PRIDE TUTORIALS

(An Institution where Teaching is a Passion)

(CLASS – 10th) J-33B, Lajpat Nagar-II, New Delhi-110024

Ph : 011-46572164 Mobile: 9910110258

(NOTES) Electricity
Current Electricity: The branch of physics which deals with the study of charge in motion
is called current electricity.
Properties of Charges:
(i) The basic idea about electricity is that “like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.”
(ii) Unit of charge is coulomb (C). One coulomb charge contains nearly 6 x 10¹⁸ electrons.
(iii) Protons have a positive charge of 1.6 x 10¯¹⁹ C while electrons carry a negative charge
equal to – 1.6 x 10¯¹⁹ C. These are fundamental charges.
(iv) Charges are quantized as an integral multiple of the charge of electron or proton.
Thus, the total charge 𝑄 on an integral body is given by
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑒
Where, 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10¯19 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏.
Electric Current: The amount of charge ‘Q’ flowing through a particular area of cross-
section in unit time ‘t’ is called electric current. This leads to the basic formula for current
which is
𝑄
* 𝐼= 𝑡

* The electric current is a scalar quantity.

Unit of current: The electric current is measured in unit called ampere (A), named after
the French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere (1775 – 1836),
In SI system, 1 A = 1 C s¯¹
So, one ampere of current represents one coulomb of electrical charge that flows
through a point in one second.
1 milliampere (mA) = 10¯³ A
 1 microampere (μA) = 10¯⁶ A
Direction of Electric Current: In circuits using metallic wires, electrons constitute the flow
of electric charges. However, electrons were not known at the time when the
phenomenon of electricity was first observed. So, electric current was considered to be
the flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of positive charges was taken to be
the direction of electric current. Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of
electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are
negative charges.
It should be remembered that in external circuit, current always flows from positive
terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of that energy source.
Ammeter: Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter.
* An ammeter connected in series.
* Since the entire current passes through the ammeter, therefore, an ammeter should
have very low resistance so that it may not change the value of the current flowing in the
circuit.
Electric Field: The region or space surrounding the charge where another charge
experiences a force of attraction or repulsion depending upon the nature of charge is
called electric field or electrostatic field around that change.
Electric Potential: Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal to the work
required to transfer a unit positive charge from an infinite distance to a given point
against an electric field. It is commonly known as voltage.
• Electric potential (V) at any point in the electric field is given by
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊)
𝑉=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
• SI unit of electric potential is volt (V), named in honour of the Italian physicist,
Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827).
• 1 V = 1 JC¯¹
• Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Potential Difference: Electric potential difference between two points in an electric
circuit carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to
the other.
Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q).
𝑊
𝑉= .
𝑄
* The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta
(1745 – 1827), an Italian physicist.
* One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 Joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore, 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

* The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.

The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.
Circuit Diagrams:
SI. Components Symbols
No.
1 An electric cell

2 A battery or a
combination of cells
3 Plug key or switch (open) ()
4 Plug key or switch (close)
( )
5 A wire joint

6 Wire crossing without

joining
7 Electric bulb

8 A resistor of resistance R

9 Variable resistance or
rheostat
10 Ammeter

11 Voltmeter

Electric Circuit: An arrangement for maintaining the continuous flow of electric current
by the electrical energy source through the various electrical components connected to
each other by conducting wires is called electric circuit. Thus, a complete circuit is the
one which is a closed loop.
Ohm’s Law: According to Ohm’s law: At constant temperature, the current flowing
through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
 𝑉
Current, 𝐼 =
𝑅
* The current is directly proportional to potential difference.
* The current is inversely proportional to resistance.
Resistance of a Conductor: The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow
of current through it is called resistance.
* The resistance of a conductor depends on length, thickness, nature of material and
temperature, of the conductor.
* The SI unit of resistance is ohm.
1 ohm: 1 ohm is a resistance of a conductor such that when a potential difference of 1
volt is applied to its ends, a current of 1 ampere flows through it.
Good Conductors: Those substances which have very low electrical resistance are called
good conductors.
Resistors: Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance, are
called resistors.
Insulators: Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called
insulators.
Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor: The electrical resistance of a conductor
(or a wire) depends on the following factors:
(i) length of the conductor,
(ii) area of cross-section of the conductor (or thickness of the conductor),
(iii) nature of the material of the conductor, and
(iv) temperature of the conductor.
1. Effect of Length of the Conductor: The resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length.
* A long wire (or long conductor) has more resistance, and a short wire has a less
resistance.
2. Effect of Area of Cross-Section of the Conductor: The resistance of a conductor is
inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
1
Resistance, 𝑅 ∝ (where A is area of cross-section of conductor)
𝐴

* Short length of a thick wire is used for getting low resistance.

