possesses no apical bronchus.
5. Right lung has 4 distinct lobes - (a) apical, (b) cardiac, (c) diaphragmatic and (d)
intermediate.
The left lung has only two lobes - (a) apico-cardiac and (b) diaphragmatic.
Respiratory organs of fowl
1. The nostrils are slit like opening in the upper beak. Its dorsal border is bounded by a small
piece of horny skin - the operculum.
2. Nasal cavities are narrow and each has 3 compartments (a) vestible, (b) respiratory and (c)
olfactory; from front to back. The posterior nares form a common opening before joining the
pharynx. The nasal cavities contain nasal glands.
3. The larynx comprises of four cartilages - cricoid, pre-cricoid and one pair of arytenoid.
4. Trachea is formed by about 115 complete cartilagenous rings. Except the first and last,
these rings are signate rings.
5. The point of bifurcation of trachea into two primary bronchi is dilated to form a
cartilagenouscompartment. It is known as syrinx. It is respondible for the production of voice.
The voice is produced by the membranes inside the organ.
6. The lungs are flat and rectangular in shape. The dorsal border has five deep impressions of
ribs.The lateral surfaces are attached of the ribs. Inside the lung each primary bronchi gives
rise to 4 sets of secondary bronchi. They are (i) Medioventral (ii) Medio-dorsal, (iii) Latero
ventral and (iv) Laterodorsal. Each secondary bronchi gives rise to numerous tertiary bronchi,
which are also called parabronchi.
The lateral surfaces are attached of the ribs. of secondary bronchi. They are (i) Medioven
dorsal. Each secondary bronchi gives rise different from that of mammals. The lumen of each
parabronchus bears The respiration in birds is little many opening of polygonal chambers
called atria. Each atrium leads to smaller compartments called infundibula. Each
infundibulum is connected to plenty of air capillaries which are associated with blood
capillaries, where gasious exchange occures.
7. The bronchi end at the entrance of air sacs.
8. There are eight air sacs in the chicken. These are cervical (unpaired), Clavicular
(unpaired), Cranial thoracic (paired), Caudal thoracic (paired) and Abdominal (paired). These
are air filled membranous cavities communicated with the bronchi. They serve to keep
No gaseous exchange take place through the wall of air sacs. Diverticula from the air sacs
extend into the cavities of the pneumatic bones. Ventral-cranial movement of sternum is
necessary to change the body volume in the process of inspiration and expiration.
Functional mechanism of air sacs
During flight, contraction of a set of flight muscles on the chest wall, expand the body cavity
(coelom). Due to this vacuum, atmospheric pressure forces fresh air via the bronchial tree to
the air sacs. Again contraction of an antagonistic set of flight muscles, compress the sacs
which push the oxygen rich air into the duct system of lung, across the respiratory epithelium
and finally out side. Thus an uninterrupted flow of air to and from the lungs is maintained
during flight.