* Long length of a thin wire is used for getting high resistance.
3. Effect of the Nature of Material of the Conductor: The electrical resistance of a
conductor (say, a wire) depends on the nature of the material of which it is made. Some
materials have low resistance whereas others have high resistance.
4. Effect of Temperature: The resistance of all pure metals increases on raising the
temperature; and decreases on lowering the temperature. But the resistance of alloys
like manganin, constantan and nichrome is almost unaffected by temperature.
Resistivity: The resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to the resistance of a rod of
that substance which is 1 metre long and 1 square metre in cross-section.
* The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre which is written in symbols as Ω m.
* The resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends on
the nature of the substance and temperature.
* The resistivities of alloys are much more higher than those of the pure metals (from
which they are made).
* The heating elements (or heating coils) of electrical heating appliances such as electric
iron and toaster, etc., are made of an alloy rather than a pure metal because,
(i) the resistivity of an alloy is much higher than that of pure metal, and
(ii) an alloy does not undergo oxidation (or burn) easily even at high temperature, when it
is red hot.
Example: nichrome alloy is used for making the heating elements of electrical appliances
such as electric iron, toaster, electric kettle, room heaters, water heaters (geysers), and
hair dryers, etc.
Resistors in series combination: When an end of one resistor is connected to the
beginning of the next, and so forth, the resistors are said to be connected in series. Figure
shows the three resistors connected in series.

Characteristics of series circuit:

1. Total potential difference across the series combination is equal to the sum of the
potential difference across the individual resistors i.e., V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃.
2. In series combination of resistors, same current passes through each resistor.
3. Potential difference across each resistors, same current passes through each resistor.
4. Equivalent resistance of series combination is equal to the sum of their individual
resistance, R₁, R₂ and R₃, i.e., 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
5. The equivalent resistance is greater than any individual resistance.
Uses of series circuit: It is used when
(i) large resistance in the circuit is required
(ii) current in the circuit is to be reduced
(iii) less potential difference across a particular resistance is needed.
Resistors in parallel combination: When two or more resistors are connected between
two common points whose one end will be at higher potential and other at lower
potential in a circuit, the resistors are said to be in parallel. Figure shows the parallel
combination of three resistors.

Characteristics of parallel circuit:

1. Voltage across each resistors is same and is equal to the voltage applied across the
combination.
2. Current which passes through individual branch of the circuit is inversely proportional
1
to the resistance of that branch i.e., 𝐼 ∝ 𝑅

3. Total current I which flows in the circuit is equal to the sum of the currents passing
through the individual resistor of the combination, i.e., I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃.
4. The reciprocal the equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the inverse of
1 1 1 1
individual resistances, i.e., =𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅𝑃 1 2 3

5. Equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is less than the least resistance of any
resistor in the circuit.
Uses of parallel circuit: It is used when
1. Resistance in the circuit is to be decreased.
2. Current in the circuit is to be increased.
Therefore, all the electrical appliances for a household purpose are connected in parallel
combination.
Practical applications of series circuit: Series circuits are used for dependent operations
such as
1. Decorative light string on festivals.
2. Thermostats in heating devices to control the temperature.
3. Light switches, fuse with live wire in household wiring.
4. Batteries to get higher voltage.
5. Ammeter to measure the current.
6. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are usually connected in series in the electronic devices.
Disadvantages of Series Circuits for Domestic Wiring:
1. In series circuit, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all
other appliances also stop working.
2. In series circuit, all the electrical appliances have only one switch due to which they
cannot be turned on or off separately.
3. In series circuit, the appliances do not get the same voltage (220 V) as that of the
power supply line.
4. In the series connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the circuit
increases too much due to which the current from the power supply is low.
Advantages of Parallel Circuits for Domestic Wiring:
1. In parallel circuits, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then
all other appliances keep working normally.
2. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be
turned on or turned off independently, without affecting other appliances.
3. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance gets the same voltage (220 V) as that of
the power supply line.
4. In the parallel connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the
household circuit is reduced due to which the current from the power supply is high.
Electric Power: Electric power is the electrical work done per unit time.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Unit of Power: The SI unit of electric power is watt which is denoted by the letter W. The
power of 1 watt is a rate of working of 1 joule per second.
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
* 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts
* 1 megawatt = 1 MW = 10⁶ W
* The power is inversely proportional to the resistance.
*𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼
* 𝑃 = 𝐼² × 𝑅
*𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼
𝑉2
*𝑃= 𝑅

Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy : Kilowatt – Hour: One – kilowatt hour is the
amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having a power
rating of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour.
Relation between kilowatt-hour and joule:
1𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
* 1𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
* 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 1000 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

* 1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 60 × 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
* 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 1000 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 × 60 × 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

* 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 36,00,000 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑜𝑟 3.6 × 106 𝐽)

Effects of Electric Current: The presence of electric current can be detected by it effect.
The electrical current can be exhibit three basic effects namely,
(a) Heating effect: When an electric current passes through a wire, the wire gets heated
and its temperature rises. This is known as heating effect of current.
e.g., : Light bulb, electric iron, electric welding, etc.
Some of the devices in which heating effect is highly undesirable are electric motor,
generator or transformer, TV set, monitor, CPU, etc.
(b) Magnetic effect: When an electric current flows through a wire, it produces a
magnetic field around it. This effect is known as magnetic effect of current.
e.g., : Electromagnet, electric bell, electric fan etc.
(c) Chemical effect of current: When the current passes through the liquid, it
decomposes it into its components. This effect of electric current is called chemical effect
of current.
e.g., : Hydrolysis of water, electroplating process.
Joule’s law of heating: The heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to
(i) the square of current for a given resistance (𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 2 )
(ii) the resistance for a given current (𝐻 ∝ 𝑅)
(iii) the time for which the current flows through the resistor. (𝐻 ∝ 𝑡)
Thus, the heat produced in the wire by current in time ‘t’ is
𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = 𝐾𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝐾 = 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒)
Cause of heating: When energy source i.e., cell is connected across the ends of the
conductor, a large number of free electrons get accelerated towards the positive end of
the conductor. They suffer frequent collisions with the ions or atoms and transfer their
kinetic energy to them. Consequently, temperature of the conductor increases. Thus, the
chemical energy of the cells gets converted into heat energy in the resistive conductor.
Fuse: A fuse is a safety device that does not allow any unduly high electric current to flow
through an electric circuit.
• It works on the principle of heating effect of current.
• It is made up of a metal or an alloy of aluminium, copper, iron, lead and tin.
• It should have high resistivity, i.e., high resistance per unit length and low melting
point and should be of a suitable rating corresponding to the load in the circuit.
• It is available in various shapes. It is usually encased in a cartage of porcelain or
similar material sealed in a glass tube with metal ends.
• Use of different rating of fuse such as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A, 15A, 32A, etc., depends
on the current carrying capacity of the circuit and rating of an appliance. A fuse of
different rating has different thickness. The radius of fuse wire would be larger if it
is used in the circuit which carry high current.
Working of fuse: The fuse wire is always connected in series with the live wire or
electrical device. If due to some reason the flow of current exceeds the specified present
value, the heat produced (𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡) in it melts it and disconnects the entire circuit or
that device from the main supply.
Thus, fuse wire prevent the electric circuit from fire and appliances from any possible
damage due to excessive current flowing through it.
Symbol of an electric fuse:
Applications of the Heating Effect of Current:
1. The heating effect of current is utilised in the working of electrical heating appliances
such as electric iron, electric kettle, electric toaster, electric oven, room heaters, water
heaters (geysers), etc. All the heating appliances contain coils of high resistance wire
made of nichrome alloy. When those appliances are connected to power supply by
insulated copper wires then a large amount of heat is produced in the heating coils
(because they have high resistance), but a negligible heat is produced in the connecting
wires of copper (because copper has very, very low resistance).
2. The heating effect of electric current is utilised in electric bulbs (electric lamps) for
producing light. When electric current passes through a very thin, high resistance
tungsten filament of an electric bulb, the filament becomes white-hot and emits light.
Q. Why Tungsten used in electric bulbs?
Ans. * Tungsten metal is used for making the filaments of electric bulbs because it has a
very high melting point (of 3380°C).
* Due to its very high melting point, the tungsten filament can be kept white-hot without
melting away.
* The other properties of tungsten which make it suitable for making filaments of electric
bulbs are its high flexibility and low rate of evaporation at high temperature.
* When the tungsten filament of an electric bulb becomes white-hot and glows to emit
light, then its temperature is about 2500° C.
Q. Why bulb is filled with unreactive gas?
Ans. The electric bulb is filled with a chemically unreactive gas like argon or nitrogen (or a
mixture of both). The gases like argon and nitrogen do not react with the hot tungsten
filament and hence prolong the life of the filament of the electric bulb.
Q. Why filament type electric bulbs are not power efficient?
Ans. Most of the electric power consumed by the filament of an electric bulb appears as
heat (due to which the bulb becomes hot), only a small amount of electric power is
converted into light. On the other hand, tube-lights are much more power efficient,
because they have no filament.